Int. J. of The Soc. of Mat. Eng. for Resources Vo1.7 No.

2 371-378 (1999)

Review

Environmental and Materials Concerns in the

Musical Instrument Industry

by

Jerry M. Whiting•õ

Abstract

The musical instrument manufacturing industry uses an unusual variety of

special materials to create products with the particular qualities sought by
performers and their audiences. Whether the instruments appear to be as simple
as drums, or as obviously complex as an electronic organ, the materials specified
for their manufacture are usually the result of years of research, testing and
development. Often, highly-specific materials are critical for the quality
performance and marketability of a particular instrument.
There are several facets to the problem of producing high-quality guitars,
relatively complex instruments to manufacture and market within a range of
tolerable costs : Obtaining special or exotic woods, plating metal components,
painting and lacquering, and manufacturing a large range of string choices.
All of these activities provide problems related to the environment, materials
availability and selection, engineering and artistic design, and manufacturing
that are in the domain of metallurgical and materials engineers.
To provide some depth to this paper, however, the writer focuses on creative
efforts to assure the present and longer-term availability of special and exotic
woods from environmentally-sensitive regions. In particular, reasons are out
lined why special or exotic woods are critical materials for making guitars, and
the functions of the successful SmartWoodCM program are outlined as important
practical ways to help provide and maintain their supply.
Key Words: Musical Instrument Materials, Guitars, Rare Woods

Guitars

Guitars are the most popular musical instruments. They are used for performances of classical
compositions, many written especially for non-amplified acoustic guitars, to be played before smaller
or musically-contemplative audiences. Others provide the musical backbone to "hard-rock" perform
ances where high-powered amplification of guitar-produced sounds, past the decibel level tolerable to

many ears, is combined with exciting high-energy theatrics to create "unique" musical experiences for
massive, physically-active audiences.

Received November 5, 1998

•õ Gibson Guitar Corporation

1818 Elm Hill Pike Nashville, TN 37210

371
372 Jerry M. Whiting

To achieve and maintain this degree of popularity, guitars must be made in a wide variety of
shapes, sizes, material qualities and musical characteristics. Acoustic or electric bass guitars, respon
sible for the thunderous bass notes that thump, rattle and shake theaters, auditoriums, outdoor perform
ance areas or automobiles, usually have four or six strings. More common acoustic and electric
guitars, that emphasize the treble end of the instruments' musical range, usually have six strings, and
sometimes six pairs of strings to create twelve-string versions. Guitars and bass guitars generally
have at least one of each of the following : body, pickguard, bridge, neck, fingerboard (upper surface
of the neck), and headstock. A series of precisely-spaced metal frets are mounted in lateral slots cut
in the fingerboard on the upper surface of the neck, and there is a tuner for each string.
A wide variety of pickups are used on most
guitars, including some acoustic guitars. It is
difficult to hear the non-amplified sounds of
many electric guitars, especially solid-body types.
Pickups sense the vibrations created in the guitar
by plucking or strumming one or more strings,
and the analog signals they produce are sent to
preamplifiers and amplifiers for conversion to
audible sounds from speakers at any desirable
(or undesirable) decibel level. In many cases,
without an amplifier, there is no useful audible
sound from a guitar, and, in fact, many people
look at amplifiers as musical instruments in
their own right-possessing many characteristics
as unique and awe-inspiring as the guitars that
attract the spotlight.
All guitars that connect to amplifiers have

electrical components and circuitry built into

them. Of course, many variations are used to

provide "perfect" results from controls for such

standard audio variables as volume, and brightness, bass and treble qualities. Increasingly, guitars
are being called upon to interface with electronic devices and computers, and thus they require the on

board means to convert analog signals produced by string vibrations to digital data suitable for analy
sis and processing by devices that understand only zeros and ones.
These guitar components, plus audio amplifiers, provide the basis for the seemingly limitless

varieties of guitars produced by the creative minds of musicians, listeners and innovators from every
type of background.

Desirable qualities

When one starts to consider the desirable qualities of guitars and their components, it must be
recognized that the words "desirable" and "quality" are often interpreted in different ways. However,

the qualities mentioned below are generally deemed to be "desirable."

Beauty -- as evidenced by esthetic, functional design, and the effective application of superior
Vol. 7 No.2 (1999) Environmental and Materials Concerns in the 373
Musical Instrument Industry

craftsmanship to create synergistic, awesome

results.
Capabilities to produce vibrations that can

be converted to pleasing or interesting sounds --

It's not always necessary to please musicians

or listeners, if sounds are "interesting." Music

is a fundamental expression of creativity, and

people are very curious about phenomena that

seem to be "creative." They may be willing to
tolerate some displeasure while they personally
weigh the "merits" of unusual or unfamiliar
sounds. This leads to experimenting with many

types of special "effects" for guitars.

Functionality -- as indicated by ease of oper

ation, simple ways to provide desirabl "extras."
durability, and ease of replacement or repair.
"E
ndorsements" by "authorities" --people
who are viewed as being able to define quality -
and who will provide testimonials, or demon
strate frequent and "eye-catching" uses of care
fully-selected instruments.
374 Jerry M. Whiting

Materials

Materials play key roles in the creation, use and enjoyment of guitars and amplifiers. Every
characteristic of each important material is carefully considered. Variations in uses and effects are
recorded or memorized, and passed on from one generation of luthier to the next as they learn the
craft of guitar-making from training, experience and studies of subjects in the fields of metallurgy,
mechanics, electronics, metalworking and guitar woodcraft.
Each of the materials used in guitar manufacture would be of interest to metallurgical and materi
als engineers. String technology must deal with many facets of steel and alloy selection, and behavior

under high stress and corrosive environments. In addition, manufacturers of strings must cope with
difficult-to-define qualities such as "brightness," "stiffness," and "strength" and durability.

Pickups for acoustic guitars Involve selection of piezoelectric materials, and pickups for electric

guitars and bass guitars involve applying basic physics to the design and fabrication of a never-ending
variety of electromagnets from both classic textbook and state-of-the-art materials.

Tuners, frets, bridges and all guitar hardware such as knobs, pick guards, and decorations are
desired with the very best surfaces, free from all blemishes, lustrous or brilliant, and highly-resistant

to abrasion, corrosion, molecular breakdown and fatigue.

The writer is aware that materials and metallurgical engineers are well-informed about the relative
Vol. 7 No.2 (1999) Environmental and Materials Concerns in the 375
Musical Instrument Industry

desirability and consequent scarcity of gold,

platinum and silver. Materials engineers are
familiar with electronics, transmission of analog
and digital information, magnets and batteries,
because these subjects have received much atten
tion in meetings and publications. They are
also knowledgeable about the toxicity of heavy
metals and batteries, and the increasing diffi
culty of permitting, managing and maintaining
chrome- and nickel-plating facilities to produce
the lustrous and brilliant finishes so desirable
on autos and guitar accessories.
Therefore, the writer would like to focus

attention briefly on a lesser-known type of mate

rials problem. Wood is a very special anisotropic
material that plays a critical role in defining

the musical characteristics of any guitar. It

also accounts for much of the beauty, appeal

and marketability of most guitars. Over the
decades, guitar makers have used and experiment

ed with many woods that possess a very wide

range of mechanical and esthetic characteristics. Many examples were simply the better or best selec
tions of relatively common woods. However, as the industry became more sophisticated, manufac
turing and marketing competition increased, and customers demanded higher-quality instruments.

Relatively uncommon or exotic woods were increasingly sought for their superior musical properties,
such as resonance, timbre, ability to sustain vibrations, strength and durability, as well as beauty,

prestige, and consequently superior customer appeal.

Woods sought for guitars, and other musical instruments, were also in demand for many purposes
where the same quality characteristics could stimulate extra attention from consumers. Growing
population and increasing per capita spending caused problems for special woods similar to those
connected with any commodity where demand exceeds historic levels, and there are those in positions
that enable them to take personal advantage of the lack of regulations or ethical/professional guide
lines.

Concern about rare woods

A tiny insight into the problem can be gained by considering the excellent comments made in an
article prepared by Sustainable Forest Systems <[email protected]> entitled, Sustainable Forest Systems
and Yaguarete Forests of Paraguay :
"Although located in a subtropical zone
, (the Yaguarete Forests, near Rio Verde, represent an)
Amazonian type of forest, separated from the Amazonian basin by the Pantonal, a huge wetland area
in the north of Paraguay. This unique forest type once ranged from Brazil's southern coast to Para
guay, but the only remaining areas of any significant size are those remnants still surviving in Para-
376 Jerry M. Whiting

guay.
"Because the soil in these areas
, though rich in certain essential minerals, is extremely poor in
other nutrients, an elaborate cycle of resource sharing has evolved among the local life-forms. From
the jaguars (after whom the forest was named) to the mosses on the tree-trunks, from the burrowing
beetles and forging tarantulas to the wild boars and surubi swimming in the rivers, the entire range
of animals, plants, and insects passes these nutrients back and forth in an extraordinary natural
recycling program.
"In a few square feet of the forest floor
, literally dozens of species of hardwood trees lie dormant."
However, the probability that any one species will produce a tree that survives to maturity is extreme
ly small. "Yaguarete Forests is a secondary-growih forest, with most species in all kingdoms still
intact, but none of them truly flourishing. Left alone, it might take centuries to evolve back to its
(pre-exploitation) balanced mix of plant and animal species. (However,) with careful planning and
selective harvesting, this evolution can be accelerated to a few decades. In the process, the Yaguarete's
foresters (will have to practice 'silviculture,' the art of nurturing and strengthening a forest, and)
will harvest specific (selected) trees on a limited basis, and these will be processed into some of the
most rare and exotic specialty lumber anywhere in the world.
"Elsewhere in Paraguay
, (and throughout Latin America), forests like this one are being clear
cut at the rate of up to one acre (0.405 hectares) per second, obliterating whole species in a single
week, and threatening the survival of numerous plants and animals on a global scale."

Origin of the Smart woodCM program

A decade ago, it was conceived that cumulative damage caused by inadequately-planned or care
less harvesting of forestlands could be mitigated by obtaining the voluntary cooperation of forest

managers. This would be done by establishing guidelines and criteria for sound management of timber
selection and harvesting methods, and then rewarding those who consistently employed these practicet

with a "seal of approval" or "certification" from a prestigious, publicly-supported agency. Certifi

cation would be based on careful professional assessments, and those receiving it would be identified

and commended publicly. This, in time, it was reasoned, would provide tangible advantages when
dealing with informed consumers in the marketplace.
The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is an independent, non-profit, non-governmental organiza
tion that was founded in 1993 by a diverse group of representatives from environmental institutions,
the timber trade, forestry professionals, indigenous peoples' organizations, community forestry groups,
and forest product certification organizations from 25 countries.
The FSC was created as an international accrediting organization to ensure public credibility and
rigorous standards of forest product labels in the marketplace. The FSC defines forest stewardship
in a set of Principles and Criteria for Forest Management. These principles and criteria are the ba
sis by which all prospective "certifiers" are evaluated for accreditation. Consumers buying products
with an FSC label can be assured that their products come from a forest which has been managed
according to FSC Principles, as well as to strict local and regional standards. (Forest Stewardship
Council, e-mail :[email protected] and [email protected]. Website : http://antequera.
antequera.com/FSC/)
To date, two U. S. -based certifiers have been accredited by the FSC.
Vol.7 No.2 (1999) Environmental and Materials Concerns in the 377
Musical Instrument Industry

Rainforest Alliance Scientific Certification Systems

"SmartWoodCM program" "Forest Conservation Program"

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org http://www.scsl.com
As of March 1997, these two certifying organizations and their partner affiliates had certified
10 forests in the continental U. S. The forests, totaling more than 1.5 million acres, are located in

California, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.

Industry's involvement

Gibson Guitar Corporation is one of the largest

manufacturers of guitars, and a manufacturer of many
types of ultra high-quality guitars that utilize all kinds
of unusual and "exotic" woods. Since early 1996, the
company's Chairman and CEO, Henry Juszkiewicz, has
strongly supported a creative and effective program
that offers practical help in reducing the probability
of depleting the supply of desirable, special woods
through expedient, careless or unprofessional practices.
It is referred to as the "SmartWoodCM program," and
it is a creation of the Rainforest Alliance.
The Rainforest Alliance is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to the conservation
of tropical and other environmentally-sensitive forests for the benefit of all people. Its web site
address is http://www.rainforest-alliance.org. The organization maintains several active programs
designed to increase awareness of problems related to over-exploitation of rainforest regions in Latin
America, and to provide practical guidance to establish beneficial practices in all forests. The orga
nization produces the newsletters Canopy and Eco-Exchange, educational publications, and magazine
articles.
The SmartWoodCM program offers a practical means to officially recognize organizations that
employ responsible practices in managing and harvesting forest resources through its certification.
Its website address is http://www.smartwood.org. It was started in 1989, and is the first and largest
forestry certification program. Initially, it dealt only with tropical forests, but its scope has expanded
to include all types of forests.
Gibson began to work with the SmartWoodCM program in early 1996. A careful analysis was
made of the company's use of wood for guitar bodies, necks, fingerboards and headstocks. Potential
suppliers of certified SmartWoodCM were identified, and choices were made from their wood sources
that had the high-quality characteristics mentioned above.
At first, the main problem was finding a supplier that could provide enough wood to assure the
production, marketing and sales of an adequate number of SmartWoodCM guitars. The first guitars
made were very conservative and simple, making use of a "plain vanilla" wood with a very bland,
subtle grain. However, by persevering, Gibson USA's senior wood buyer, Gene Nix, was able to identi
fy 10 unique "exotic" woods that offer awesome beauty and function. Further marketing and artistic
considerations led to making a set or series of six guitars marketed as the Les Paul SmartWoodCM
Exotics." These extremely attractive, natural-finish guitars are being enthusiastically received by
378 Jerry M. Whiting

the public and musicians, and endorsed by the "authorities." They have quickly became a source of

pride to the Program and Gibson Guitar. They are patterned after one of Gibson's most famous and
long-time popular designs, the Les Paul electric guitar. It is a guitar design used by many of the

most recognized and recorded guitar players throughout the world.

Each guitar body is constructed from one of the world's most prized and rare tropical woods.

They are built with certified mahogany backs, Curupay fingerboards, and exquisite carved tops made
from six different exotic woods. They are named Curupay, Peroba, Banara, Cancharana, Ambay
Guasu and Taperyva Guasu, and are pictured below.

Gibson is confident that these guitars represent just the start of using woods that have been
brought to market in a "smart," environmentally-friendly manner.