1 Introduction to Unit

Operations
Fundamental Concepts

1.1 PROCESS
The word process refers to the set of activities or industrial operations that modify the properties of
raw materials, with the purpose of obtaining products to satisfy the needs of society. Such modifica-
tions of natural raw materials are designed to obtain products with greater acceptance in the market
or with better possibilities for storage and transport.
The primary needs of human beings, whether for the individual or society as a whole, did not
change much through history; the three basics of food, clothing, and housing were needed by pre-
historic humans as well as by modern ones for survival.
The fulfillment of these necessities is carried out by employing, transforming, and consuming
the resources available in our natural surroundings. In the early stages of humankind’s social devel-
opment, natural products were used directly or with only small physical modifications.
This simple productive scheme changed as society developed, in a way such that at the pres-
ent time raw materials are often not directly used to satisfy necessities, but rather they are sub-
jected to physical and chemical transformations that convert them into products with different
properties.
In this way, the raw materials not only directly fulfill the necessities of consumers but also con-
stitute the basis for the products derived from the manipulation of such raw materials.

1.2  FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

By analogy with other engineering branches, different definitions of food process engineering can
be given. Thus, according to one definition, “Food Process Engineering includes the part of human
activity in which the knowledge of physical, natural and economic sciences is applied to agricultural
products as related to their composition, energetic content or physical state” (CDOChE, 1961).
Food process engineering can also be defined as “the science of conceiving, calculating, design-
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ing, building and running the facilities where the transformation processes of agricultural products,
at the industrial level (as economically as possible), are carried out” (Cathala, 1951).
So, an engineer in the food industry should know the basic principles of process engineering and
be able to develop new production techniques for agricultural products. In the same way, he or she
should be capable of designing the equipment that should be used in a given process.
The main objective of food process engineering is to study the principles and laws governing
the physical, chemical, or biochemical stages of different processes and the apparatus or equip-
ment by which such stages are industrially carried out. The studies should be focused on the
transformation processes of agricultural raw materials into final products or on the conservation
of materials and products.

1
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 2 Introduction to Food Process Engineering

1.3 TRANSFORMATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION

OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
For the efficient commercialization of agricultural products, it should be easy for them to be handled
and placed in the market.
As a general rule, products obtained directly from the harvest cannot be commercialized as they
are, but rather they have to undergo certain transformations. Products that can be directly used
should be adequately packaged according to the requirements of the market. These products are
generally used as food, and they should be conveniently prepared for use.
One problem during handling of agricultural products is their transport from the fields to the
consumer. Since many agricultural products have a short shelf life, treatment and preservation
methods that allow their later use should be developed. For this reason, many of these products can-
not be directly used as food, but they serve as raw material for obtaining other products.
Developed countries tend to elaborate such products in the harvest zone, avoiding perishable
products that deteriorate during transport from the production zone to the processing plant.

1.4  FLOWCHARTS AND DESCRIPTION OF SOME FOOD PROCESSES

Food processes are usually schematized by means of flowcharts. These flowcharts are diagrams of
all the processes that indicate different manufacturing steps, as well as the flow of materials and
energy in the process.
There are different types of flowcharts, with blocks or rectangles being most used. In these
charts, each stage of the process is represented by a block or rectangle connected by arrows
to indicate the way in which the materials flow. The stage represented is noted within the
rectangle.
Other types of flowcharts are equipment and instrumentation. Figures 1.1 through 1.3 show
some flowcharts of food processes.

Olives

Washing
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Pressing

Oil from Bagasse

press
Drying
Centrifugation
Exhausted
bagasse Extraction

Virgin oil Bagasse oil

FIGURE 1.1  Extraction of olive oil.

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 Introduction to Unit Operations 3

Fruit

Crushing

Pressing Pulp

Juice 12°Brix

Preconcentration Water and

aromas

Juice 15°Brix

Enzymatic treatment

Clarification

Evaporation Water

Juice 70°Brix

Cooling

Storage

FIGURE 1.2  Production of fruit concentrated juices.

Roasted
coffee

Grinding

Hot Extraction Solid

water waste
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Coffee extraction
(diluted solution)

Water
Evaporation
vapor

Coffee extract
(concentrated solution)

Drying Water

Soluble coffee

FIGURE 1.3  Elaboration of soluble coffee.

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 4 Introduction to Food Process Engineering

1.5  STEADY AND UNSTEADY STATES

A system is said to be under steady state when all of the physical variables remain constant and invari-
able along time, at any point of the system; however, they may be different from one point to another.
On the other hand, when not only the characteristic intensive variables of the operation vary
through the system at a given moment, but also the variables corresponding to each system’s point
vary along time, the state is called unsteady.
The physical variables to consider may be mechanical or thermodynamic. Among the former
variables are volume, velocity, etc., while the thermodynamic variables are viscosity, concentration,
temperature, pressure, etc.

1.6 DISCONTINUOUS, CONTINUOUS, AND

SEMICONTINUOUS OPERATIONS
The operations carried out in industrial processes may be performed in three different ways. In a
discontinuous operation, the raw material is loaded in the equipment; after performing the required
transformation, the obtained products are unloaded. These operations, also called batch or intermit-
tent, are carried out in the following steps:

1. Loading of equipment with raw materials

2. Preparation of conditions for transformation
3. Required transformation
4. Unloading of products
5. Cleaning of equipment

The batch operation takes place under an unsteady state, since its intensive properties vary along
time. An example of this batch process is the crushing of oily seeds to obtain oil.
In continuous operations, the loading, transformation, and unloading stages are performed
simultaneously. Equipment cleaning is carried out every given time, depending on the nature of the
process and the materials used. To carry out the cleaning, production must be stopped. Continuous
operations take place under steady state, in such a way that the characteristic intensive variables of
the operation may vary at each point of the system but do not vary along time. It is difficult to reach
an absolute steady state, since there may be some unavoidable fluctuations. One clear example of a
continuous operation might be the rectification of an alcohol–water mixture.
In some cases, it is difficult to maintain a continuous operation. This type of operation is called
semicontinuous. A semicontinuous operation may occur by loading some materials in the equip-
ment that will remain there for a given time in a discontinuous way, while other materials enter or
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exit continuously. Sometimes it is necessary to unload those accumulated materials. For example, in
the extraction of oil by solvents, flour might be loaded while the solvent is fed in a continuous way;
after some time, the flour runs out of oil and must be replaced.
The different ways of operation have advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of continuous operation:

1. Loading and unloading stages are eliminated.

2. Automation of the operation is allowed, thus reducing the work force.
3. Composition of products is more uniform.
4. Better use of thermal energy is achieved.

Disadvantages of continuous operation:

1. Raw materials should have a uniform composition to avoid operation fluctuations.

2. It is usually expensive to start the operation, so stops should be avoided.

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 Introduction to Unit Operations 5

3. Fluctuations in product demand require availability of considerable quantities of raw

materials and products in stock.
4. Due to automation of operation, equipment is more expensive and delicate.

Continuous operation is performed under an unsteady state during starts and stops, but once it
is adequately running, it may be considered to be working under steady state. However, this is not
completely true, since there could be fluctuations due to variations in the composition of the raw
materials and due to modifications of external agents.
When selecting a form of operation, the advantages and disadvantages of each type should be
considered. However, when low production is required, it is recommended to work under discon-
tinuous conditions, and when high production is required, it is more profitable to operate under a
continuous condition.

1.7  UNIT OPERATIONS: CLASSIFICATION

When analyzing the flow charts of different processes described in the sections that follow, it can be
observed that some of the stages are found in all of them. These stages are referred to as basic or unit
operations, in common with many industrial processes. The individual operations have common
techniques and are based on the same scientific principles, making the study of these operations and
the treatment of these processes easier.
There are different types of unit operations, depending on the nature of the transformation per-
formed; thus, physical, chemical, and biochemical stages can be distinguished:

1. Physical stages: grinding, sieving, mixture, fluidization, sedimentation, flotation, filtration,

rectification, absorption, extraction, adsorption, heat exchange, evaporation, and drying
2. Chemical stages: refining and chemical peeling
3. Biochemical stages: fermentation, sterilization, pasteurization, and enzymatic peeling

Hence, the group of physical, chemical, and biochemical stages that take place in the transforma-
tion processes of agricultural products constitute the so-called unit operations of the food industry.
The purpose of the unit operations is the separation of two or more substances present in a mixture
or the exchange of a property due to a gradient. Separation is achieved by means of a separating
agent that is different, depending on the transferred property.
Unit operations can be classified into different groups depending on the transferred property, since
the possible changes that a body may undergo are defined by variations in its mass, energy, or velocity.
Thus, unit operations are classified under
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• Mass transfer unit operations

• Heat transfer unit operations
• Momentum transfer unit operations

Besides the unit operations considered in each mentioned group, there exist those of simultane-
ous heat and mass transfer and other operations that cannot be classified in any of these groups,
which are called complementary unit operations.
All of the unit operations grouped in these sections are found in physical processes; however,
certain operations that include chemical reactions can be included.

1.7.1  Momentum Transfer Unit Operations

These operations study the processes in which two phases at different velocities are in contact. The
operations included in this section are generally divided into three groups: internal circulation of
fluids, external circulation of fluids, and solids movement within fluids.

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 6 Introduction to Food Process Engineering

Internal circulation of fluids: This refers to the study of the movement of fluids through
the interior of the tubing; it also includes the study of equipment used to impel the fluids
(pumps, compressors, blowers, and fans) and the mechanisms used to measure the proper-
ties of fluids (diaphragms, venturi meters, rotameters, etc.).
External circulation of fluids: The fluid circulates through the external part of a solid. This
circulation includes the flow of fluids through porous fixed beds, fluidized beds (fluidiza-
tion), and pneumatic transport.
Solids movement within fluids: This is the base for separation of solids within a fluid. This
type of separation includes sedimentation, filtration, and ultrafiltration, among others.

1.7.2  Mass Transfer Unit Operations

These operations are controlled by the diffusion of a component within a mixture. Some of the
operations included in this group are

Distillation: Separation of one or more components by taking advantage of their vapor pres-
sure differences.
Absorption: A component of a gas mixture is absorbed by a liquid, according to the solubil-
ity of the gas in the liquid. Absorption may occur with or without chemical reaction. The
opposite process is desorption.
Extraction: Based on the dissolution of a mixture (liquid or solid) in a selective solvent, which
can be liquid–liquid or solid–liquid. The latter is also called washing, lixiviation, etc.
Adsorption: Also called sorption, adsorption involves the elimination of one or more compo-
nents of a fluid (liquid or gas) by retention on the surface of a solid.
Ionic exchange: Substitution of one or more ions of a solution with another exchange agent.

1.7.3  Heat Transfer Unit Operations

These operations are controlled by temperature gradients. They depend on the mechanism by which
heat is transferred, conduction, convection, or radiation:

Conduction: In continuous material media, heat flows in the direction of temperature

decrease, and there is no macroscopic movement of mass.
Convection: The enthalpy flow associated to a moving fluid is called convective flow of heat.
Convection can be natural or forced.
Radiation: Energy transmission by electromagnetic waves. No material media is needed for
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transmission.

Thermal treatments (sterilization and pasteurization), evaporation, heat exchangers, ovens, solar
plates, etc. are studied based on these heat transfer mechanisms.

1.7.4 Simultaneous Mass–Heat Transfer Unit Operations

In these operations, a concentration and a temperature gradient exist at the same time:

Humidification and dehumidification: Include the objectives of humidification and dehu-

midification of a gas and cooling of a liquid.
Crystallization: Formation of solid glassy particles within a homogeneous liquid phase.
Dehydration: Elimination of a liquid contained within a solid. The application of heat changes
the liquid, contained in a solid, into a vapor phase. In freeze-drying, the liquid in the solid
phase is removed by sublimation, that is, by changing it into a vapor phase.
Cryoconcentration: Concentration of food solutions by removing water by freezing.

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 Introduction to Unit Operations 7

1.7.5  Complementary Unit Operations

A series of operations exist that are not included in this classification, because they are not based
on any of the transport phenomena cited previously. They are auxillary operations, whose purpose
is to condition the raw materials and solid products, in order to have the right size for subsequent
treatments. These operations include grinding, milling, sieving, and mixing of solids and pastes.

1.8  MATHEMATICAL SETUP OF THE PROBLEMS

The problems that are set up in the study of unit operations are very diverse, although in all of them
the conservation laws (mass, energy, momentum, and stoichiometric) of chemical reactions apply.
Applying the conservation laws to a given problem is to perform a balance of the “property”
studied in such a problem. In a general way, the expression of the mass, energy, and momentum
balances related to the unit time can be expressed as

 Property entering   Property exiting   Property that 

 the system  =  the system  +  accumulates 
     

What enters into the system of a given component is equal to what exits, in addition to what is
accumulated. In a schematic way,

E = S + A

In the cases where a chemical reaction exists, when carrying out a balance for a component, an
additional generation term may appear. In these cases, the balance expression will be

E + G = S + A

When solving a given problem, a certain number of unknown quantities or variables (V) are
present, and a set of relationships or equations (R) are obtained from the balances. According to
values of V and R, the following cases can arise:

• If V < R, the problem is established incorrectly, or one equation is repeated.

• If V = R, the problem has only one solution.
• If V > R, different solutions can be obtained, finding the best solution by optimizing the
process.
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There are F = V − R design variables.

The different types of problems presented depend on the type of equation obtained when per-
forming the corresponding balances. Thus, there are the following equations:

• Algebraic equations that have an easy mathematical solution, which is obtained by ana-
lytical methods.
• Differential equations that are usually obtained for unsteady continuous processes.
The solution of the mathematical model established with the balances can be carried out
through analytical or approximate methods. In some cases, differential equations may
have an analytical solution. However, in those cases when it is not possible to analytically
solve the mathematical model, it is necessary to appeal to approximate methods of numeri-
cal integration (digital calculus) or graphic (analogic calculus).
• Equations in finite differences that are solved by means of analogic computers that give
the result in a graphic form. In some cases the exact solution can be obtained by numerical
methods.

Ibarz, Albert, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas. Introduction to Food Process Engineering, CRC Press LLC, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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Copyright © 2014. CRC Press LLC. All rights reserved.

Ibarz, Albert, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas. Introduction to Food Process Engineering, CRC Press LLC, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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Created from biblitesm on 2020-03-13 13:23:50.