Module 2

Introduction to Operational Amplifier

Introduction: Operational amplifier is an high gain direct coupled differential amplifier which
is used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, differentiation etc. and it is used to amplify both AC and DC signals.

2.1 Op-amp symbol and IC details

+VCC

Inverting terminal –
Output
Non-inverting
+
terminal

–VEE

Fig.2.1(a): Op-amp symbol

Offset Null μ NC
A
Inverting input +VCC
7
Non-inverting input 4 output
–VCC 1 Offset Null

Fig.2.1(b): Op-amp µA741 IC

If voltage Vi is applied to the inverting terminal keeping the non-inverting terminal at

a ground point then the output voltage will be 180° out of phase w.r.t input.

1
2 Basic electronics

Vi

+VCC
t

Vi –
Vo Vo
+

t
–VEE

   Fig.2.1(d): Input and output waveforms of Inverting op-amp

The voltage Vi is applied to non-inverting input (Keeping inverting input to a ground
point) then the output voltage will be in phase with input.
Vi

+VCC t

–
Vo
Vo
Vi +
t

      
Fig.2.1(f): Input and output waveforms of Non-inverting op-
amp

If two voltages V1 and V2 are applied to an op-amp then output of the op-amp will be
Vo = A (V2 – V1) where, A is the gain of op-amp.
+VCC

V1 –
Vo
V2 +

–VEE
Fig.2.1(g):Difference amplifier
Operational amplifier is basically an amplifier which amplifies the difference between
Introduction to Operational Amplif ier   3

two input signals applied to its terminals. Hence it is also called as differential amplifier.

2.2  Ideal Operational Amplifier
+VCC

Rc Rc
Vo

– +
Rb Rb
V1 V2

RE

Fig.2.2(a): Ideal operational amplifier circuit

+VCC

V1 V1 –
Ideal
Vo Vo
op-amp
V2 V2 +

–VEE
Fig.2.2(b): Op-amp symbol

In a n ideal differential amplifier, the circuit consists of two transistors connected

back to back. If two inputs are given to a base of each transistors and output is taken
between 2 collectors of the two transistors then Vo = A(V2 – V1).
Differential amplifier provides high input impedance and low output impedance.
It has four combinations.
i) Single input, unbalanced output
ii) Single input, balanced output
iii) Double input, unbalanced output
iv) Dual input, balanced output.
4 Basic electronics

2.3  Block diagram of op-amp

V1(t) Intermediate Buffered level Vo
Input Stage Output Stage
V2(t) Stage shifting

Fig.6: Block diagram of op-amp

A block diagram of op-amp consist of input stage, intermediate stage, buffer and level
shifting stage and output stage.
Input stage: It consists of dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. Its function is to
amplify the difference between 2 input signals. It provides high differential gain, high input
impedance and low output impedance.
Intermediate stage: It consist of dual input unbalanced output differential amplifier. The overall
gain requirement of an op-amp is very high since input stage alone cannot provide such a high
voltage gain intermediate stage is used to provide the required additional voltage gain. Buffer
and Level shifting stage: The op-amp amplifier a dc signal also the small dc voltage level of
the previous stage may get amplified and applied to the input of the next stage causing
distortion in the output. Hence the level shifting stage is used to bring the dc level to ground
potential.
Output stage: It consists of push pull compliment amplifier which provides large AC Output
voltage with a low output impedance.

2.4 Properties of op-amp

2.4.1 Properties of an ideal op-amp
1. Infinite Input impedance:
An ideal op-amp does not draw any current from the voltage sources connected to its
input terminals. Thus its input resistance is infinite i.e, Ri = ∞
2. Zero output impedance:
The output voltage of an ideal op-amp is independent of the current drawn from it.
This means that it has zero output resistance i.e, Ro = Zero
3. Equivalent circuit of op-amp: +VCC

-
V1
Ro
Vd Ri
Vo
+
–AVd
V2
+ –

–VEE

Fig.7: Equivalent circuit of op-amp

 Introduction to Operational Amplifier   5

When Ri = ∞, the terminals open circuited therefore the whole of voltage Vd is linked to
AVd. If Ri ≠ ∞, there is a drop across the Ri. When Ro = 0, the Vo = AVd as a whole
otherwise there is a drop across Ro resistance.
When Ro = 0, i.e, short circuited then the whole AVd comes as Vo.
3) Voltage gain is infinite:
The voltage gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, A = ∞. This implies that, for a given
output voltage, the differential input voltage is essentially zero.
Vo
A= A = ∞ ⇒ Vd = 0
Vd
4) Infinite Bandwidth (BW = ∞): Range of AC within which an op-amp can accurately
amplify (No effect on how op-amp behavior). The range of frequency over which the
amplifier performance is satisfactory is called its bandwidth. The bandwidth of an
ideal op-amp is ∞, this ensures that operating frequency is from 0 to ∞.
5) Perfect balance: when equal voltage are applied to both the inputs of an ideal
op-amp, its output voltage is zero. Thus, it has a perfect balance.
6) CMRR(Common Mode Rejection Ratio) is infinite: The ratio of differential gain to
common mode gain is called CMRR. CMRR is ∞ which ensures that the common
mode noise output voltage is 0 for ideal op-amp.
7) Infinite slew rate: Infinite slew rate ensures that output changes simultaneously with
change in input voltage.
8) PSRR(Power Supply Rejection Ratio) is Zero: It is defined as the ratio of change in
input offset voltage to change in power supply voltage producing keeping other supply
constant.
2.4.1.2 Practical characteristics of op-amp:
1) Open loop voltage gain: It is the voltage gain of op-amp when no feedback is
applied practically its value is 2 × 105.
2) Input impedance: It is typically greater than 1 MΩ (nearly equal to 2 MΩ) but using
FET (field effect transistor) for input stage it can be increased upto several 100 MΩ.
3) Output impedance: It is typically few 100 Ω (nearly equal to 75 Ω) with the help of
negative feedback it can be reduced to very small value like 1/2 Ω
4) Bandwidth: The bandwidth of practical op-amp in open loop configuration is very
small, by applying feedback it can be increased to desired value. Its range of 1 to 100
MHz, typically 1 MHz (unity gain).
5) CMRR(Common Mode Rejection Ratio): It is of the order 90 dB
6) Slew rate: slew rate ensures that output changes simultaneously with change in input
voltage.the value is 0.5V/µs
7) PSRR(Power Supply Rejection Ratio): It is defined as the ratio of change in input
offset voltage to change in power supply voltage producing keeping other supply
constant.the value is 30µV/V
2.4.3.Differential Gain (Vd)
Ad is the gain with which the differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two
input
6 Basic electronics

signals. Hence it is differential gain of differential amplifier.The difference between two

input voltages (V2 – V1) is generally called as differential voltage represented by Vd.
V o = A d (V 2 − V1 )
V o = Ad V d
Vo
Ad =
Vd
Gain in dB = 20 log 10 ( A d )

2.4.4. Common mode gain (Ac):

If we apply two input voltages which are equal to the ideal op-amp then ideally output
voltage Vo must be zero but output voltage of practical differential amplifier not only depends
on difference voltage (V2 – V1) but also depends on average (common) levels of two inputs.
Such average level of two inputs is called common mode voltage (Vc).
V1 + V 2
∴ Vc =
2
⇒ V o = Ac .V c , V o = V d A d + V c Ac
Vo
Ac =
Vc

Thus there exist some infinite output for V1 = V2 due to some common mode gain.
So, output of differential amplifier is expressed as,
V o = V d A d + V c . Ac

2.4.5. Common mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Many t i m e s u n d e s i r e d disturbance signal, m a y b e noise signal appear as
common input signals to both the terminals of differential amplifier. Such a common
input signals should be rejected by the differential amplifier. The ability of the differential
amplifier to reject the common mode signal which is expressed by the ratio called CMRR.
CMRR is defined as ratio of differential gain (Ad) to common mode gain (Ac).
Ad
CMRR =
Ac

Ideally, common mode gain (Ac) is Zero. Hence ideal value of CMRR is infinity.
Ad
CMRR in dB = 20log
Ac
2.4.6.Offset Voltage   7

Presence of small output voltages when input terminal voltage V1 and V2 are equal.

2.4.7. Slew rate

The change in output voltage simultaneous with the change in input voltage is called
slew rate.
OR
The maximum rate of change of output voltage with time is called slew rate.
Slew rate is specified in V/µs.

2.4.8. Power supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)

It is defined as ratio of change in input offset voltage due to change in power supply
voltage producing it keeping other power supply constant.
If VEE is constant due to change in VCC there is change in input offset voltage then,

∆V ios
PSRR = V EE Constan t
∆V cc
Or
∆V ios
PSRR = V cc Constan t
∆V EE

2.4.9.Input Offset Voltage

+VCC
–
Vo
+
–VEE

Fig.8(a): Input offset voltage of op-amp

Whenever both the input terminals of op-amp is grounded ideally the output
should be Zero.
However the practical op-amp shows some small non-zero output voltage. To make
this output voltage Zero. A small voltage interms of mV is to be applied to one of
the input terminal. Such a voltage makes the output exactly Zero. This DC voltage
which makes the output voltage Zero is called input offset voltage.
The voltage which is to be applied is specified by the manufacturer in the data
sheet.
8 Basic electronics
+VCC
–

V –VEE

Fig.8(b): Input offset voltage of op-amp

2.4.10. Input bias current

Ideally no current flows through op-amp. But practically op-amp has some input
current which are very small. Most of the op-amp use differential amplifier at the input stage.
The two different stages transistors of differential amplifier should be biased properly. But
practically it is difficult to get exact matching of two transistors.

+VCC
–
Ib1
Vo
+
Ib2
–VEE

Fig. 9: Input bias current of op-amp

The input terminals (base of the two transistors) conduct small DC current. This small
base currents of two transistors are nothing but bias current denoted as Ib1 and Ib2.
Bias current is defined as current flowing into each of the two transistors input terminals
when they are biased to same voltage levels.

I b1 + I b 2
Ib =
2

2.4.11. Input offset Current:

The difference in the magnitude of Ib1 and Ib2 is called Input offset current.

∴ Input offset = I b1 − I b 2

Problems
1. If the base current for the transistor of a differential amplifier 18 µA. Determine.
i) Input bias current ii) Input offset current.
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   9

Solution:
I b1 = 18 µA, I b 2 = 22 µA
I + I b2
I b = b1 = 20 µA
2
Input offset = I b1 − I b 2
= − 4 µA
2. For a practical op-amp, while the input bias current is 60 nA. Calculate the value of
two input bias currents. If input offset current is 20 nA.
Solution:
Ib = 60 nA,  Ib1 – Ib2 = 20 nA      I b1 − I b 2 = 20 nA

I b1 + I b 2 I b1 + I b 2 =120 nA
= 60 nA
2 ( −) ( −) ( −)
I b 2 = 50 nA − 2 I b 2 =100 nA
I b1 = 70 nA

2.5  Parameter values of op-amp

Parameter Symbol Ideal Value Practical Value
1) Open loop gain A ∞ 2 × 105
2) In put impedance Zi ∞ 2 MΩ
3) Output impedance Zo 0 75 Ω
4) Input offset voltage Vio 0 5 mV
5) Input offset current Iio 0 200 nA
6) Input Bias current Ib 0 500 nA
7) Bandwidth BW ∞ 1 MHz
8) Common mode Rejection Ratio ρ ∞ 90 dB
9) Power supply rejection ratio PSRR 0 150 µV/V
10) Input offfset drift current – 0 0.1 nA/°c.

2.6  Saturable property of an op-amp

+VSat

Inverting input – Output

Non-inverting
+
input

–VSat

Fig. 10: Saturable property of an op-amp

10 Basic electronics

The open loop gain of an op-amp is very high while every op-amp has a property that its
output can seen between two levels decided by the supply voltage that is +VCC and –VEE.
Thus, if output tries to raise more than +VCC or less than –VEE then it gets clipped and gets
saturated at the level almost equal to +VCC and –VEE on +Vsat and –Vsat value respectively.
Once the output voltage reaches the saturation level it does not increase further even
if an input voltage is increased. The op-amp is then said to be saturated.

2.7 Concept of Virtual Ground:

RF

+VCC
Virtual ground
G –
V1 = 0 Vo
Ri V1 +

Ii V2 RL
G –VEE

Fig. 11: Concept of virtual ground

For a ideal op-amp the voltage gain and input impedance are infinite. Therefore,
current into the op-amp is Zero. The virtual ground is defined a node or junction that has
'Zero' voltage w.r.t ground but it is not Physically grounded.
V o = A ( V 2 − V1 )
V
V 2 − V1 = o
A
'A' is a gain of an op-amp which is very high (2 × 105).
Therefore V2 – V1 ≈ 0

∴ V1 = V 2
When a non-inverting terminal is grounded, V2 = 0 and V1 will be at ground potential
without actually being grounded.i.e.virtually grounded. Therefore the node 'G' is called
virtual ground and it has Zero voltage w.r.t ground.Since, ideal op-amp has infinite input
impedance and because of the concept of virtual ground all the input current Ii will pass
through feedback resistance RF and the output voltage Vo is taken across load resistance RL.

2.8 Applications of Op-amp:

1) Non- inverting amplifier

2) Inverting amplifier
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   11

3) Summer (Adder)
4) Subtractor
5) Voltage follower
6) Integrator
7) Differentiator

2.8.1 Inverting Amplifier:

Rf
Vi I2 Vo
+VCC
Ri
t Vi – t
I1 Vo
+
–VEE

Fig.12 Inverting amplifier using op-amp

Vi

Fig. Input signal given to op-amp

Vo

Fig. Output signal from the op-amp

The above figure shows inverting amplifier. The input signal Vi is applied to inverting
terminal through input resistance R1. Non-inverting terminal is grounded . RF is a
feedback resistor connected between output terminal and inverting terminal.
According to virtual ground concept the voltage at V1 = 0.
According to 'Kirchoff's current law'.

I1 = I 2
V i − V1 V1 − V o
=
R1 Rf
12 Basic electronics

Vi − 0 0 − Vo
=
R1 Rf
−R f
Vo = Vi
R1
Rf
Where is the gain of an amplifier and –ve sign indicates the output is inverted
R1
w.r.t input.

2.8.2 Non-inverting amplifier:

I2 Rf

Vo
+VCC
R1
– t
V1 Vo
I1 +
Vi
–VEE
Vo
Vi Vo

t
t t

I1 = I 2
0 − V1 V1 − V 0
=
R1 Rf
−V1 V V
= 1 − o
R1 Rf Rf

V0  1 1 
= V1  + 
Rf  R f R1 
 1 1 
V 0 = V1 R f  + 
 R f R1 
 Rf 
= V1 + V1  
 R1 
 Rf 
V o = V1 1 + 
 R1 
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   13

V1 ≈ V i (VirtualGround concept)

 Rf 
V o = V i 1 + 
 R1 

Rf
Where 1+ is a gain of an amplifier and output is in phase with the input.
R1
Inverting Adder: Rf
R1 I1 If
V1 +VCC
R2 I2
V2 –
G=0 Vo
+
V3
R3 I3
–VEE

The figure shows the inverting adder where the voltage Vo is the sum of input voltages.
In an inverting adder, inputs V1, V2, V3 are applied to the inverting terminal to a resistance
R1, R2, R3 respectively. The feedback resistance Rf is connected between inverting terminal
and output terminal, non-inverting terminal is grounded. Since, input impedance of the
op-amp is very high or infinite no current flows through the op-amp.
Let I1, I2, I3 are the currents through R1, R2, R3 respectively then If = I1 + I2 + I3.
On applying Kirchoff's current law to the circuit

I f = I1 + I 2 + I 3
0 −Vo V − 0 V 2 − 0 V3 − 0
= 1 + +
Rf R1 R2 R3
−V 0 V V V
= 1+ 2+ 3
Rf R1 R 2 R 3
V V V 
Vo = − R f  1 + 2 + 3 
 R1 R 2 R 3 
Let R1 = R 2 = R 3 = R
V V V 
Vo = − R f  1 + 2 + 3 
R R R

−R f −R f
Vo = V1 + V 2 + V 3  ⇒ V o = (V i )
R R1
14 Basic electronics

Non- inverting Adder: Rf If

Ri +VCC
i
–
A
I1
V1 Vo
R1 +
B
V2 –VEE
R2 I2

A non-inverting adder the input voltage V1 and V2 are applied to a non-inverting

terminal through a resistor R1 and R2 respectively and inverting terminal is grounded Rf is
the feedback resistor connected between output terminal and inverting terminal.
From figure,
I1 + I2 = 0 (Since the input impedance of op-amp is high no current flows through
it).
V1 − V B V 2 − V B
+ =0
R1 R2
V1 V B V 2 V B
− + − =0
R1 R1 R 2 R 2

V1 V 2  1 1 
+ = VB  + 
R1 R 2  R1 R 2 
R 2V1 + R1V 2  R + R2 
= VB  1 
R1 R 2  R1R 2 

R 2V1 + R1V 2
= VB
R1 + R 2
V1 R 2 + V 2 R1
VB =
R1 + R 2
  

Subtractor (Difference Amplifier):

Rf

R1 +VCC
V1 –
A
I1 Vo
B
V2 +
I2 R2 –VEE
R3
I3
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   15

The circuit designed in op-amp such that its output voltage is difference between
two input voltages or subtraction of two input voltages is called subtractor or Difference
amplifier.
To determine the output voltage of subtractor the principle of superposition theorem
is used.
Case (i): An input voltage V1 is applied and V2 = 0 (ground the non-inverting terminal) then
the respective output is Vo1.
−R f
V o1 = Vi
R1
−R f
V o1 = .V1
R1

The circuit is in inverting amplifier.
Case (ii): When input terminal V1 is grounded and input voltage is applied to V2 on grounding
inverting terminal and the respective output is,

 Rf 
V o 2 = V B 1 + 
 R1 

At node A,
i = I f

0 −V A V A − V o
=
R Rf
−V A V V
= A − o
R Rf Rf
VA VA V
+ = o
Rf R Rf
 1 1  Vo
VA  +  =
 R f R  R f
  
 1 1
R f .V A  +  = Vo
 R f R 
 Rf 
Vo = V A +  V A
 R 
∴ V A = VB
Rf   Rf 
Vo = V B +  V B ; V o = V B 1 + 
 R   R 
     
16 Basic electronics

V1 R 2 + V 2 R1 Rf
Vo = 1+
      R1 + R 2 R
Let R1 = R2 = Rf = Ri
V1 R + V 2 R V +V2
∴ Vo = 1 + 1 = 1 [2]
2R 2
V o = V1 + V 2
   
R3
V B = V2.
   R 2 + R3
By voltage divider Rule,
V 2 . R3
VB = (2)
R 2 + R3
On substituting equation (2) in (1),
V 2 R3  R f 
V o2 = 1 + 
R 2 + R3  R1 
  
Therefore, the total output voltage Vo = Vo1 + Vo2
−R f V R  Rf 
Vo = .V1 + 2 3 1 + 
R1 R 2 + R3  R1 
   
Let Rf = R1 = R2 = R3 = R

V2 R  R
V o = − V1 + 1 + 
2 R  R 
V
= − V1 + 2 [ 2 ]
    2
V o = − V1 + V 2
V o = V 2 − V1
  
In the equation, it is observed that output is the difference between 2 input voltages.

Voltage follower:

+VCC
–
Ri Vo
Vi +
–VEE
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   17

The circuit in which the output voltage follows the input voltage is called voltage
follower.
Voltage follower circuit is obtained by short circuiting inverting terminal and output
terminal. The circuit which is shown in figure is similar to non-inverting amplifier. So, the
output voltage Vo = Vi 1 + R f .
R1
From figure, Rf = 0.
∴ Vo = Vi
 
Output voltage will be equal and inphase with input voltage. This voltage follower is
non-inverting amplifier with voltage gain of unity.

Integrator: C

If
Ri +VCC
Vi –
G=0
Vi i Vo
+
Vo
t –VEE

The circuit of integrator using an op-amp is shown in figure. The input voltage
Vi is applied to a inverting terminal through resistance R. The non-inverting terminal is
grounded.
Capacitor C is connected between output terminal and inverting terminal. G is virtual
ground. Since input impedance of op-amp is infinite, no current will flow through op-amp.
All the current flows through the capacitor. The input voltage Vi charges the capacitor to a
voltage Vo. charge on the capacitor is given by q = CV.
q = C (VG – Vo)
By virtual ground concept, VG = 0
  q = − CV o (1)
t
WKT,     q = ò i.dt
0
(2)

Vi − VG
i =
R
Vi
i = (3)
R
Substitute (3) in (2),
18 Basic electronics

t Vi
q= ò0 R
.dt

1 t
R ò0
  q= V i .dt (4)

Substitute (1) in (4),

1 t
R ò0
q= V i . dt

1 t
-CV o = ò V i . dt
  R 0

-1 t
RC ò0
Vo = V i . dt
  
Integrator input Integrator Output
Square Wave Triangular Wave
Step input Ramp Output
Sine Wave Cosine Wave

Differentiator:
Rf

If
C +VCC Vo
Vi –
G=0
Vi i Vo t
+
t –VEE

In a differentiator circuit input voltage Vi is applied to inverting terminal through a

capacitor C. The non-inverting terminal is grounded Rf is the feedback resistor connected
between output terminal and inverting terminal. G is a virtual ground (VG = 0) since input
impedance of op-amp is infinite no current flows through it and all current flows through
feedback resistor Rf.
The charge on the capacitor is given by q = CV
q
   Vi = (1)
C
differentiating (1) w.r.t t,
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   19

dV i 1 dq
= .
dt C dt
dq dV
  = C. i (2)
dt dt
dq
WKT, i = (3)
dt
i = I f

VG − Vo
I f =
Rf

   V G = 0,
−V o
   I f = (4)
Rf

equating (3) and (4)

−V o dq
  = (5)
Rf dt
equating (2) and (5),
−V o dV
= C. i
Rf dt
dV i
V o = − R f .C
  dt

1) Calculate the output voltage of a three input inverting summing amplifier, given
R1 = 200 kΩ , R3 = 500 kΩ, Rf = 1 MΩ, V1 = –2 V, V2 = –1 V and V3 = 3 V.
Solution:
R1 = 200 kΩ, Rf = 1 MΩ,  R2 = 250 kΩ, R3 = 500 kΩ, V1 = –2 V, V2 = –1 V
V3 = 3 V
1 MΩ
200 kΩ
–2 V +VCC
250 kΩ
–1 V –
Vo
+
3V
500 kΩ –VEE

Inverting summing amplifier,

20 Basic electronics

Rf Rf Rf 
Vo = −  V1 + V2 + V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
 1 × 10 6 (−2) 1 × 10 6 (−1) 1 × 10 6 
=−  3
+ 3
+ 3
× 3
    200 × 10 250 × 10 500 × 10 
= −  −10 − 4 + 6 

   Vo = 8 V
The output voltage of a three input inverting summing, amplifier is 8 V.
2. Derive an equation for output voltage for an non-inverting op-amp. Find the
gain of amplifier if Rf = 10 kΩ, R1= 1 kΩ
Solution:
Derive an equation for Vo for an non-inverting and then solve.
Rf 
Rf = 10 kΩ R1 = 1 kΩ, Vo =  + 1 V i
 R1 
Rf
Gain = +1
R1
Gain = 11
 
3. For the circuit shown in below fig. calculate the output voltage.
100 kΩ
R1 = 10 kΩ
V1 = –2 V +VCC
R2 = 20 kΩ
V2 = –1 V –
Vo
+
V3 = 3 V
R3 = 30 kΩ –VEE

Rf Rf Rf 
Vo = −  .V1 + .V 2 + .V 3 
 R1 R2 R3 
 10 0 × 10 3 100 5 × 10
3
100 10 × 10 3 
=−  − (−1) + (−2) + ( 3 )
 10 × 10 3 20 × 10 3 30 10 × 10 3 
    

= −  −10 − 10 +10 
 
V o = 10 V
  
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   21

4. Design an adder circuit using op-amp to obtain an output voltage of

V0 = 2[0.1.V1 + 0.5V2 + 2V3], where V1, V2 and V3 are input voltages. Draw the
circuit diagram.
Solution:
Given: Derive equation for adder and then solve it
  Vo = 2[0.1V1 + 0.5V2 + 2V3] = 0.2V1 + V2 + 4V3
Let us design inverting summer with Vo = – [0.2V1 + V2 + 4V3] and then use inverting
amplifier with unity gain.
Rf Rf Rf 
For     V o = −  0.2V1 + V 2 + 4V 3  = −  V1 + V2 + V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
Rf Rf Rf
∴ = 0.2, = 1, = 4, select R f = 10 kΩ
R1 R2 R3
∴ R 1 = 2 kΩ R 2 = 10 kΩ R 3 = 4 kΩ

Rf = 100 kΩ
R1 = 2 kΩ R′f = 10 kΩ
V1 +VCC
R2 = 10 kΩ
V2 – +VCC
–
+ Vo = 0.2V1 + V2 + 4V3
V3 Vo1 = –[0.2V1 + V2 + 4V3]
R3 = 40 kΩ –VEE +
–VEE
Inverting summer
Unity gain inverting
amplifier

5. Find the output of the following op-amp circuit. (Dec.16/Jan.17) (5 Marks)

10 kΩ

15 kΩ
1 kΩ +VCC –
15 kΩ
–
+VCC
+
10 kΩ
+
2V –
–VEE
+ VoCE
0.5 V
5 kΩ –VEE
0.25 V
22 Basic electronics

Solution:
op-amp 1 is non-inverting amplifier hence,
Rf   10 × 10 3 
V o1 = V i  + 1 = 0.25 ≥  + 1
 R1   1 × 10 3 

V o1 = 2.75 V
    
Op-amp 2 is voltage follower hence,
V o 2 = V i = V 01
V o 2 = 2.75 V
  
op-amp 3 is inverting summer (adder) hence,
Rf Rf Rf 
V out = −  .V 02 + (2) + (0.5) 
 R1 R2 R3 
 15 × 10 3 3
15 × 10 3
3
15 × 10 3 
=−  (2.75) + (2) + (0.5) 
 15 × 10 3 10 5 × 10 3 5 × 10 3 
    
= −  2.75 + 3 +1.5 
V out = − 7.25 V
  
6. Write expression for output voltage at points A, B, C, D, E as shown in below
fig. 1 kΩ

1 kΩ
V1 – 1 kΩ
A
+
G

1 μF
1 kΩ

1 MΩ
V2 –
B 1 kΩ D
– E
+
G +
G
1 MΩ

1 μF
Vin – 1 kΩ
C
+
G
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   23

Solution:
−R f
op-amp 1 is inverting amplifier have a VA = V1
R1
−1 × 10 3
∴ VA = .V1
1 × 10 3
V A = − V1
   
1
op-amp 2 is an integrater hence VB = − R C ∫ V 2 . dt
1 f

1
∴ VB = −
(110 ) × (1 × 10 −6 )
6 ∫ V 2 . dt
V B = − ∫ V 2 . dt
  
op-amp 3 is a differenctiator hence Vc = –R1Cf dV 3
dt
6 −6 dV 3
∴ V c = − 1× 10 × 1 × 10
dt
dV 3
Vc = −
dt
 
op-amp 4 is inverting summing amplifier hence,

Rf Rf Rf 
VE = −  VA + .V B + .V C 
 R1 R2 R3 
1 × 10 3
=− V A + V B + V C 
   1 × 10 3
The point D is at virtual ground hence V D = 0 V
7. Describe about op-amp as summing amplifier. Determine the Vo for the circuit
shown in figure below. (Jan/July 2016) (5 Marks)
10 kΩ
20 kΩ
0.1 V +VCC
10 kΩ
0.2 V –
Vo
+
0.3 V
50 kΩ –VEE

Solution:
Derive expression for summer and then solve it.
24 Basic electronics

Rf Rf Rf 
Vo = −  V1 + V2 + V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
 10 × 10 3 10 × 10 3 10 × 10 3 
=−  (0.1) + (0.2) + (0.3) 
 20 × 10 3 10 × 10 3
5 0 × 10 3 
   
= −  0.05 + 0.2 + 0.06 
V o = − 0.31 V
    

Some of the Real Time Applications of Op-amp

1. Op amp Summing (Adder) Amplifier
Summing amplifiers are having numerous applications. If the input resistances of a
summing amplifier are connected to potentiometers the individual input signals can be mixed
together by varying amounts.
For example, measuring temperature, you could add a negative offset voltage to make
the output voltage or display read '0' at the freezing point or to produce an audio mixer for
adding or mixing together individual waveforms (sounds) from different source channels
(vocals, instruments, etc) before sending them combined to an audio amplifier.

1.1 Summing Amplifier Audio Mixer.

Vocals
C R1 RF

Guitars Gain
C R2
–
Drums
R3 A
C
+
Vout
Input Filters
0V

Another useful application of a Summing Amplifier is as a weighted sum Digital-to-

Analogue Converter [DAC]. If the input resistors, Rin of the summing amplifier double in
value for each input, for example, 1 kΩ, 2 kΩ, 4 kΩ, 8 kΩ, 16 kΩ, etc, then a digital logical
voltage, either a logic level '0' or a logic level '1' on these inputs will produce an output
which is the weighted sum of the digital inputs. Consider the circuit below.

1.2 Digital to Analog Converter

Of course this is a simple example. In this DAC summing amplifier circuit, the number
of individual bits that make up the input data word, and in this example 4-bits, will ultimately
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   25

determine the output step voltage as a percentage of the full-scale analogue output voltage.
Also the accuracy of this full-scale analogue output depends on voltage levels of the
input bits being consistently 0 V for "0" and consistently 5 V for "1" as well as the accuracy
of the resistance values used for the input resistors, Rin.
R1 = 1 kΩ
Logic"1" RF
R2 = 2 kΩ
Weighted
Digital Logic"1"
–
Inputs R3 = 4 kΩ Sum
Logic"0" A
(4–bits) + Analogue
R4 = 8 kΩ
Logic"1" Output
0V (Vout)

Fortunately to overcome these errors, at least on out part, commercially available

Digital-to Analogue and Analogue-to Digital devices are readily are readily available with
highly accurate resistor ladder networks already built-in.

2. Op-amp Difference Amplifiers

a) Wheatstone Bridge Differential Amplifier

R R
V1
–
Resistive V+ Vout
A
0V Bridge +
V2
R R
Vout = A(V2 – V1)

The standard Differential Amplifier circuit now becomes a differential voltage

comparator by "Comparing" one input voltage to the other. For example, by connecting
one input to a fixed voltage reference set up on one leg of the resistive bridge network and
the other to either a "Thermistor" or a "Light Dependant Resistor" the amplifier circuit can
be used to detect either low or high levels of temperature or light as the output voltage
becomes a linear function of the changes in the active leg of the resistive bridge and this is
demonstrated below.
b) Light Activated Differential Amplifier
Here the circuit above acts as a light-activated switch which turns the output relay
either "ON" or "OFF" as the light level detected by the LDR resistor exceeds or falls below
some pre-set value. A fixed voltage reference is applied to the non-inverting input terminal
of the op-amp via the R1- R2 voltage divider network.
26 Basic electronics

The voltage value at V1 sets the op-amps trip point with a feedback potentiometer, VR2
used to set the switching hysteresis. That is the difference between the light level for "ON"
and the light level for "OFF".

9 V to 12 V
Irradiance
D1
Light R Out
1N4148
R1 Hysteresis Relay
10 kΩ VR2
LDR

V1 47 kΩ
+
R3 TR1
A
V2 BC547
– LM324 1 kΩ

Light Level R2 R4
VR1
Adjustment 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
20 kΩ
0V

The second leg of the differential amplifier consists of a standard light dependant
resistor, also known as a LDR, photoresistive sensor that changes its resistive value (hence
its name) with the amount of light on its cell as their resistive value is a function of
illumination.
The LDR can be any standard type of cadmium-sulphide (cdS) photoconductive cell
such as the common NORP12 that has a resistive range of between about 500 Ω in sunlight
to about 20 kΩ's or more in the dark.
The NORP12 photoconductive cell has a spectral response similar to that of the human
eye making it ideal for use in lighting control type applications. The photocell resistance is
proportional to the light level and falls with increasing light intensity so therefore the voltage
level at V2 will also change above or below the switching point which can be determined
by the position of VR1.
Then by adjusting the light level trip or set position using potentiometer VR1 and
the switching hysteresis using potentiometer, VR2 an precision light-sensitive switch can
be made. Depending upon the application, the output from the op-amp can switch the load
directly, or use a transistor switch to control a relay or the lamps themselves.
It is also possible to detect temperature using this type of simple circuit configuration
by replacing the light dependant resistor with a thermistor. By interchanging the positions
of VR1 and the LDR, the circuit can be used to detect either light or dark, or heat or cold
using a thermistor.
One major limitation of this type of amplifier design is that its input impedances are
lower compared to that of other operational amplifier configurations, for example, a non-
Introduction to Operational Amplifier   27

inverting (single-ended input) amplifier.

Each input voltage source has to drive current through an input resistance, which has
less overall impedance than that of the op-amp input alone. This may be good for a low
impedance source such as the bridge circuit above, but not so good for a high impedance
source.
One way to overcome this problem is to add a Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier such as
the voltage follower seen in the previous tutorial to each input resistor. This then gives us a
differential amplifier circuit with very high input impedance and low output impedance as
it consists of two non-inverting buffers and one differential amplifier. This then forms the
basis for most "Instrumentation Amplifiers".

3. Op-amp Interfrator Applications

ff Op-amp integrating amplifiers are used to perform calculus operations in analogue
computers.
ff Integrating circuits are most commonly used in analogue-to-digital converters,
ramp generators and also in wave shaping applications.
ff Another application would be to integrated a signal representing water flow,
producing a signal representing the total quantity of water that has passed by the
flow meter. This application of an integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the
industrial instrumentation trade.

4. Op-amp Differentiator Applications

ff Differentiating amplifiers are most commonly designed to operate on triangular
and rectangular signals.
ff Differentiators also find application as wave shaping circuits, to detect high
frequency components in the input signal.

5. Op-amp Voltage follower Applications

ff Voltage followers are generally used to isolate stages from each other. A voltage
follower generally has a high input impedance and a low output impedance. This
means that whatever circuit is supplying the input signal does not have to provide
much current, while the output of the voltage follower can supply significantly
more current to the next stage.
ff Voltage followers can be used to isolate filter stages from each other when building
multistage filters. They can be used to isolate sensors from readout electronics - e.g.
separate a thermocouple or thermistor from an ADC. They can be used for driving
ADCs as ADCs can draw current in large bursts when they sample their input, and
this can be disruptive to whatever circuitry might be sourcing the signal.