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Energy Losses 2018-2019

The document discusses energy losses in fluid flow systems. It identifies conditions under which energy losses occur and means by which energy can be added to or removed from fluid flow systems. It introduces the general energy equation, which accounts for energy losses, additions, and removals by expanding Bernoulli's equation. The general energy equation can be applied to practical problems and used to compute power added by pumps.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

200 views114 pages

Energy Losses 2018-2019

Uploaded by

karim

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Energy Losses

• Identify the conditions under which energy losses occur in fluid flow systems.
• Identify the means by which energy can be added to a fluid flow system.
• Identify the means by which energy can be removed from a fluid flow system.
• Expand Bernoulli’s equation to form the general energy equation by considering
energy losses, energy additions, and energy removals.
• Apply the general energy equation to a variety of practical problems.
• Compute the power added to a fluid by pumps.

Lecturer: Ahmed El-Shafie

Introductory Concepts

• We use the following form of the continuity equation involving

volume flow rate most often when liquids are flowing in the system:

• Because Q = vA, we can write this as

• These relationships allow us to determine the velocity of flow at any

point in a system if we know the volume flow rate and the areas of
the pipes at the sections of interest.
Introductory Concepts

• You should also be familiar with the terms that express the energy
possessed by a fluid per unit weight of the fluid flowing in the
system:
Introductory Concepts

All of this comes together in Bernoulli’s equation,

Nomenclature of Energy Losses and Additions

• We will account for energy losses and additions in a system

in terms of energy per unit weight of fluid flowing in the
system. This is also known as “head”.
• Specifically, we will use the following terms
Nomenclature of Energy Losses and Additions

• The magnitude of energy losses produced by fluid friction, valves,

and fittings is directly proportional to the velocity head of the fluid.
• This can be expressed mathematically as

• The term K is the resistance coefficient.

General Energy Equation

• The general energy equation as used in this text is an expansion of

Bernoulli’s equation, which makes it possible to solve problems in
which energy losses and additions occur.
• Fig 7.6 shows the fluid flow system illustrating the general energy
equation.
• For such a system the expression of the principle of conservation of
energy is
Reynolds Number

• Osborne Reynolds was the first to demonstrate that laminar or

turbulent flow can be predicted if the magnitude of a dimensionless
number, now called the Reynolds number is known.
• The following equation shows the basic definition of the Reynolds
number, NR:

where fluid density ρ, fluid viscosity v, pipe diameter D, and average

velocity of flow v.
Reynolds Number

• Table 8.1 lists the required units in both the SI metric unit system
and the U.S. Customary unit system.
• Converting to these standard units prior to entering data into the
calculation for is recommended.
Reynolds Number

• We can demonstrate that the Reynolds number is dimensionless by

substituting standard SI units into Eq. (8–1):

• Because all units can be cancelled, NR is dimensionless.

Reynolds Number

• The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertia force on an element

of fluid to the viscous force.
• The inertia force is developed from Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma.
Critical Reynolds Number

• For practical applications in pipe flow we find that if the Reynolds

number for the flow is less than 2000, the flow will be laminar.
• If the Reynolds number is greater than 4000, the flow can be
assumed to be turbulent.
• In the range of Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 4000, it is
impossible to predict which type of flow exists; therefore this range
is called the critical region.
• We will assume the following:
Example 1
Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent if glycerine at
25°C flows in a pipe with a 150-mm inside diameter. The average
velocity of flow is 3.6 m/s.
We must first evaluate the Reynolds number using Eq. (8–1):

Because NR = 708, which is less than 2000, the flow is

laminar. Notice that each term was expressed in
consistent SI units before NR was evaluated.
Example 2

Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent if

water at 70°C flows in a 1-in Type K copper tube with a
flow rate of 285 L/min.

For a 1-in Type K copper tube, D=0.02527 m and

A=5.017 x 10–4 m2 (from Appendix H). Then we have

Because the Reynolds number is greater than 4000, the

flow is turbulent.
Example 3

Determine the range of average velocity of flow for

which the flow would be in the critical region if SAE 10
oil at 15°C is flowing in a 2-in Schedule 40 steel pipe.
The oil has a specific gravity of 0.89.

The flow would be in the critical region if 2000<NR<4000.

First, we use the Reynolds number and solve for
velocity:
Example 3

Then we find the values for n, D, and ρ

Substituting these values into Eq. (8–2), we get

Example 3

For NR=2000, we have

For NR=4000, we have

Therefore, if 4.3<v<8.56 m/s, the flow will be in the

critical region.
Darcy’s Equation

• In the general energy equation

the term hL is defined as the energy loss from the system.

• Darcy’s equation shows that
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow

• Because laminar flow is so regular and orderly, we can derive a

relationship between the energy loss and the measurable
parameters of the flow system.
• This relationship is known as the Hagen–Poiseuille equation:

• The Hagen–Poiseuille equation is valid only for laminar flow (NR <
2000).
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow

• If the two relationships for hL are set equal to each other, we can solve
for the value of the friction factor:

• As ,

• Since
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow

• In summary, the energy loss due to friction in laminar flow can be

calculated either from the Hagen–Poiseuille equation,

• or from Darcy’s equation,

where
Example 4

Determine the energy loss if glycerine at 25°C

flows 30 m through a 150-mm-diameter pipe with an
average velocity of 4.0 m/s.

First, we must determine whether the flow is laminar or

turbulent by evaluating the Reynolds number:

From Appendix B, we find that for glycerin at 25°C

Example 4

Because NR < 2000, the flow is laminar. Using Darcy’s

equation, we get

Notice that each term in each equation is expressed in

the units of the SI unit system. Therefore, the resulting
units for hL are m or Nm/N. This means that 13.2 Nm of
energy is lost by each newton of the glycerine as it flows
along the 30 m of pipe.
Example 4

Because NR < 2000, the flow is laminar. Using Darcy’s

equation,

Notice that each term in each equation is expressed in the

units of the SI unit system. Therefore, the resulting units
for hL are m or Nm/N. This means that 13.2 Nm of energy
is lost by each newton of the glycerin as it flows along the
30 m of pipe.
Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow

• For turbulent flow of fluids in circular pipes it is most convenient to

use Darcy’s equation to calculate the energy loss due to friction.
• Turbulent flow is rather chaotic and is constantly varying.
• For these reasons we must rely on experimental data to determine
the value of f.
• Figure 8.5 illustrates pipe wall roughness (exaggerated) as the
height of the peaks of the surface irregularities.
• Because the roughness is somewhat irregular, averaging techniques
are used to measure the overall roughness value.
Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow
Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow

• For commercially available pipe and tubing, the design value of the
average wall roughness has been determined as shown in Table
8.2.
• These are only average values for new, clean pipe. Some variation
should be expected. After a pipe has been in service for a time, the
roughness could change due to the formation of deposits on the wall
or due to corrosion.
Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow
Moody Diagram

One of the most widely used methods for evaluating the friction factor
employs the Moody diagram shown in Fig. 8.6.
Moody Diagram

• Several important observations can be made from these curves:

1. For a given Reynolds number of flow, as the relative roughness is
increased, the friction factor f decreases.
2. For a given relative roughness , the friction factor f decreases with
increasing Reynolds number until the zone of complete turbulence
is reached.
3. Within the zone of complete turbulence, the Reynolds number has
no effect on the friction factor.
4. As the relative roughness increases, the value of the Reynolds
number at which the zone of complete turbulence begins also
increases.
Moody Diagram

Figure is a simplified sketch of Moody’s diagram in which the various zones are
identified.
Moody Diagram

• The laminar zone at the left has already been discussed.

• At the right of the dashed line downward across the diagram is the
zone of complete turbulence.
• Between the smooth pipes line and the line marking the start of
the complete turbulence zone is the transition zone.
Moody Diagram

• Check your ability to read the Moody diagram correctly by

verifying the following values for friction factors for the given
values of Reynolds number and relative roughness, using Fig. 8.6:
Use of the Moody Diagram

• The Moody diagram is used to help determine the value of the

friction factor f for turbulent flow.
• The value of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness
must be known.
• Therefore, the basic data required are the pipe inside diameter,
the pipe material, the flow velocity, and the kind of fluid and its
temperature, from which the viscosity can be found.
Example 5

Determine the friction factor f if water at 70°C is flowing

at 9.14 m/s in an uncoated ductile iron pipe having an
inside diameter of 25 mm.

The Reynolds number must first be evaluated to

determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent:

Here D=0.025 m and v=4.11x10–7 m2/s. We now have

Example 5

Thus, the flow is turbulent. Now the relative roughness

must be evaluated. From Table 8.2 we find
ε = 2.4 x 10–4 m. Then, the relative roughness is

The final steps in the procedure are as follows:

1. Locate the Reynolds number on the abscissa of the

Moody diagram:
Example 5

2. Project vertically until the curve for D/ε = 104 is

reached. Because 104 is so close to 100, that curve
can be used.

3. Project horizontally to the left, and read f = 0.038.

Example 6

If the flow velocity of water in Problem 8.5 was 0.14 m/s

with all other conditions being the same, determine the
friction factor f. Write

Then, from Fig. 8.6, f = 0.044. Notice that this is on the

curved portion of the curve D/ε and that there is a
significant increase in the friction factor over that in
Example Problem 8.5.
Example 7

Determine the friction factor f if ethyl alcohol at 25°C is

flowing at 5.3 m/s in a standard 1.5-in Schedule 80 steel
pipe.

Evaluating the Reynolds number, we use the equation

From Appendix B, ρ = 787 kg/m3 and μ =1.00 x 10–3

Pa•s. Also, for a 11.2-in Schedule 80 pipe, D = 0.0381
m. Then we have
Example 7

From Fig. 8.6, f = 0.0225. You must interpolate on both

NR and D/ε to determine this value, and you should
expect some variation. However, you should be able to
read the value of the friction factor f within 0.0005
in this portion of the graph.
Example 8

See Fig. 8.8. In a chemical processing plant, benzene at

50°C (sg = 0.86) must be delivered to point B with a
pressure of 550 kPa. A pump is located at point A 21 m
below point B, and the two points are connected by 240
m of plastic pipe having an inside diameter of 50 mm. If
the volume flow rate is 110 L/min, calculate the required
pressure at the outlet of the pump.
Example 8

The relation is

We find that because point B is higher than point A.

zB - zA = +21 m. The evaluation of the Reynolds number
is the first step. The type of flow, laminar or turbulent,
must be determined.
Example 8

For a 50-mm pipe, D = 0.050 m and A = 1.963 x 10-3 m2.

Then, we have

We find that

Thus
Example 8

For turbulent flow, Darcy’s equation should be used:

From Table 8.2, roughness is 3.0 x 10-7 m. Then

Thus,
Example 8

You should have the pressure as follows:

Equation for the Friction Factor
• In the laminar flow zone, for values below 2000, f can be found
from Eq. (8–5),

• The following equation, which allows the direct calculation of the

value of the friction factor for turbulent flow,

• To calculate the value of the friction factor f when the Reynolds

number and relative roughness are known, use Eq. (8–5) for
laminar flow and Eq. (8–7) for turbulent flow.
Hazen-Williams Formula for Water Flow

• The Hazen–Williams formula is one of the most popular formulas for the
design and analysis of water systems. Its use is limited to the flow of water
in pipes larger than 2.0 in and smaller than 6.0 ft in diameter.
• The Hazen–Williams formula is unit-specific. In the U.S. Customary unit
system it takes the form
Hazen-Williams Formula for Water Flow

where

• The coefficient Ch is dependent only on the condition of the

surface of the pipe or conduit. Table 8.3 gives typical values.
Hazen-Williams Formula for Water Flow

• The Hazen–Williams formula for SI units is

Example 9

For what velocity of flow of water in a new, clean, 6-in

Schedule 40 steel pipe would an energy loss of 6.1 m of
head occur over a length of 304.8 m? Compute the
volume flow rate at that velocity. Then refigure the
velocity using the design value of Ch for steel pipe.

We can use Equation (8–8). Write

Example 9

Then

Note that the velocity and volume flow rate are both
directly proportional to the value of Ch. If the pipe
degrades after use so the value of Ch = 100, the
allowable volume flow rate to limit the energy loss to the
same value of 6.1 m per 304.8 m of pipe length would
be
Other Forms of Hazen-Williams Formula

• Other types of calculations that are often desired are:

1. To determine the required size of pipe to carry a given flow rate
while limiting the energy loss to some specified value.
2. To determine the energy loss for a given flow rate through a given
type and size of pipe of a known length.
• Table 8.4 shows several forms of the Hazen–Williams formula that
facilitate such calculations.
8.9 Other Forms of Hazen-Williams Formula
Minor Losses
• Recognize the sources of minor losses.
• Define resistance coefficient.
• Determine the energy loss for flow through the following types of minor losses:
a. Sudden enlargement of the flow path.
b. Exit loss when fluid leaves a pipe and enters a static reservoir.
c. Gradual enlargement of the flow path.
d. Sudden contraction of the flow path.
e. Gradual contraction of the flow path.
f. Entrance loss when fluid enters a pipe from a static reservoir.
Introductory Concepts

• In Chapter 7, you developed the general energy equation, which

extended Bernoulli’s equation to account for energy losses and
additions that typically occur in real flow systems.
Resistant Coefficient

• Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it

flows around an elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of
the flow section, or through a valve.
• Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms
of a resistance coefficient K as follows:

where hL is the minor loss, K is the resistance coefficient, and is the

average velocity of flow in the pipe in the vicinity where the minor
loss occurs.
Resistant Coefficient

• The resistance coefficient is dimensionless because it represents a

constant of proportionality between the energy loss and the velocity
head.
• The magnitude of the resistance coefficient depends on the
geometry of the device that causes the loss and sometimes on the
velocity of flow.
Sudden Enlargement

• As a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a

sudden enlargement, its velocity abruptly decreases, causing
turbulence, which generates an energy loss.
• Fig 10.1 shows the sudden enlargement.
Sudden Enlargement

• The minor loss is calculated from the equation

where v1 is the average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe ahead of

the enlargement.
• By making some simplifying assumptions about the character of the
flow stream as it expands through the sudden enlargement, it is
possible to analytically predict the value of K from the following
equation:
Sudden Enlargement

• shows the resistance coefficient—sudden enlargement.

Sudden Enlargement

• Table 10.1 shows the resistance coefficient—sudden enlargement

Example 1

Determine the energy loss that will occur as 100 L/min of

water flows through a sudden enlargement from a 1-in
copper tube (Type K) to a 3-in tube (Type K). See
Appendix H for tube dimensions.
Example 1

Using the subscript 1 for the section just ahead of the

enlargement and 2 for the section downstream from the
enlargement, we get
Example 1

To find a value for K, the diameter ratio is needed. We

find that

From Fig. , K = 10.2. Then we have

This result indicates that 0.40 Nm of energy is dissipated

from each newton of water that flows through the
sudden enlargement.
Example 2

Determine the difference between the pressure ahead of

a sudden enlargement and the pressure downstream
from the enlargement. Use the data from Example
Problem 1.

First, we write the energy equation:

Example 2

If the enlargement is horizontal, z2 – z1 = 0. Even if it

were vertical, the distance between points 1 and 2 is
typically so small that it is considered negligible. Now,
calculating the velocity in the larger pipe, we get
Example 2

Using γ = 9.81 kN/m3 for water and hL = 0.40m from

Example Problem 10.1, we have

Therefore, p2 is 1.51 kPa greater than p1.

Exit Loss

• As a fluid flows from a pipe into a large reservoir or tank, as shown in

Fig. , its velocity is decreased to very nearly zero.

• Therefore, the energy loss for this condition is

• This is called the exit loss.

Example 3

Determine the energy loss that will occur as 100 L/min of

water flows from a 1-in copper tube (Type K) into a large
tank.

Using Eq. (10–4), we have

From the calculations in Example Problem 1, we know

that
Gradual Enlargement

• If the transition from a smaller to a larger pipe can be made

less abrupt than the square-edged sudden enlargement, the
energy loss is reduced.
• This is normally done by placing a conical section between
the two pipes as shown in Fig. 4.
Gradual Enlargement

• Fig shows the resistance coefficient—gradual enlargement.

Gradual Enlargement

• The energy loss for a gradual enlargement is calculated from

• Data for various values are given below
Gradual Enlargement

• The energy loss calculated from Eq. (10–5) does not include the loss
due to friction at the walls of the transition.
• For relatively steep cone angles, the length of the transition is short
and therefore the wall friction loss is negligible.
Example 4

Determine the energy loss that will occur as 100 L/min of

water flows from a 1-in copper tube (Type K) into a 3-in
copper tube (Type K) through a gradual enlargement
having an included cone angle of 30 degrees.

Using data from Appendix H and the results of some

calculations in preceding example problems, we know
that
Example 4

From Fig. 10.5, we find that K = 0.48. Then we have

Compared with the sudden enlargement described in

Example Problem 1, the energy loss decreases by 33
percent when 30 degrees the gradual enlargement is
used.
Diffuser

• Another term for an enlargement is a diffuser.

• The function of a diffuser is to convert kinetic energy (represented
by velocity head) to pressure energy (represented by the pressure
head) by decelerating the fluid as it flows from the smaller to the
larger pipe.
• The theoretical maximum pressure after the expansion could be
computed from Bernoulli’s equation,
Diffuser

• If the diffuser is in a horizontal plane, the elevation terms can be

cancelled out.
• Then the pressure increase across the ideal diffuser is

• This is often called pressure recovery.

• In a real diffuser, energy losses do occur and the general energy
equation must be used:
Sudden Contraction

• The energy loss due to a sudden contraction, is calculated from

where v2 is the velocity in the small pipe downstream from the

contraction.
• Fig shows the resistance coefficient—sudden contraction.
• Figure illustrates what happens as the flow stream converges. The
lines in the figure represent the paths of various parts of the flow
stream called streamlines.
10.6 Sudden Contraction
10.6 Sudden Contraction
Sudden Contraction

• Table shows the resistance coefficient—sudden contraction

Example 5

Determine the energy loss that will occur as 100 L/min of

water flows from a 3-in copper tube (Type K) into a 1-in
copper tube (Type K) through a sudden contraction.

From Eq. (10–6), we have

For the copper tube,

Example 5

From Fig. 10.7 we can find K = 0.42. Then we have

Gradual Contraction

• The energy loss in a contraction can be decreased substantially by

making the contraction more gradual.
• Figure 10.9 shows such a gradual contraction, formed by a conical
section between the two diameters with sharp breaks at the
junctions.
10.7 Gradual Contraction

• Figure 10.10 shows the data (from Reference 8) for the resistance
coefficient versus the diameter ratio for several values of the cone
angle.
Gradual Contraction

• As the cone angle of the contraction decreases below the resistance

coefficient actually increases, as shown in Fig. 10.11.
• The reason is that the data include the effects of both the local
turbulence caused by flow separation and pipe friction.
• For the smaller cone angles, the transition between the two
diameters is very long, which increases the friction losses.
Gradual Contraction
Gradual Contraction

• In Fig. 10.12, which shows a contraction with a 120° included angle

and D1/D2 = 2.0, the value of K decreases from approximately 0.27 to
0.10 with a radius of only 0.05(D2) where D2 is the inside diameter of
the smaller pipe.
Entrance Loss

• A special case of a contraction occurs when a fluid flows from a

relatively large reservoir or tank into a pipe.
• The fluid must accelerate from a negligible velocity to the flow
velocity in the pipe.
• The ease with which the acceleration is accomplished determines
the amount of energy loss, and therefore the value of the entrance
resistance coefficient is dependent on the geometry of the entrance.
• Figure 10.13 shows four different configurations and the suggested
value of K for each.
10.8 Entrance Loss
Entrance Loss

• In summary, after selecting a value for the resistance coefficient

from Fig. , we can calculate the energy loss at an entrance from

where v2 is the velocity of flow in the pipe.

Example 6

Determine the energy loss that will occur as 100 L /min

of water flows from a reservoir into a 1-in copper tube
(Type K) (a) through an inward-projecting tube and (b)
through a well rounded inlet.

Part (a): For the tube,

Example 6