The Imperial College Lectures in

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Fluid Flow in Porous Media

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 The Imperial College Lectures in
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Volume

Robert W. Zimmerman
Imperial College London, UK

World Scientific
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Zimmerman, Robert Wayne, author.
Title: Fluid flow in porous media / by author: Robert Zimmerman
(Imperial College London, United Kingdom).
Description: [Hackensack] New Jersey : World Scientific, [2018] |
Series: The Imperial College lectures in petroleum engineering ; volume 5 |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017048948 | ISBN 9781786344991 (hc : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Oil reservoir engineering. | Petroleum--Migration. | Fluids--Migration.
Classification: LCC TN870.57 .Z56 2018 | DDC 622/.3382--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017048948

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March 1, 2018 14:32 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-fm page v

Preface

This book is the fifth volume of a set of lecture notes based on the
Master of Science course in Petroleum Engineering that is taught
within the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial
College London. The Petroleum Engineering MSc is a one-year course
that comprises three components: (a) a set of lectures on the different
topics that constitute the field of petroleum engineering, along with
associated homework assignments and examinations; (b) a group
field project in which the class is broken up into groups of about
six students, who then use data from an actual reservoir to develop
the field from the initial appraisal based on seismic and geological
data, all the way through to eventual abandonment; and (c) a 14-
week individual project, in which each student investigates a specific
problem and writes a small “thesis” in the format of an SPE paper.
The Petroleum Engineering MSc course has been taught at
Imperial College since 1976, and has trained over a thousand
petroleum engineers. The course is essentially a “conversion course”
that aims to take students who have an undergraduate degree in
some area of engineering or physical science, but not necessarily any
specific experience in petroleum engineering, and train them to the
point at which they can enter the oil and gas industry as petroleum
engineers. Although the incoming cohort has included students with
undergraduate degrees in fields as varied as physics, mathematics,
geology, and electrical engineering, the “typical” student on the
course has an undergraduate degree in chemical or mechanical

v
March 1, 2018 14:32 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-fm page vi

vi Fluid Flow in Porous Media

engineering, and little if any prior exposure to petroleum engineering.

Although some students enter the course having had some experience
in the oil industry, the course is intended to be self-contained,
and prior knowledge of petroleum engineering or geology is not a
prerequisite for any of the lecture modules.
The present volume presents the equations of fluid flow in
porous media, with a focus on topics and issues that are relevant
to petroleum reservoir engineering. No prior knowledge of this topic
is assumed on the part of the reader, and particular attention is
given to a careful mathematical and conceptual development of
the governing equations, and to presenting solutions to important
reservoir flow problems. The mathematical level is intended to
be accessible to third- or fourth-year undergraduate students in
engineering. Advanced topics such as Laplace transforms and Bessel
functions, which play a key role in solving reservoir engineering
problems, are developed in a self-contained manner. Although these
notes have been written with a focus on petroleum engineering, it
is expected that they will also be useful to hydrologists and civil
engineers.
The author thanks the editorial and production staff at World
Scientific for bringing this book to completion so rapidly and
professionally. Special thanks go to Dr. Hanli de la Porte of PetroSim
Consultants, who read the first draft of this book, and whose
comments, criticisms, and suggestions helped to greatly improve its
readability and practical relevance.

Robert W. Zimmerman
Imperial College London
January 2018
March 1, 2018 14:32 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-fm page vii

About the Author

Robert W. Zimmerman obtained a BS and MS in mechanical

engineering from Columbia University, and a PhD in rock mechanics
from the University of California at Berkeley. He has been a lecturer
at UC Berkeley, a staff scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, and Head of the Division of Engineering Geology
and Geophysics at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in
Stockholm. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, and serves on the Editorial
Boards of Transport in Porous Media and the International Journal
of Engineering Science. He is the author of the monograph Compress-
ibility of Sandstones (Elsevier, 1991), and co-author, with JC Jaeger
and NGW Cook, of Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics (4th ed., Wiley-
Blackwell, 2007). He is currently Professor of Rock Mechanics at
Imperial College, where he conducts research on rock mechanics and
fractured rock hydrology, with applications to petroleum engineering,
underground mining, carbon sequestration, and radioactive waste
disposal.

vii
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Contents

Preface v
About the Author vii

Chapter 1. Pressure Diffusion Equation for

Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 1
1.1. Darcy’s Law and the Definition of Permeability . . . . . 1
1.2. Datum Levels and Corrected Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Concept of Representative Elementary Volume . . . . . 6
1.4. Radial, Steady-state Flow to a Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5. Conservation of Mass Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6. Diffusion Equation in Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . 12
1.7. Diffusion Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . 16
1.8. Governing Equations for Multi-phase Flow . . . . . . . . 18
Problems for Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 2. Line Source Solution for a Vertical

Well in an Infinite Reservoir 23
2.1. Derivation of the Line Source Solution . . . . . . . . ... 23
2.2. Dimensionless Pressure and Time . . . . . . . . . . . ... 30
2.3. Range of Applicability of the Line Source Solution ... 33
2.4. Logarithmic Approximation to the Line Source
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34
2.5. Instantaneous Pulse of Injected Fluid . . . . . . . . . ... 37

ix
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x Fluid Flow in Porous Media

2.6. Estimating Permeability and Storativity from a

Drawdown Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Problems for Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Chapter 3. Superposition and Pressure Buildup

Tests 45
3.1. Linearity and the Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . 45
3.2. Pressure Buildup Test in an Infinite Reservoir . . . . . . 47
3.3. Multi-rate Flow Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4. Convolution Integral for Variable-rate Flow Tests . . . . 52
Problems for Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 4. Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 57

4.1.Superposition of Sources/Sinks in Space . . . . ...... 57
4.2.Effect of an Impermeable Vertical Fault . . . . ...... 59
4.3.Two Intersecting Impermeable Vertical Faults ...... 62
4.4.Well Near a Linear Constant-pressure Vertical
Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 65
Problems for Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 67

Chapter 5. Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 69

5.1. Wellbore Skin Concept: Steady-state Model . . . .... 69
5.2. Effect of Wellbore Skin on Drawdown or Buildup
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3. Wellbore Storage Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4. Effect of Wellbore Storage on Well Tests . . . . . . . . . . 78
Problem for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Chapter 6. Production From Bounded Reservoirs 81

6.1. Production From Bounded Reservoirs and/or Finite
Drainage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir With
Constant Pressure on Its Outer Boundary
and Constant Wellbore Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
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Contents xi

6.3. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir With

Constant Pressure on Its Outer Boundary and
Constant Flow Rate into the Wellbore . . . . . . ..... 93
6.4. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir
With a No-flow Outer Boundary and Constant
Flow Rate into the Wellbore . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 95
6.5. Non-circular Drainage Regions . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 99
Problems for Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 101

Chapter 7. Laplace Transform Methods in

Reservoir Engineering 103
7.1. Introduction to Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2. Flow to a Hydraulically Fractured Well . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.3. Convolution Principle in the Laplace Domain . . . . . . 116
7.4. Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . 119
Problems for Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Chapter 8. Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 123

8.1. Dual-porosity Model of Barenblatt et al. . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.2. Dual-porosity Equations in Dimensionless Form . . . . . 127
8.3. Line Source Problem in a Dual-porosity Reservoir . . . 130
Problems for Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Chapter 9. Flow of Gases in Porous Media 135

9.1. Diffusion Equation for Gas Flow in Porous Media . . . . 136
9.2. Ideal Gas, Constant Reservoir Properties . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3. Real Gas, Variable Reservoir Properties . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.4. Non-Darcy Flow Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.5. Klinkenberg Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Problem for Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Appendix: Solutions to Problems 151

Nomenclature 191
References 197
Index 201
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March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 1

Chapter 1

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid

Flow in Porous Rocks

In this chapter, we will derive the basic differential equations that

govern the time-dependent flow of fluids through porous media such
as rocks or soils. This will be done by combining the principle of
conservation of mass with Darcy’s law, which relates the flow rate
to the pressure gradient. The resulting differential equation will be a
diffusion-type equation that governs the way that the fluid pressure
changes as a function of time and varies spatially throughout the
reservoir. The governing equations derived in this chapter form the
basis of analytical models that are used in well test analysis, and, in
discretised form, form the basis of numerical simulation codes that
are used in petroleum reservoir engineering to predict oil and gas
recovery.

1.1. Darcy’s Law and the Definition of Permeability

The basic law governing the flow of fluids through porous media
is Darcy’s law, which was formulated by the French civil engineer
Henry Darcy in 1856 on the basis of his experiments on vertical
water filtration through sand beds. Darcy (1856) found that his data
could be described by
CAΔ(P − ρgz)
Q= , (1.1.1)
L

1
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 2

2 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

where P is the pressure (Pa), ρ is the density (kg/m3 ), g is

the gravitational acceleration (m/s2 ), z is the vertical coordinate
(measured downwards) (m), L is the length of sample (m), Q is the
volumetric flow rate (m3 /s), C is the constant of proportionality
(m2 /Pa s), and A is the cross-sectional area of the sample (m2 ).
Any consistent set of units can be used in Darcy’s law, such
as SI units, cgs units, British engineering units, etc. Unfortunately,
in the oil and gas industry it is common to use so-called “oilfield
units”, which are not self-consistent. Oilfield units (i.e. barrels, feet,
pounds per square inch, etc.) will not be used in these notes, except
occasionally in some of the problems.
Darcy’s law is mathematically analogous to other linear phe-
nomenological transport laws, such as Ohm’s law for electrical
conduction, Fick’s law for solute diffusion, and Fourier’s law for heat
conduction.
Why does the term “P − ρgz” govern the flow rate? Recall from
elementary fluid mechanics that Bernoulli’s equation, which essen-
tially embodies the principle of “conservation of energy”, contains
the terms
 
P v2 1 ρv 2
− gz + = P − ρgz + , (1.1.2)
ρ 2 ρ 2
where P/ρ is related to the enthalpy per unit mass, −gz is the
gravitational energy per unit mass, and v 2 /g is the kinetic energy
per unit mass. Fluid velocities in a reservoir are usually very
small, and so the third term is usually negligible, in which case
we see that the combination P − ρgz represents an energy-type
term. It seems reasonable that fluid would flow from regions of
higher energy to lower energy, and, therefore, the driving force
for flow should be the gradient (i.e. the rate of spatial change) of
P − ρgz.
Subsequent to Darcy’s initial discovery, it has been found that,
all other factors being equal, Q is inversely proportional to the
fluid viscosity, μ (Pa s). It is therefore convenient to factor out μ,
and put C = k/μ, where k is known as the permeability, with
dimensions (m2 ).
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 3

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 3

It is usually more convenient to work with the volumetric flow

per unit area, q = Q/A, rather than the total flow rate, Q. In terms
of q, Darcy’s law can be written as
Q k Δ(P − ρgz)
q= = , (1.1.3)
A μ L
where the flux q has dimensions of (m/s). Since q is not quite the
same as the velocity of the individual fluid particles (see Eq. (9.4.5)),
it is perhaps better to think of these units as (m3 /m2 s).
For transient processes in which the flux varies from point-
to-point in a reservoir, we need a differential form of Darcy’s law.
In the vertical direction, this equation takes the form
Q −k d(P − ρgz)
qv = = , (1.1.4)
A μ dz
where z is the downward-pointing vertical coordinate. The minus
sign is included because the fluid flows in the direction from higher
to lower values of P − ρgz.
Since z is constant in the horizontal direction, the differential
form of Darcy’s law for one-dimensional (1D) horizontal flow is
Q −k d(P − ρgz) −k dP
qH = = = . (1.1.5)
A μ dx μ dx
For most sedimentary rocks, the permeability in the horizontal
plane, kH , is different than permeability in the vertical direction,
kV . Typically, kH > kV . The permeabilities in any two orthogonal
directions within the horizontal plane may also differ. However, in
these notes we will usually assume that kH = kV , and denote the
permeability by k.
The permeability is a function of rock type, and also varies with
stress, temperature, etc., but does not depend on the fluid; the effect
of the fluid on the flow rate is accounted for by the viscosity term in
Eq. (1.1.4) or (1.1.5).
Permeability has units of m2 , but in the petroleum industry it is
conventional to use “Darcy” units, defined by

1 Darcy = 0.987 × 10−12 m2 ≈ 10−12 m2 . (1.1.6)

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4 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Darcy unit is defined such that a rock having a permeability

of 1 Darcy would transmit 1 cm3 of water (which has a viscosity of
1 cP) per sec, through a region of 1 cm2 cross-sectional area, if the
pressure drop along the direction of flow were equal to 1 atm per cm.
Different soils and sands that civil engineers deal with have
permeabilities of a few Darcies. Hence, the original purpose of the
“Darcy” unit was to avoid the need for using small prefixes such
as 10−12 , as would be needed if k were measured in units of m2 .
Fortunately, a Darcy is nearly a round number in SI units, so
conversion between the two units is easy.
The numerical value of k for a given rock depends on the diameter
of the pores in the rock, d, as well as on the degree of interconnectivity
of the void space. Very roughly speaking, k ≈ d2 /1,000; see Chapter 1
of Volume 3 of this series (Zimmerman, 2017a) for a derivation. For
example, a rock with a typical pore size of 10×10−6 m, i.e. 10 microns,
would be expected to have a permeability of about 10−13 m2 , or
0.1 D. Typical values for intact (i.e. unfractured) rock are given
in Table 1.1.
The permeabilities of different rocks and soils vary over many
orders of magnitude. However, the permeabilities of petroleum
reservoir rocks tend to be in the range of 0.001–1.0 Darcies. It is
therefore convenient to quantify the permeability of reservoir rocks
in units of a “milliDarcy” (mD), i.e. 0.001 D.

Table 1.1. Range of values of permeabilities of various rock types.

Rock type k (Darcies) k (m2 )

Coarse gravel 103 –104 10−9 –10−8

Sands, gravels 100 –103 10−12 –10−9
Fine sand, silt 10−4 –100 10−16 –10−12
Clay, shales 10−9 –10−6 10−21 –10−18
Limestones 10−4 –100 10−16 –10−12
Sandstones 10−5 –101 10−17 –10−11
Weathered chalk 100 –102 10−12 –10−10
Unweathered chalk 10−9 –10−1 10−21 –10−13
Granite, gneiss 10−8 –10−4 10−20 –10−16
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 5

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 5

The values in Table 1.1 are for intact rock. In some reservoirs,
the permeability is mainly due to an interconnected network of
fractures. The permeabilities of fractured rock masses tend to be
in the range of 1 mD–10 Darcies. In a fractured reservoir, the
reservoir-scale permeability is not directly related to the core-scale
permeability that one would measure in the laboratory on an
unfractured core.

1.2. Datum Levels and Corrected Pressure

If the fluid is in static equilibrium, then q = 0, and Eq. (1.1.4) yields
d(P − ρgz)
= 0 → P − ρgz = constant. (1.2.1)
dz
If we take z = 0 to be at the surface, where the fluid pressure is
atmospheric, then the static reservoir fluid pressure at a depth z is

Pstatic (z) = Patm + ρgz. (1.2.2)

As we always measure the reservoir pressure as “gauge pressure”

(i.e. the pressure above atmospheric, as measured by a downhole
pressure gauge), we can essentially neglect Patm in Eq. (1.2.2). We
then see by comparing Eq. (1.2.2) with Eq. (1.1.4) that only the
pressure above and beyond the static pressure given in Eq. (1.2.2)
plays a role in “driving” the flow. In a sense, then, the term ρgz is
superfluous because it only contributes to the static pressure, but
does not contribute to the driving force for flow.
In order to remove this extraneous term, it is common to define
a corrected pressure, Pc , as

Pc = P − ρgz. (1.2.3)

(Note that this “corrected pressure” is unrelated to the capillary

pressure, defined in Section 1.8, which is also usually denoted by Pc .)
In terms of the corrected pressure, Darcy’s law (for, say, horizontal
flow) can be written as
Q −k dPc
q= = . (1.2.4)
A μ dx
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6 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Instead of using the surface level (z = 0) as the “datum”, we often

use some depth zo such that equal amounts of initial oil-in-place lie
above and below zo . In this case,

Pc = P − ρg(z − zo ). (1.2.5)

The choice of the datum level is immaterial, in the sense that it only
contributes a constant term to the corrected pressure, and so does not
contribute to the pressure gradient. The corrected pressure defined
in Eq. (1.2.5) can be interpreted as the pressure of a hypothetical
fluid at depth zo that would be in hydrostatic equilibrium with the
fluid that exists at the actual pressure at depth z.

1.3. Concept of Representative Elementary Volume

Darcy’s law is a macroscopic law that is intended to be meaningful
over regions that are much larger than the size of a single pore.
In other words, when we talk about the permeability at a point
“(x, y, z)” in the reservoir, we cannot be referring to the permeability
at a mathematically infinitesimal “point” because a given point may,
for example, lie in a sand grain, not in the pore space!
The property of permeability is in fact only defined for a porous
medium, not for an individual pore. Hence, the permeability is a
property that is in some sense “averaged out” over a certain region
of space surrounded by the mathematical point (x, y, z). This region
must be large enough to encompass a statistically significant number
of pores. Likewise, the “pressure” that we use in Darcy’s law is
actually an average pressure taken over a small region of space.
For example, consider Figure 1.1, which shows a few pores in
a sandstone. Two position vectors, R1 and R2 , are indicated in
the figure. However, when we refer to the “pressure” at a certain
location in the reservoir, we do not distinguish between two nearby
points such as these. Instead, the entire region shown in the figure
would be represented by an average pressure that is taken over
the indicated circular region, which is known as a “representative
elementary volume” (REV). Similarly, the permeability of a rock is
only defined over the REV length scale (Bear, 1972).
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 7

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 7

Figure 1.1. Representative elementary volume.

Roughly, in sandstones, the REV scale must be at least one

order of magnitude larger than the mean pore size. However, in
heterogeneous rocks such as carbonates, the pore size may vary
spatially in an irregular manner, and an REV might not exist.
Although it is important to be aware of this concept, for most
reservoir engineering purposes, no explicit consideration of this issue
is required.

1.4. Radial, Steady-state Flow to a Well

Before we derive the general transient equation that governs fluid flow
through porous media, we will examine a simple, but illustrative,
problem that can be solved using only Darcy’s law: a circular
reservoir that has a constant pressure at its outer boundary, and
a constant flow rate into the wellbore.
Consider (see Figure 1.2) a reservoir of thickness H and hori-
zontal permeability k, fully penetrated by a vertical well of radius
Rw . Assume that at some radius Ro , the pressure remains at
its undisturbed value, Po . If we pump oil from this well at a
rate Q, what will be the steady-state pressure distribution in the
reservoir?
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 8

8 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 1.2. Well in a bounded circular reservoir (side view).

Note that, initially, the pressure at any location in the reservoir

will vary with time; this transient problem is discussed and solved in
Section 6.3. But eventually, the pressure distribution in this reservoir
will reach a steady state, in which dP/dt = 0. This is the situation
that we will now consider. In the steady state, the flow rate into the
reservoir at R = Ro will exactly equal the flow rate into the wellbore
at R = Rw .
The analogue of Eq. (1.1.5) for flow in the R direction is
−kA dP
Q= . (1.4.1)
μ dR
The cross-sectional area normal to the flow, at a radial distance R
from the centre of the well, is 2πRH (i.e. a cylindrical surface of
height H and perimeter 2πR), so
−2πkH dP
Q= R . (1.4.2)
μ dR
Separate the variables, and integrate from the outer boundary,
R = Ro , to some generic location R:
dR −2πkH
= dP,
R μQ
 R  P
dR 2πkH
⇒ =− dP,
Ro R Po μQ
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 9

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 9

 
R −2πkH
⇒ ln (P − Po ),
=
Ro μQ
 
μQ R
⇒ P (R) = Po − ln . (1.4.3)
2πkH Ro

Equation (1.4.3) is the famous Dupuit–Thiem equation, first derived

in 1857 by the French hydrologist Jules Dupuit (Dupuit, 1857).
The German hydrologist Adolf Thiem (Thiem, 1887) seems to have
been the first to popularise the use of this equation to estimate the
permeability of groundwater aquifers.
Since the pressure varies logarithmically with distance from the
wellbore (Figure 1.3), most of the drawdown occurs near the well,
whereas far from the well, the pressure varies slowly.
We can make the following comments about Eq. (1.4.3):

• If fluid is pumped from the well, then (mathematically) Q is

negative because the fluid is flowing in the direction opposite to
the direction of the radial coordinate, R. Hence, P (R) will be less
than Po for any R < Ro .
• The amount by which P (R) is less than Po is called the pressure
drawdown.
• The only reservoir parameter that affects the pressure drawdown
is the “permeability-thickness” product, kH.

Figure 1.3. Steady-state flow to a well in a circular reservoir.

March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 10

10 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

• The pressure varies logarithmically as a function of radial distance

from the well. This same type of dependence also occurs in
transient problems, as will be seen in Chapter 2.
• The pressure drawdown at the well is found by setting R = Rw in
Eq. (1.4.3):
 
μQ Rw
Pw = Po − ln . (1.4.4)
2πkH Ro
• Since we are usually interested in situations in which the fluid
is flowing towards the well (i.e. “production”), it is common to
redefine Q to be positive for production, in which case we write
Eq. (1.4.4) as
 
μQ Rw
Pw = Po + ln . (1.4.5)
2πkH Ro

1.5. Conservation of Mass Equation

Darcy’s law in itself does not contain sufficient information to
allow us to solve transient (i.e. time-dependent) problems involving
subsurface flow. In order to develop a complete governing equation
that applies to transient problems, we must first derive a mathemat-
ical expression of the principle of conservation of mass.
Consider flow through a 1D tube of cross-sectional area A; in
particular, let us focus on the region between two locations x and
x + Δx, as in Figure 1.4. The main idea behind the application of
the principle of conservation of mass is

Flux in − Flux out = Increase in amount stored. (1.5.1)

Figure 1.4. Prismatic region used to derive the equation for conservation of mass.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 11

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 11

Note that the property that is conserved is the mass of the fluid, not
the volume of the fluid.
Consider the period of time between time t and time t + Δt. To
be concrete, assume that the fluid is flowing from left to right through
the core. During this time increment, the mass flux into this region
of rock between will be

Mass flux in = A(x)ρ(x)q(x)Δt. (1.5.2)

The mass flux out of this region of rock will be

Mass flux out = A(x + Δx)ρ(x + Δx)q(x + Δx)Δt. (1.5.3)

The amount of fluid mass stored in the region is denoted by m, so

the conservation of mass equation takes the form

[A(x)ρ(x)q(x) − A(x + Δx)ρ(x + Δx)q(x + Δx)]Δt

= m(t + Δt) − m(t). (1.5.4)

For 1D flow, such as through a cylindrical core, A(x) = A = constant.

In this case, we can factor out A, divide both sides by Δt, and let
Δt → 0

m(t + Δt) − m(t) ∂m

−A[ρq(x + Δx) − ρq(x)] = lim = , (1.5.5)
Δt→0 Δt ∂t

where we temporarily treat the product ρq as a single entity.

But m = ρVp , where Vp is the pore volume of the rock
contained in the slab between x and x + Δx. The pore volume is, by
definition, equal to the macroscopic volume multiplied by the poro-
sity, φ. So

m = ρVp = ρφV = ρφAΔx, (1.5.6)

∂(ρφ)
⇒ −A[ρq(x + Δx) − ρq(x)] = AΔx. (1.5.7)
∂t
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12 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Now divide both sides by AΔx, and let Δx → 0

∂(ρq) ∂(ρφ)
− = . (1.5.8)
∂x ∂t
Equation (1.5.8) is the basic equation of conservation of mass for
1D linear flow in a porous medium, which relates the spatial rate of
change of stored mass to the temporal rate of change of stored mass.
It is exact, and applies to gases, liquids, high or low flow rates, etc.
In its most general, 3D form, the equation of conservation of mass
can be written as
∂(ρq) ∂(ρq) ∂(ρq) ∂(ρφ)
+ + =− . (1.5.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
The mathematical operation on the left-hand side of Eq. (1.5.9) is
known as the divergence of ρq, which represents the rate at which
fluid diverges from a given region, per unit volume.

1.6. Diffusion Equation in Cartesian Coordinates

True steady-state flow rarely occurs in an oil or gas reservoir. The
typical flow scenario is a transient one, in which the pressure, density,
flow rate, etc., all vary in space and time. Transient flow of a fluid
through a porous medium is governed by a type of partial differential
equation known as a diffusion equation. Although mathematically
analogous to the diffusion-type equations that govern the flow of
heat through a solid body, or the diffusion of solute particles through
a liquid, for example, it may be worth noting that, unlike those
processes, pressure diffusion in a reservoir is not driven by any
underlying stochastic or random process at the molecular scale, but
is simply driven by Darcy’s law.
In order to derive the pressure diffusion equation, we combine
Darcy’s law, the conservation of mass equation, and an equation that
relates the pore fluid pressure to the amount of fluid that is stored
inside the porous rock. (Strangely enough, this last aspect of flow
through porous media only came to be understood many decades
after Darcy’s law was discovered!)
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Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 13

Let us look more closely at the right-hand side of Eq. (1.5.8), and
use the product rule, and chain rule, of differentiation

∂(ρφ) ∂φ ∂ρ
=ρ +φ
∂t ∂t ∂t
dφ ∂P dρ ∂P
=ρ +φ
dP ∂t dP ∂t
   
1 dφ 1 dρ ∂P
= ρφ +
φ dP ρ dP ∂t
∂P
= ρφ(cφ + cf ) , (1.6.1)
∂t

where cf is the compressibility of the fluid, and cφ is the “pore

compressibility” of the rock formation, also sometimes called the
“formation compressibility” (Matthews and Russell, 1967).
Note that the above derivation, which is traditional in petroleum
engineering, implicitly assumes that the porosity may change, but the
reservoir itself is macroscopically rigid. This is of course physically
inconsistent. However, a more rigorous derivation would require
consideration of rock deformation, and lies outside the scope of these
notes. Such a derivation can be found in de Marsily (1986). Fur-
thermore, since reservoirs compact vertically when fluid is extracted
from them, it must be noted that the pore compressibility term
must be calculated under conditions of uniaxial (i.e. vertical) strain
(Zimmerman, 2017b).
Now look at the left-hand side of Eq. (1.5.8). The volumetric
flow per unit area, q, is given by Darcy’s law, Eq. (1.1.5), and so the
left-hand side of Eq. (1.5.8) becomes

   
∂(ρq) ∂ −ρk ∂P k ∂2P ∂ρ ∂P
− =− = ρ 2 +
∂x ∂x μ ∂x μ ∂x ∂x ∂x
 2 
k ∂ P dρ ∂P ∂P
= ρ 2 +
μ ∂x dP ∂x ∂x
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14 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

    
ρk ∂ 2 P 1 dρ ∂P 2
= +
μ ∂x2 ρ dP ∂x
   
ρk ∂ 2 P ∂P 2
= + cf . (1.6.2)
μ ∂x2 ∂x

Now equate Eqs. (1.6.1) and (1.6.2) to arrive at

 2
∂2P ∂P φμ(cf + cφ ) ∂P
+ cf = . (1.6.3)
∂x2 ∂x k ∂t

For liquids, the second term on the left is negligible compared to

the first. To justify this assertion, we can use Eq. (1.4.5), and ignore
the difference between x and R, to find

 2  2
∂P μQ
cf ≈ cf , (1.6.4)
∂x 2πkHR
∂2P μQ
≈ , (1.6.5)
∂x2
2πkHR 2
cf μQ cf (Po − Pw )
⇒ Ratio = = . (1.6.6)
2πkH ln(Ro /Rw )

Typical values of these parameters, for liquids, are

cf ≈ 10−10 /Pa,
Po − Pw ≈ 10 MPa=107 Pa,
ln(Ro /Rw ) ≈ ln(1000 m/0.1 m) = ln(104 ) ≈ 10,
10−10 × 107
⇒ Ratio = = 10−4  1. (1.6.7)
10

This example shows that, for liquids, the nonlinear term in Eq. (1.6.3)
is small, and so is always neglected, in practice. For gases, however,
this term cannot be neglected (see Chapter 9).
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch01 page 15

Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 15

Table 1.2. Typical values of the compressibility of various

rock types and reservoir fluids.

Rock (or fluid) type c (1/Pa) c (1/psi)

Sand 10−6 –10−8 10−2 –10−4

Sandstones 10−7 –10−9 10−3 –10−5
Carbonates 10−9 –10−11 10−9 –10−11
Shales 10−10 –10−12 10−10 –10−12
Water 5 × 10−10 3.5 × 10−6
Oil 1 × 10−9 7.0 × 10−6

The 1D, linearised form of the pressure diffusion equation is

therefore
∂P k ∂2P
= , (1.6.8)
∂t φμct ∂x2
in which the total compressibility is given by

ct = cformation + cfluid = cφ + cf . (1.6.9)

The product of the compressibility and the porosity, φct , is called

the storativity. Typical ranges of the values of these compressibilities
are shown in Table 1.2.
For some rocks, the pore compressibility is negligible compared
to the fluid compressibility, and the storativity is mainly due to
the fluid compressibility. For soils and unconsolidated sands, the
opposite is often the case. In general, both contributions to the total
compressibility must be taken into account.
Much of the remainder of these notes will be devoted to solving
the diffusion equation in various situations. For now, we make the
following general remarks about it:

• The parameter that governs the rate at which fluid pressure

diffuses through a porous rock mass is the hydraulic diffusivity
(m2 /s), which is defined by

k
DH = . (1.6.10)
φμct
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16 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

• Roughly speaking (this will be proven in Section 2.5), the distance

R over which a pressure disturbance travels during an elapsed time
t is

4kt
R= 4DH t = . (1.6.11)
φμct

As an example, in a reservoir having φ = 0.2, k = 100 mD, ct =

10−9 /Pa, and μ = 1 cP, the radius of penetration will be about
85 m after fluid has been flowing to or from a well for one hour.
• Conversely, the time required for a pressure disturbance to travel
a distance R from the well into the reservoir is found by inverting
Eq. (1.6.11)

φμct R2
t= . (1.6.12)
4k

• Pressure pulses obey a diffusion equation, not a wave equation,

such as governs the propagation of seismic waves, for example.
Rather than travelling at a constant speed, the pressure pulse
propagates at a speed that continually decreases with time.
To prove this, differentiate Eq. (1.6.11) with respect to time,
and observe
√ that the “velocity” of the pulse, dR/dt, decays
like 1/ t.

1.7. Diffusion Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates

In petroleum engineering, we are usually interested in fluid flowing
towards a well, in which case it is more convenient to use cylindrical
(radial) coordinates, rather than Cartesian coordinates.
To derive the proper form of the diffusion equation in radial
coordinates, consider fluid flowing towards, or away from, a vertical
well in a homogeneous reservoir of uniform thickness H, in a radially
symmetric manner. We now perform a mass balance on a thin
annular region between R and R + ΔR (Figure 1.5). Returning to
Eq. (1.5.4), we replace x with R, and note that for the annular
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Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 17

Figure 1.5. Annular region used to derive the pressure diffusion equation in radial
coordinates.

geometry, A(R) = 2πRH, thus obtaining

[2πRH ρ(R)q(R) − 2π(R + ΔR)Hρ(R + ΔR)q(R + ΔR)]Δt

= m(t + Δt) − m(t). (1.7.1)

As before, divide by Δt, and let Δt → 0:

∂m
2πH[Rρ(R)q(R) − (R + ΔR)ρ(R + ΔR)q(R + ΔR)] = . (1.7.2)
∂t
On the right-hand side,

m = ρφV = ρφ2πHRΔR, (1.7.3)

∂m ∂(ρφ2πHRΔR) ∂(ρφ)
⇒ = = 2πHR ΔR. (1.7.4)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Equate Eqs. (1.7.2) and (1.7.4), divide by ΔR, and let ΔR → 0:

∂(ρqR) ∂(ρφ)
− =R . (1.7.5)
∂R ∂t
Equation (1.7.5) is the radial-flow version of the conservation of mass
equation, which in the linear case was given by Eq. (1.5.8).
Now use Darcy’s law in the form of Eq. (1.4.1) for q on the
left-hand side, and insert Eq. (1.6.1) on the right-hand side:
 
k ∂ ∂P ∂P
ρR = ρφ(cf + cφ )R . (1.7.6)
μ ∂R ∂R ∂t
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18 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Following the same procedure as that which led to Eq. (1.6.3),

we find
   
1 ∂ ∂P ∂P 2 φμ(cf + cφ ) ∂P
R + cf = . (1.7.7)
R ∂R ∂R ∂R k ∂t

For liquids, we again neglect the term cf (∂P/∂R)2 , to arrive at

 
∂P k 1 ∂ ∂P
= R . (1.7.8)
∂t φμct R ∂R ∂R

Equation (1.7.8) is the governing equation for transient, radial

flow of a liquid through porous rock. It is the governing equation for
flow during primary production, and is the starting point for well
test analysis methods. We will develop and analyse solutions to this
equation in later parts of these notes.

1.8. Governing Equations for Multi-phase Flow

In all of the derivations given thus far, we have assumed that the
pores of the rock are filled with a single-component, single-phase
fluid. Oil reservoirs are typically filled with at least two components,
oil and water, and often also contain some hydrocarbons in the
gaseous phase. We will now present the governing flow equations
for an oil-water system, in a fairly general form.
Darcy’s law can be generalised for two-phase flow by including a
relative permeability factor for each phase:

−kkrw ∂Pw
qw = , (1.8.1)
μw ∂x
−kkro ∂Po
qo = , (1.8.2)
μo ∂x

where the subscripts o and w denote oil and water, respectively.

The two relative permeability functions krw and kro are assumed to
be known functions of the phase saturations. These functions are
discussed in detail in the Rock Properties module of this course.
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Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 19

For an oil–water system, the two saturations are necessarily

related to each other by
Sw + So = 1. (1.8.3)
In general, the pressures in the two phases at each “point” in the
reservoir will be different. If the reservoir is oil-wet, the two pressures
will be related by
Po − Pw = Pcap (So ), (1.8.4)
where the capillary pressure Pcap is given by some rock-dependent
function of the oil saturation. Again, please see the Rock Properties
module of this MSc course (Zimmerman, 2017a) for further discussion
of the capillary pressure.
As the volume of, say, oil, in a given region is equal to the total
pore volume multiplied by the oil saturation, the conservation of mass
equations for the two phases can be taken directly from Eq. (1.5.8),
by inserting a saturation factor in the storage term:
∂(ρo qo ) ∂(φρo So )
− = , (1.8.5)
∂x ∂t
∂(ρw qw ) ∂(φρw Sw )
− = . (1.8.6)
∂x ∂t
The densities of the two phases are related to their respective
phase pressures by an equation of state:
ρo = ρo (Po ), (1.8.7)
ρw = ρw (Pw ), (1.8.8)
where the right-hand sides of Eqs. (1.8.7) and (1.8.8) are known func-
tions of the pressure, and, for our present purposes, the temperature
is assumed constant.
Finally, the porosity must be some function of the two pressures,
Po and Pw . Although the manner in which these two pressures
independently affect the porosity is an important and active area
of research for soils, which are highly compressible, in oil and gas
reservoirs the capillary pressure is always much less than Po or Pw ,
and so we can say that Po ≈ Pw , in which case we can use the
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20 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

pressure–porosity relationship that would be obtained in a laboratory

test performed under single-phase conditions, i.e.

φ = φ(Po ). (1.8.9)

Equations (1.8.1)–(1.8.9) give us nine equations for the nine

unknowns (count them!). In many situations, the equations are
simplified to allow solutions to be obtained. For example, in the
Buckley–Leverett problem of immiscible displacement (discussed in
Volume 2 of this series, Blunt, 2017), the densities are assumed to be
constant, and the capillary pressure is assumed to be zero.
If the fluid is slightly compressible, or if the pressure variations
are small, the equations of state for oil is written as

ρ(Po ) = ρoi [1 + co (Po − Poi )], (1.8.10)

and similarly for water, where the subscript i denotes the initial state,
and the compressibility co is taken to be a constant.

Problems for Chapter 1

Problem 1.1. A well located in a 100 ft. thick reservoir having a
permeability of 100 mD produces 100 bbl/day of oil from a 10 in.
diameter wellbore. The viscosity of the oil is 0.4 cP. The pressure
at a distance of 1000 ft. from the wellbore is 3000 psi. What is the
pressure at the wellbore? Conversion factors are as follows:

1 barrel = 0.1589 m3 ,
1 Poise = 0.1 N-s/m2 ,
1 foot = 0.3048 m,
1 psi = 6895 N/m2 = 6895 Pa.

Problem 1.2. Carry out a derivation of the diffusion equation for

spherically-symmetric flow, in analogy to the derivation given in
Section 1.7 for radial flow. (This equation can be used to model
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Pressure Diffusion Equation for Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 21

flow to a well in situations when only a small length of the well has
been perforated, in which case the large-scale flow field will, at early
times, be roughly spherical.) The result of your derivation should be
an equation similar to Eq. (1.7.8), but with a slightly different term
on the right-hand side.
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Chapter 2

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well

in an Infinite Reservoir

One of the most basic and important problems in petroleum reservoir

engineering, and the cornerstone of well test analysis, is to calculate
the pressures in the reservoir, and at the well, when fluid is flowing
into a vertical well at a constant rate, from an homogeneous, laterally
infinite reservoir. To simplify the problem mathematically, the well is
assumed to have an infinitely small radius, i.e. the well is essentially
represented by a vertical line. The mathematical solution to this
important problem will be derived in this chapter.
If fluid were injected into the reservoir from the well, this “line”
would serve as a source of fluid for the reservoir; hence, the solution
to this problem is referred to the “line source solution”. Although
the resulting solution for the pressure is more frequently used, by an
appropriate change of signs, for the case when fluid is produced from
the reservoir, in which case the well actually serves as a sink as far
as the reservoir is concerned, rather than a source of fluid, the term
“line source” solution is typically used in both cases.

2.1. Derivation of the Line Source Solution

The problem of the flow of a single-phase, slightly compressible fluid
to a vertical well in a laterally infinite, homogeneous reservoir can be

23
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24 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

formulated precisely, as follows:

Geometry: A vertical well that fully penetrates a reservoir which
is of uniform thickness, H, and which extends infinitely far in all
horizontal directions.
Reservoir Properties: The reservoir is assumed to be isotropic
and homogeneous with uniform properties (i.e. permeability, porosity,
etc.) that do not vary with pressure.
Initial and Boundary Conditions: The reservoir is initially at
a uniform pressure. Starting at t = 0, fluid is produced from the
wellbore at a constant rate, Q.
Wellbore Diameter: The diameter of the wellbore is assumed to be
infinitely small; this leads to a much simpler problem than the more
realistic finite-diameter case, but with little loss of applicability, as
we will see below.
Problem: To determine the pressure at all points in the reservoir,
including at the wellbore, as a function of the elapsed time since the
start of production.
The governing differential equation for this problem is the
pressure diffusion equation in radial coordinates, Eq. (1.7.8):
 
φμct ∂P 1 ∂ ∂P
= R . (2.1.1)
k ∂t R ∂R ∂R
The assumptions that are inherent in this equation are:
(1) The reservoir is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. k, φ, etc., do not
vary with position in the reservoir, and so these parameters can
be assumed to be constant.
(2) The thickness of the reservoir is uniform; this implies that the
flow to the well will be horizontal, with no vertical component.
(3) The well, and the casing perforations, fully penetrate the entire
thickness of the reservoir; if not, there would be a vertical flow
component.
(4) The fluid is only slightly compressible; this is implicit in treating
the compressibility term ct = cf + cφ as a constant.
If the reservoir is anisotropic, the equations can be put into the
form of Eq. (2.1.1) by a change of variables that stretches the x and
y coordinates (see de Marsily (1986), pp. 178–179).
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 25

Inhomogeneity (i.e. spatial variation in k or φ) causes great

mathematical complications, and methods to treat inhomogeneous
reservoirs are still being developed. Variation of the thickness of the
reservoir is somewhat equivalent to having a spatial variation in k.
If the well is not perforated over the entire depth of the reservoir,
then there would be a vertical flow component. To account for this
situation, we would need to add the term ∂ 2 P/∂z 2 to the right-hand
side of Eq. (2.1.1). The solution to this much more difficult problem
is discussed by de Marsily (1986, pp. 179–190).
The case of a highly compressible fluid, such as a gas, whose
compressibility varies with pressure, will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 9.
To solve the line source problem, or to solve any partial differ-
ential equation, we not only need a governing equation, but we also
need initial conditions and boundary conditions. In the present case,
these subsidiary conditions are as follows:
Initial Condition: At the start of production, the pressure in the
reservoir is assumed to be at some uniform value, Pi .
Boundary Condition at Infinity: Infinitely far from the well, the
pressure will always remain at its initial value, Pi .
Boundary Condition at the Wellbore: At the wellbore, which is
assumed to be infinitely small, the flow rate must be equal to Q at
all times t > 0, defined here so that Q > 0 for the case of production
of fluid from the reservoir.
We can therefore formulate the problem in precise mathematical
terms as follows, where for notational simplicity we replace ct with c:
 
1 ∂ ∂P φμc ∂P
Governing PDE: R = , (2.1.2)
R ∂R ∂R k ∂t
Initial condition: P (R, t = 0) = Pi , (2.1.3)
 
2πkH ∂P
BC at wellbore: lim R = Q, (2.1.4)
R→0 μ ∂R
BC at infinity: lim P (R, t) = Pi . (2.1.5)
R→∞

Strictly speaking, we cannot impose the boundary condition at

R = 0, since at R = 0 the term R inside the parenthesis in Eq. (2.1.4)
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 26

26 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

goes to zero, and the term ∂P/∂R actually goes to infinity. Hence,
we need to first multiply these two terms together, and then take the
“limit” as R → 0.
There are many ways to solve this equation, but we will solve
it using a method that does not require advanced techniques such
as Laplace transforms, Green’s functions, etc. First, we define a
new variable η that combines, in a clever way, the spatial variable
R and the time variable t. This “trick” for simplifying a diffusion
equation was discovered by the German physicist Ludwig Boltzmann
in 1894, and this transformation is now referred to as the Boltzmann
transformation:
φμcR2
.
η= (2.1.6)
kt
We now assume that P will be a function of this single variable, η.
Next, we rewrite Eq. (2.1.2) in terms of η. The left-hand side
transforms as follows:
∂P dP ∂η 2φμcR dP φμcR2 2 dP 2η dP
= = = = . (2.1.7)
∂R dη ∂R kt dη kt R dη R dη
Note that since P is a function of the single variable η, the
derivative dP/dη is an ordinary derivative, not a partial derivative.
We therefore see from Eq. (2.1.7) that differentiation with respect
to R is equivalent to differentiation with respect to η, followed by
multiplication by 2η/R. Hence,
     
1 ∂ ∂P 1 2η d dP 4η d dP
R = 2η = 2 η . (2.1.8)
R ∂R ∂R R R dη dη R dη dη
The right-hand side of Eq. (2.1.2) transforms as follows:
∂P dP ∂η φμcR2 dP −η dP
= =− 2
= ,
∂t dη ∂t kt dη t dη
φμc ∂P −φμc η dP 2
−φμcR η dP −η 2 dP
→ = = = . (2.1.9)
k ∂t k t dη kt R2 dη R2 dη
Using Eqs. (2.1.8) and (2.1.9) in Eq. (2.1.2) yields
 
d dP η dP
η =− . (2.1.10)
dη dη 4 dη
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 27

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 27

Since it contains only one independent variable, η, rather than the

two independent variables R and t, Eq. (2.1.10) is an ordinary
differential equation (ODE) for P as a function of η.
We must now also transform the boundary/initial conditions, so
that they apply to the function P (η). First, note that both limits,
R → ∞ and t → 0, correspond to the same limit, η → ∞. Hence,
conditions (2.1.3) and (2.1.5) take the form
lim P (η) = Pi . (2.1.11)
η→∞

Using Eq. (2.1.7) in Eq. (2.1.4) leads to a second BC:

 
4πkH dP
lim η =Q
η→0 μ dη
 
dP μQ
→ lim η = . (2.1.12)
η→0 dη 4πkH
The problem is now a two-point ODE boundary-value problem,
defined by Eqs. (2.1.10–2.1.12).
To solve this problem, we first note that although Eq. (2.1.10)
appears to be a second-order differential equation for P (η), it is
actually a first-order equation for the function η (dP/dη). If we
temporarily denote η (dP/dη) by the new variable y, we can write
Eq. (2.1.10) as
dy y
=− , (2.1.13)
dη 4
where
dP
y=η .
dη
Now separate the variables, and integrate from η = 0 out to an
arbitrary value of η:
dy dη
=−
y 4
 y(η)  η
dy dη
→ =−
y(0) y 0 4
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 28

28 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

 
y(η) η
→ ln =−
y(0) 4
→ y(η) = y(0)e−η/4 . (2.1.14)

Now note that the boundary condition (2.1.12) is equivalent to

μQ
y(0) = , (2.1.15)
4πkH
which implies that Eq. (2.1.14) can be written as
μQ −η/4
y(η) = e . (2.1.16)
4πkH
Now recall that y = η(dP/dη), and rewrite Eq. (2.1.16) as

dP (η) μQ e−η/4
= . (2.1.17)
dη 4πkH η
Equation (2.1.17) can now be directly integrated to find P (η), which
will give us the pressure in the reservoir as a function of η, and
therefore as a function of R and t. We cannot start the integral at
η = 0, because we do not know the pressure at the wellbore. We do,
however, know from Eq. (2.1.11) that the pressure at η = ∞ must
be equal to the initial reservoir pressure, Pi . Therefore, we start the
integral at η = ∞:
 P (η)  η
μQ e−η/4
dP = dη
Pi ∞ 4πkH η
 ∞ −η/4
μQ e
→ P (η) = Pi − dη. (2.1.18)
4πkH η η

Now recall that η = φμcR2 /kt. We replace η with φμcR2 /kt on the
left-hand side of Eq. (2.1.18), and also at the lower limit of integration
on the right, but not inside the integral because inside the integral
η is merely a dummy integration variable:
   ∞
φμcR2 μQ e−η/4
P = Pi − dη. (2.1.19)
kt 4πkH φμcR2 η
kt
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 29

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 29

Simplify the integrand by defining u = η/4, in which case dη/η =

du/u, and the lower limit of integration becomes u = φμcR2 /4kt:
   ∞
φμcR2 μQ e−u
P = Pi − du. (2.1.20)
4kt 4πkH φμcR2 u
4kt

The integral in Eq. (2.1.20) is the “exponential integral function”,

which is defined as (see Pressure Buildup and Flow Tests in Wells,
Matthews and Russell (1967), p. 131)
 ∞ −u
e
−Ei(−x) = du. (2.1.21)
x u
Unfortunately, this function was defined by mathematicians long
before it was first used to solve the problem of a well in an infinite
reservoir, and so it contains two extraneous minus signs that are
awkward, but are now traditional.
Equations (2.1.20) and (2.1.21) give us the pressure as a function
of distance from the well and the elapsed time since the start of
production. This solution was first presented by the American hydrol-
ogist Charles Theis (1935), albeit using a different mathematical
approach, and so the line source solution is also frequently referred
to as the Theis solution.
We can summarise the solution to this problem as follows:
μQ
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei(−x), (2.1.22)
4π kH
where
 ∞
e−u
−Ei(−x) = du, (2.1.23)
x u
and
x = φμcR2 /4kt. (2.1.24)
Numerical values for the pressure at some location in the reservoir
are found as follows. Assume that we want to know the pressure at a
certain distance R from the centre of the well, at some time t. We use
these values of R and t to compute x from Eq. (2.1.24). We then look
up the value of −Ei(−x) from a table or graph of the exponential
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 30

30 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

integral function (see below). The pressure at (R, t) is then given by

Eq. (2.1.22).
The more common situation is that the pressure is measured
at some distance from the well, or at the well itself, as a function
of time, and the pressure data are used to infer the values for the
reservoir parameters, by fitting the data to the analytical solution.
This procedure will be demonstrated later, after we first analyse the
line source solution in more detail.
Note: To find the pressure at the wellbore, we merely plug R = Rw
into Eqs. (2.1.22–2.1.24)! This is because R = Rw corresponds to the
point in the reservoir located just at wellbore wall, where the pressure
must be the same as the pressure of the fluid in the wellbore.
Numerical values of the Ei function are shown in Table 2.1, taken
from Quantitative Hydrogeology by de Marsily (1986).
For example, if x = 5 × 10−7 , then −Ei(−x) = 13.93.

2.2. Dimensionless Pressure and Time

Although the pressure seems to depend on many variables and
parameters, there are actually only two independent, dimensionless
mathematical variables in the line source solution. This can be proven
from the pi-theorem of dimensional analysis, or can be seen directly
from Eqs. (2.1.22–2.1.24).
Traditionally, these variables are defined as the dimensionless
time
kt
tD = , (2.2.1)
φμcR2
and the dimensionless pressure drawdown,
2πkH(Pi − P )
ΔPD = . (2.2.2)
μQ
In terms of these dimensionless parameters, the line source solution
takes the form (see Figure 2.1)
1
ΔPD = − Ei(−1/4tD ). (2.2.3)
2
 March 1, 2018
14:33
Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir
Table 2.1. Exponential integral function, −Ei(−x).

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in

×1 0.219 0.049 0.013 0.0038 0.0011 3.6e–4 1.2e–4 3.8e–5 1.2e–5
×10−1 1.82 1.22 0.91 0.70 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.26
×10−2 4.04 3.35 2.96 2.68 2.47 2.30 2.15 2.03 1.92
×10−3 6.33 5.64 5.23 4.95 4.73 4.54 4.39 4.26 4.14
×10−4 8.63 7.94 7.53 7.25 7.02 6.84 6.69 6.55 6.44
×10−5 10.94 10.24 9.84 9.55 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86 8.74
×10−6 13.24 12.55 12.14 11.85 11.63 11.45 11.29 11.16 11.04
×10−7 15.54 14.85 14.44 14.15 13.93 13.75 13.60 13.46 13.34
×10−8 17.84 17.15 16.74 16.46 16.23 16.05 15.90 15.76 15.65
×10−9 20.15 19.45 19.05 18.76 18.54 18.35 18.20 18.07 17.95
×10−10 22.45 21.76 21.35 21.06 20.84 20.66 20.50 20.37 20.25
×10−11 24.75 24.06 23.65 23.36 23.14 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
×10−12 27.05 26.36 25.96 25.67 25.44 25.26 25.11 24.97 24.86
×10−13 29.36 28.66 28.26 27.97 27.75 27.56 27.41 27.28 27.16

b3114-ch02
×10−14 31.66 30.97 30.56 30.27 30.05 29.87 29.71 29.58 29.46
×10−15 33.96 33.27 32.86 32.58 32.35 32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76

31

page 31
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 32

32 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Dimensionless Drawdown, ΔPD ΔPD = 2πkH(Pi-P)/μQ

1 tD = kt/φμ cR2

4
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Dimensionless Time, tD

Figure 2.1. Line source solution plotted in terms of dimensionless time and
dimensionless drawdown.

Recall that the line source solution allows us to calculate the

pressure at any radius R. Hence, by the above definitions, the dimen-
sionless time is different at each location R in the reservoir. Most
often, however, we are interested in the pressure at the well, in which
case R = Rw , and the dimensionless time at the well is given by
tDw = kt/φμcRw 2.

The usefulness of dimensionless variables is that they allow the

pressure drawdown to be plotted and discussed in a form that
is applicable to all reservoirs, without being restricted to specific
values of the permeability, porosity, etc. These latter parameters are
accounted for by the definitions of the dimensionless variables.
Note: It follows from Eq. (1.6.12) that, aside from a factor of 4, the
dimensionless time at a distance R from the centre of the borehole
is equal to the actual physical time t, normalised against the time
required for the peak of the pressure pulse to travel from the borehole
out to radial location R. Hence, values of 4tD  1 correspond to
times at which the pressure pulse has not yet arrived at location R,
whereas times such that 4tD  1 correspond to times at which the
pressure pulse has penetrated much farther than a distance R into
the reservoir.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 33

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 33

2.3. Range of Applicability of the Line Source

Solution
The line source solution assumes that the wellbore radius is “zero”,
when in reality it is of course non-zero. Does this cause a problem
in practice? Fortunately, the answer is: no, not really! We can use
the line source solution as soon as the “radius of penetration” of the
pressure pulse, as predicted by the line source solution, is greater
than Rw , the actual wellbore radius. This seems reasonable and
can be proven rigorously by examining the solution to the diffusion
equation with finite wellbore radius (which will be presented in
Chapter 6).
According to Eq. (1.6.12), the time required for the pressure pulse
to travel at least a distance Rw , starting from the hypothetically
“infinitely-small” borehole at R = 0, is

φμcRw2
t> . (2.3.1)
4k

If we use “typical” values for the parameters, such as φ = 0.2

(a typical reservoir value), μ = 0.001 Pa s (order of magnitude for
liquid hydrocarbons), c = 10−10 Pa−1 (reasonable value for liquid
hydrocarbons), Rw = 0.1 m (order of magnitude of typical borehole),
k = 10−14 m2 (10 mD; somewhat low, but possible), then Eq. (2.3.1)
predicts that the line source approximation will become valid after
an elapsed time of only 0.005 s!
In terms of the dimensionless time defined by Eq. (2.2.1), the
condition given above by Eq. (2.3.1) is equivalent to tDw > 0.25,
where the subscript w denotes the fact that this is the dimensionless
time relative to the wellbore, where R = Rw .
Hence, the validity of the line source approximation is not
compromised by the mathematical assumption of an “infinitely small
wellbore radius”. However, other physical effects, such as wellbore
storage, cause the line source solution to be inaccurate at small times;
these effects are discussed in Chapter 5.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 34

34 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

2.4. Logarithmic Approximation to the Line Source

Solution
The exponential integral function is unfamiliar to most engineers and
is difficult to calculate. Fortunately, for sufficiently small values of x,
which is to say, large values of t, the exponential integral essentially
becomes a logarithmic function, which makes it very easy to use.
To derive this “late-time” approximation, we proceed as follows.
For large times, x will be small, and we can break up the integral
into two parts:
 ∞ −u  1 −u  ∞ −u
e e e
−Ei(−x) = du = du + du. (2.4.1)
x u x u 1 u
Use the Taylor series for exp(−u) in the first integrand on the right:
 1  1 u u2 u3
e−u 1− 1! + 2! − 3! + ···
du = du. (2.4.2)
x u x u
Break up the integral on the right side of Eq. (2.4.2) into a series of
integrals, and evaluate them term-by-term:
 1 −u
e
du
x u
 1   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
= du − du + udu + u du − · · ·
x u 1! x 2! x 3! x
1 1
1 1 1 u2 1 u3
= ln u]x − u]x + − + ···
2! 2 x 3! 3 x
1 1
= (ln 1 − ln x) − (1 − x) + (1 − x2 ) − (1 − x3 ) + · · ·
2!2 3!3
 
1 2 1 3 1 1
= − ln x + x − x + x + ··· − 1 − + + ··· .
2!2 3!3 2!2 3!3
(2.4.3)

Substituting this result this back into Eq. (2.4.1) allows us to say
1 2 1 3
−Ei(−x) = − ln x − ln γ + x − x + x + ··· , (2.4.4)
2!2 3!3
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 35

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 35

where
   ∞ −u
1 1 e
ln γ = 1− + + ··· − du.
2!2 3!3 1 u

Equation (2.4.4) looks messy, but the important point is that ln γ

is merely a number, and does not depend on x, so we can evaluate it
numerically, once and for all, to find

ln γ = ln(1.781) = 0.5772. (2.4.5)

Note: Both γ and ln γ are sometimes known as “Euler’s number”

in the petroleum engineering literature, so care must be taken when
reading other papers and books. Although most mathematicians use
γ to denote the number 0.5772, in these notes, γ will always denote
1.781.
We can further simplify Eq. (2.4.4) if we can find conditions under
which the power series terms are negligible. If this is the case, we will
be left with only a logarithmic term and a constant. First, recall that
large t implies small x, and so
1 2 1 3
x− x + x + · · · < x. (2.4.6)
2!2 3!3
If we want the power series terms to be, say, two orders of magnitude
less than γ, which itself is roughly on the order of 1, then we need

φμcR2 kt
x= < 0.01 → > 25. (2.4.7)
4kt φμcR2
So, if the dimensionless time is greater than about 25, we have, from
Eqs. (2.1.22) and (2.4.4):
μQ
P (R, t) = Pi + (ln x + ln γ)
4πkH
μQ
→ P (R, t) = Pi + ln(xγ)
4πkH
 
μQ φμcR2 γ
→ P (R, t) = Pi + ln
4πkH 4kt
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 36

36 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

 
μQ 4kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln
4πkH φμcR2 γ
 
μQ 2.246kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln (2.4.8)
4πkH φμcR2
   
μQ kt
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln + 0.80907 . (2.4.9)
4πkH φμcR2

The form given in Eq. (2.4.8) is used in groundwater hydrology,

and is called Jacob’s approximation; the equivalent form of Eq. (2.4.9)
is used in petroleum reservoir engineering, where it is called the
logarithmic approximation.
By comparing Eq. (2.4.9) with Eqs. (2.2.1–2.2.3), we see that the
dimensionless form of the logarithmic approximation is

1
ΔPD = [ln(tD ) + 0.80907] . (2.4.10)
2
For values of the dimensionless time that are typically of interest
at the well, the logarithmic approximation is very accurate. It can
be seen in Figure 2.2 that the range of validity of the logarithmic
approximation is consistent with the criterion given in Eq. (2.4.7),

Figure 2.2. Comparison of the logarithmic approximation to the full exponential

integral solution.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 37

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 37

i.e. there is excellent agreement for tD > 25. Although smaller values
of tD are usually not of interest at the well, they are needed if one
wants to calculate the drawdown at a location far from the well. For
values of tD < 1, the logarithmic approximation is actually quite
inaccurate. Please verify this for yourself for, say, tD = 0.25, by
evaluating Eq. (2.4.9), and comparing the result to that obtained
from Table 2.1.

2.5. Instantaneous Pulse of Injected Fluid

Insight can be gained into the diffusive nature of flow through a
porous medium by considering the problem of a finite amount of fluid
injected into a well over a very small period of time. This problem
also introduces the important concept of superposition, which will
be described more fully in Chapter 3.
Note: The problem of “injecting” fluid is mathematically equivalent
to that of “producing” fluid, except for the sign, but it is probably
easier to visualise a positive pressure pulse propagating into the
reservoir, as occurs during injection, rather than a “negative”
pressure pulse propagating into the reservoir during production.
If we start injecting fluid at a rate Q (m3 /s) at time t = 0,
then, according to Eq. (2.1.22), the pressure at a distance R into the
reservoir will be
 ∞ −u
μQ e
P (R, t) = Pi + du, x = φμcR2 /4kt, (2.5.1)
4πkH x u
where t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, and Q
is defined here to be a positive number. The + sign appears in
Eq. (2.5.1) because, if we are injecting rather than extracting fluid,
the pressure in the reservoir should be greater than the initial
reservoir pressure.
Now imagine that we stop injecting fluid after a small amount
of time, δt. This is equivalent to injecting fluid at a rate Q starting
at t = 0, and then producing fluid at a rate Q (or, equivalently,
injecting at a rate −Q) starting at time δt. The pressure drawdown
in the reservoir due to this fictitious production would be given by
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 38

38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

the same line source solution, except that:

(1) For extraction of fluid we must use a “−” sign in front of the
integral;
(2) If t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, then t − δt will
be the elapsed time since the start of the fictitious extraction of
fluid (i.e. since the end of the actual injection!)

Hence, the full expression for the pressure at location R and time
t will be
 ∞  ∞
μQ e−u μQ e−u
P (R, t) = Pi + du − du
4πkH x= φμcR2 u 4πkH x= φμcR2 u
4kt 4k(t−δt)

 φμcR2
x= 4k(t−δt)
μQ e−u
= Pi + 2
du. (2.5.2)
4πkH x= φμcR u
4kt

But if δt is small, then the two limits of integration in the integral

on the right-hand side of Eq. (2.5.2) are close together, and we can
use the following approximation:
 x2
f (x)dx ≈ f (x1 )[x2 − x1 ], (2.5.3)
x1

which in the present case gives

 
μQ 4kt − φμcR
2
φμcR2 φμcR2
P (R, t) ≈ Pi + · · e 4kt · −
4πkH φμcR2 4k(t − δt) 4kt
 
μQ 4kt − φμcR
2
φμcR2 δt
≈ Pi + · · e 4kt ·
4πkH φμcR2 4kt2
μQδt − φμcR2
≈ Pi + e 4kt . (2.5.4)
4πkHt
As Q is the rate of injection in (m3 /s), and δt is the duration of
the injection, the total volume of injected fluid is Qδt, which we can
hereafter denote as Q∗, with units of (m3 ).
Imagine now that we are monitoring the pressure at some fixed
distance R from the borehole, for example, with a pressure gauge in
an observation well. Equation (2.5.4) shows that the pressure buildup
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 39

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 39

Figure 2.3. Pressure buildup due to an injected pulse of fluid.

at R will be the product of two terms: an exponential term that

increases with t, and then levels off to the value of 1 as t → ∞; and a
term proportional to 1/t, that decays to zero as t → ∞. The product
of these increasing and decreasing terms creates a function that first
increases with time, and then decreases, as shown in Figure 2.3.
It seems reasonable to identify the “time at which the pressure
pulse has arrived at location R” with the time at which the pressure
buildup reaches its maximum value at R. This time can be found by
setting ∂P/∂t = 0 in Eq. (2.5.4):
 
∂P μQ∗ −1 φμcR2 − φμcR2
= + e 4kt , (2.5.5)
∂t R 4πkH t2 4kt3

∂P φμcR2
=0⇒t= , (2.5.6)
∂t R 4k
which provides a derivation of Eq. (1.6.12).

2.6. Estimating Permeability and Storativity

from a Drawdown Test
In Sections 2.1–2.4, we derived the line source solution, and showed
how to use it to calculate the pressure drawdown, based on assumed
knowledge of the reservoir properties. However, the most common
use of this solution, and the other solutions that we will derive in
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 40

40 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

subsequent chapters, is for the inverse problem:

• We use measured wellbore pressures, in conjunction with the
mathematical solutions, to estimate reservoir properties such as
permeability, porosity, etc.
• This process, known as well test analysis, is the subject of a
subsequent module of this MSc course. For now, we will do one
simple example to see how to calculate the reservoir permeability
from a drawdown test.
Recall from Eq. (2.4.8) that, in the late-time regime,
 
μQ 2.246kt
P (R, t) = Pi − ln . (2.6.1)
4π kH φμcR2
At the wellbore wall,
  
μQ 2.246k
P (Rw , t) = Pi − ln t + ln 2
. (2.6.2)
4π kH φμcRw
In general, we will not know the values of most of the parameters
on the right-hand side of Eq. (2.6.2); we will only know Q, and
the wellbore pressure as a function of time, P (Rw , t) ≡ Pw (t). In
particular, we do not know k or φμc, so we cannot use criterion
(2.4.7) to find out when our data fall into the late-time regime.
However, the second logarithmic term, although unknown, is a
constant. Hence, if we plot Pw (t) versus ln t, the data will eventually,
at large enough values of t, fall on a straight line! The slope of this
line on a semi-log plot gives kH, i.e.

dPw ΔPw μQ
=
d ln t Δ ln t ≡ m = 4πkH , (2.6.3)

μQ
→ kH =. (2.6.4)
4πm
In practice, Q is known, and μ can be measured, so the semi-log
slope m gives us the permeability-thickness product, kH.
Note that this method is unable to distinguish separately between
the effects of permeability and thickness; i.e. a thick reservoir of low
permeability can give the same drawdown as a more permeable but
thinner reservoir.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch02 page 41

Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 41

Table 2.2. Drawdown data used to illustrate the

method for determining permeability.

t (mins) 1 5 10 20 30 60

Pw (psi) 4740 4667 4633 4596 4573 4535

Figure 2.4. Semi-log straight line method for estimating the permeability from a
drawdown test.

Now, let us do a simple example to learn how to calculate the

permeability of a reservoir from a drawdown test.

Example: A well with 4 in. radius produces oil with viscosity 0.3 cP,
at a constant rate of 200 bbl/day, from a reservoir that is 15 ft. thick.
The wellbore pressure as a function of time is given in Table 2.2. Use
the “semi-log straight line” method to estimate the permeability, k.

(1) Plot wellbore pressure against the logarithm of time, as in

Figure 2.4.
(2) Look for a straight line at late times, and find its slope:

ΔP 4760 − 4510
m= = = 54.3 psi
Δ ln t 2 × 2.303
6895Pa
= 54.3 psi × = 374, 400 Pa.
psi
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42 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Note: Δ ln t will have the same value, regardless of which units

are used for t!
(3) Calculate k from Eq. (2.6.4), first converting all data to SI:
0.001 Pa s
μ = 0.3 cP × = 0.0003 Pa s,
cP
bbl 0.1589 m3 day hr m3
Q = 200 × × × = 3.68 × 10−4 ,
day bbl 24 hr 3600 s s
0.3048 m
H = 15ft × = 4.572 m
ft
μQ (0.0003 Pa s)(3.68 × 10−4 m3 /s)
→k= =
4πmH 4π(4.572 m)(374, 400 Pa)
1mD
= 5.13 × 10−15 m2 × = 5.1 mD.
0.987 × 10−15 m2
We can also use a semi-log plot to estimate the storativity term,
φc. To see how this works, first note that on a semi-log plot of Pw
versus ln t, there are two asymptotic straight lines (see Figure 2.2).
At early times, Pw = Pi (i.e. a horizontal line). At late times, Pw
slopes downward as a function of ln t, according to Eq. (2.6.3).
At what time t∗ do these straight lines intersect? This occurs
when Pw (early t asymptote) = Pw (late t asymptote), i.e.
 
μQ 2.246kt∗
Pi = Pi − ln 2
4π kH φμcRw
 
2.246kt∗
→ ln 2
=0
φμcRw
2.246kt∗
→ 2
=1
φμcRw
φμcRw2
→ t∗ = ,
2.246k
which can be inverted to give the storativity
2.246kt∗
φc = 2
. (2.6.5)
μRw
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Line Source Solution for a Vertical Well in an Infinite Reservoir 43

Problems for Chapter 2

Problem 2.1. A well with 3 in. radius is located in a 40 ft. thick
reservoir that has a permeability of 30 mD and a porosity of 0.20. The
total compressibility of the oil-rock system is 3×10−5 /psi. The initial
pressure in the reservoir is 2800 psi. The well produces 448 bbl/day
of oil that has a viscosity of 0.4 cP. Conversion factors can be found
in Problem 1.1.
(a) How long will it take in order for the line source solution to be
applicable at the wellbore wall?
(b) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the line source solution?
(c) How long will it take in order for Jacob’s logarithmic approxi-
mation to be valid at the wellbore?
(d) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the logarithmic approximation?
(e) Answer questions (b)–(d) for a location that is 800 ft. (horizon-
tally) away from the wellbore.
Problem 2.2. A well with a radius of 0.3 ft. produces 200 bbl/day of
oil, with viscosity 0.6 cP, from a 20 ft. thick reservoir. The wellbore
pressures are given in the table below. Estimate the permeability and
the storativity of the reservoir, using the semi-log method described
in Section 2.6.

t(mins) 0 5 10 20 60 120 480 1440 2880 5760

Pw (psi) 4000 3943 3938 3933 3926 3921 3911 3904 3899 3894
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Chapter 3

Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests

During well tests, the well may be flowed for a period of time, and
then “shut-in”. It may also be flowed at a sequence of different
rates, to obtain data that can be used to determine various reservoir
properties. These sequences result in a complex pressure signal. In
this chapter, we will introduce the principle of superposition, and
show how it can be used to develop methods for analysing these
complex pressure signals, and thereby help us to infer the values of
important reservoir properties such as permeability and storativity.

3.1. Linearity and the Principle of Superposition

A basic property of the pressure diffusion equation that governs flow
of a single-phase compressible liquid through a porous medium is its
linearity. Linearity is the most important and useful property that
any differential equation can have because it allows the principle
of superposition to be used to construct solutions to the equation.
Most of the analytical methods that have been developed to solve
differential equations, such as Laplace transforms, Green’s functions,
eigenfunction expansions, etc., can in fact be used only on linear
differential equations. These analytical methods will be discussed to
some extent in later sections of these notes. In this section, we will
discuss a simple form of the principle of superposition that will allow
us to solve many important reservoir engineering problems, such as
pressure buildup tests.

45
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46 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The diffusion equation is a linear partial differential equation

(PDE) because both of the differential operators that appear in it
are linear operators. Formally, a differential operator M that operates
on a function F is linear if it has the following two properties:

M (F1 + F2 ) = M (F1 ) + M (F2 ), (3.1.1)

M (cF1 ) = cM (F1 ), (3.1.2)

where F1 and F2 are any two differentiable functions, and c is any

constant.
The process of partial differentiation is a linear operation, since
d dP1 (R, t) dP2 (R, t)
[P1 (R, t) + P2 (R, t)] = + , (3.1.3)
dt dt dt
d dP1 (R, t)
[cP1 (R, t)] = c . (3.1.4)
dt dt
By this definition, we see that Eq. (1.7.8) is a linear PDE. This will
be the case if the coefficients that appear in the diffusivity equation,
such as φ, c, μ and k, are constants. If these coefficients varied with
position or time, the governing equation (see Section 1.8) would still
be linear, albeit more difficult to solve.
However, if any of the coefficients were functions of pressure,
the equation would no longer be linear. This situation occurs, for
example, with gas flow, for which the compressibility varies with
pressure (see Chapter 9). It is also the case for “stress-sensitive”
reservoirs in which the permeability varies with pressure.
A simple rule-of-thumb is that a differential equation will be
nonlinear if it contains any term in which the dependent variable (in
our case, P ) or any of its derivatives appear to a power higher than
one, or are multiplied by one another. For example, M = P (dP/dt)
is a nonlinear operator, because it violates condition (3.1.1):
d(P1 + P2 )
M {P1 + P2 } = (P1 + P2 )
dt
 
dP1 dP2
= (P1 + P2 ) +
dt dt
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Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests 47

dP1 dP1 dP2 dP2

= P1 + P2 + P1 + P2
dt dt dt dt
dP1 dP2
= M {P1 } + M {P2 } + P2 + P1
dt dt
→ M {P1 + P2 } = M {P1 } + M {P2 }! (3.1.5)

The importance of linearity is that it allows us to create new

solutions to the diffusion equation by adding together previously
known solutions. Care must be taken, however, with the initial
conditions and boundary conditions. For example, if P1 and P2 are
two pressure functions that each satisfy the diffusion equation (2.1.2)
and the initial condition (2.1.3), then the sum of P1 and P2 will also
satisfy the diffusion equation, but will not satisfy the correct initial
conditions, because

P1 (R, t = 0) + P2 (R, t = 0) = Pi + Pi = 2Pi . (3.1.6)

This difficulty can be circumvented by working with the draw-

down instead of the actual pressure. Linearity of the diffusion
equation implies that the drawdown, ΔP = Pi − P (R, t), satis-
fies the same diffusion equation as does P (R, t) itself, since, for
example,
d[Pi − P (R, t)] dPi dP (R, t) dP (R, t)
= − =− , etc. (3.1.7)
dt dt dt dt
As the drawdown satisfies zero initial condition, by definition,
Eq. (3.1.6) shows that the sum of two drawdown functions will also
satisfy the correct initial condition (i.e. that the drawdown must
be zero when t = 0). Likewise, the drawdown is also zero infinitely
far from the well, so if two drawdown functions satisfy the boundary
condition at R = ∞, their sum will also satisfy this far-field boundary
condition.

3.2. Pressure Buildup Test in an Infinite Reservoir

In a pressure buildup test, a well that has been producing fluid at a
constant rate Q for some time t is then “shut-in”, i.e. production is
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48 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

stopped. After this, fluid will continue to flow towards the well, due
to the pressure gradient in the reservoir, but will not be able to exit
at the wellhead. Consequently, the pressure at the well will rise back
towards it initial value, Pi . The rate of this pressure recovery at the
well can be used to estimate both the transmissivity, kH, and the
initial pressure, Pi , of the reservoir.
The analysis of a pressure buildup test is based on the principle of
superposition that was discussed in the previous section, and proceeds
as follows. First, imagine that we produce at a rate Q, starting at
t = 0, in which case the pressure drawdown due to this production
will be
 
μQ −φμcR2
ΔP1 = Pi − P1 (R, t) = − Ei . (3.2.1)
4πkH 4kt

Now consider the following fictitious problem, in which, at some

time t1 , we begin to inject fluid into the same well, at rate Q. The
pressure drawdown due to this injection would be given by the same
line source solution, except that:

(a) The variable that we use in the line source solution to represent
the “elapsed time” must be measured from the start of injection,
i.e. the variable must be t − t1 ;
(b) Since we are injecting rather than producing, we must use “−Q”
in the solution.

Therefore, the pressure drawdown due to this fictitious injection is

 
μQ −φμcR2
ΔP2 = Pi − P2 (R, t) = Ei . (3.2.2)
4πkH 4k(t − t1 )

Note: It is implicitly understood in all equations such as Eq. (3.2.2)

that the value of the Ei function is taken to be zero when the term
in brackets is positive, which is to say, when t < t1 .
We now superimpose these two solutions (for the drawdown,
not the pressure itself!), putting ΔP = ΔP1 + ΔP2 . In light of the
discussion given in the previous section, this composite function
is also a solution to the pressure diffusion equation. However, we
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Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests 49

note that:

(a) For t < t1 , the injection has not started, and so the composite
solution corresponds to production at rate Q, as given by
Eq. (3.2.1).
(b) For t < t1 , the composite solution corresponds to production at
rate Q, and injection at rate Q, which is to say, a well that is
neither producing nor injecting, i.e. it is “shut-in”!
(c) Therefore, this superposition of the two pressure functions solves
the problem of production for a time t1 , followed by shut-in:

ΔP (R, t) = ΔP1 (R, t) + ΔP2 (R, t)

   
μQ −φμcR2 μQ −φμcR2
=− Ei + Ei
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4k(t − t1 )
    
μQ −φμcR2 −φμcR2
=− Ei − Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4k(t − t1 )
(3.2.3)

Now recall that ΔP (R, t) = Pi − P (R, t), in which case P (R, t) =

Pi − ΔP (R, t), and so
    
μQ −φμcR2 −φμcR2
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei − Ei . (3.2.4)
4πkH 4kt 4k(t − t1 )

If t is sufficiently large that we can use the logarithmic approxi-

mation for both terms in Eq. (3.2.4), then
  
μQ 2.246k
P (R, t) = Pi − ln t + ln
4πkH φμcR2
 
2.246k
− ln(t − t1 ) − ln
φμcR2
μQ
→ P (R, t) = Pi − [ln t − ln(t − t1 )]
4πkH
μQ t
→ P (R, t) = Pi − ln . (3.2.5)
4πkH (t − t1 )
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50 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

This is the equation for the pressure at the wellbore during a pressure
buildup test. However, the notation more commonly used in buildup
tests is the following:

• The duration of production period is denoted by t, not t1 .

• The duration of the shut-in period is denoted by Δt, not t − t1 .

Using this notation, the well pressure during shut-in is given by

 
μQ t + Δt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln . (3.2.6)
4πkH Δt

This equation is used for graphical analysis of the data from a buildup
test, allowing estimation of the kH product and the initial reservoir
pressure. The ratio (t + Δt)/Δt that appears in Eq. (3.2.6) is known
as the Horner time, tH . Note that the Horner time has the following
peculiar properties:

(a) It does not have units of time, but is dimensionless, and

(b) It becomes numerically smaller as the duration of the shut-in
period increases.

The wellbore pressure that would be measured during a shut-in test

is shown schematically in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Wellbore pressure during a buildup test.

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Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests 51

3.3. Multi-rate Flow Tests

The superposition principle that was used to solve the problem of a
buildup test can also be used in the more general situation in which
the production rate is changed by discrete amounts at various time
intervals. First, imagine that the production rate is given by

Q = Q0 for 0 < t < t1 , (3.3.1)

Q = Q1 for t > t1 . (3.3.2)

To find the drawdown, we superpose the solution for production

at rate Q0 starting at time t = 0, plus a solution starting at t1 that
corresponds to the increment in the production rate, Q1 − Q0 :
   
μQ0 −φμcR2 μ(Q1 − Q0 ) −φμcR2
ΔP (R, t) = − Ei − Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4k(t − t1 )
(3.3.3)

To verify that it is correct to use the flow rate increment, note

that for t > t1 , the first Ei function corresponds to a flow rate of Q0 ,
and the second corresponds to a rate of Q1 − Q0 , so the total flow
rate is

Q(t > t1 ) = Q0 + (Q1 − Q0 ) = Q1 . (3.3.4)

The drawdown in the general case in which flow rate Qi commences

at time ti can therefore be represented by
 
−μQ0 −φμcR2
ΔP (R, t) = Ei
4πkH 4kt
 μ(Qi − Qi−1 )  −φμcR2 
− Ei . (3.3.5)
4πkH 4k(t − ti )
i=1

We can simplify the notation by defining the pressure drawdown

per unit of flow rate, with production starting at t = 0, as ΔPQ (R, t).
For the line source in an infinite reservoir, this definition takes the
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52 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

form
 
ΔP (R, t; Q) −μ −φμcR2
ΔPQ (R, t) ≡ ≡ Ei , (3.3.6)
Q 4πkH 4kt
with the understanding that ΔPQ (R, t) = 0 when t < 0. Using
definition (3.3.6), the drawdown in a multi-rate test can be written
as

ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + (Qi − Qi−1 )ΔPQ (R, t − ti ). (3.3.7)
i=1

This type of multi-rate test is used, for example, to determine rate-

dependent skin factors (see Chapter 5).

3.4. Convolution Integral for Variable-rate

Flow Tests
The superposition formula (3.3.7) can be generalised further, to the
case where the flow rate at the well is some arbitrary (but continuous)
function of time, Q(t). We first note that an arbitrary production
schedule can always be approximated by a discrete number of time
periods during which the flow rate is constant, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Now recall that the time derivative of the flow rate, at time ti ,
where i is an index that takes on the values 1, 2, 3, etc., can be

Figure 3.2. Variable-rate production approximated by multi-rate production.

March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch03 page 53

Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests 53

approximated as

dQ (ΔQ)i Qi − Qi−1
≈ = . (3.4.1)
dt ti (Δt)i ti − ti−1

Equation (3.4.1) can be rearranged, to allow us to approximate the

flow rate increment, as follows:
dQ(ti )
Qi − Qi−1 ≈ × (ti − ti−1 ). (3.4.2)
dt
Using this approximation in Eq. (3.3.7) gives
 dQ(ti )
ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + ΔPQ (R, t − ti )(ti − ti−1 ).
dt
i=1
(3.4.3)
We now simplify the notation by rewriting Eq. (3.4.3) in the following
equivalent form:

ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + Q (ti )ΔPQ (R, t − ti )Δti . (3.4.4)
i=1

As we make each time increment smaller, approximation (3.4.1)

becomes more accurate, and the “step-function” approximation to
the flow rate Q(t) also becomes more accurate. In the limit as each
time increment goes to zero, the errors due to these approximations
will vanish.
Furthermore, as the time increments get smaller, the series in
Eq. (3.4.4) becomes an integral with respect to ti :

ti =t
ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + Q (ti )ΔPQ (R, t − ti )dti . (3.4.5)
ti =0

The integral in Eq. (3.4.5) ends at ti = t because when ti > t,

the function ΔPQ (R, t − ti ) is zero, by definition. Physically, this is
equivalent to the fact that a change in flow rate that occurs at a
time later than t cannot possibly have an effect on the drawdown at
time t.
Finally, we note that in the limit as each of the time increments
become infinitely small, the finite number of times that we were
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54 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

denoting by ti evolve into a continuous variable, which we will denote

by τ . The drawdown can then be written as

t
dQ(τ )
ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + ΔPQ (R, t − τ )dτ. (3.4.6)
0 dτ

The integral in Eq. (3.4.6) is known as a convolution integral, and

is specifically referred to as “the convolution of the two functions
dQ/dt and ΔPQ ”. Formula (3.4.6) is also known as Duhamel’s
principle, after the French mathematician who first suggested this
procedure in the context of solving heat conduction problems
(Duhamel, 1833).
The importance of the convolution integral given by Eq. (3.4.6) is
that it allows us to find the drawdown for any production schedule,
by merely performing a single integral utilising the “constant flow
rate” solution. For example, if we have a reservoir with, say, a closed
outer circular boundary (see Chapter 6), then we need only to find
the solution for the case of constant flow rate in a reservoir with a
closed outer circular boundary; the solution for a variable flow rate
in this reservoir then follows from Eq. (3.4.6), with the constant flow
rate solution playing the role of the function ΔPQ .
Another form of the convolution integral that is sometimes more
convenient to use can be derived by applying integration-by-parts
to the integral in (3.4.6). First, recall the general expression for
integration by parts:

t
t
dg(τ ) df (τ )
f (τ ) dτ = f (τ )g(τ )]t0 − g(τ ) dτ. (3.4.7)
0 dτ 0 dτ

We now put f (τ ) = ΔPQ (R, t − τ ) and g(τ ) = Q(τ ), in which case

Eq. (3.4.6) becomes

ΔP (R, t) = Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + Q(τ )ΔPQ (R, t − τ )]t0

t
dΔPQ (R, t − τ )
− Q(τ ) dτ,
0 dτ
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Superposition and Pressure Buildup Tests 55

= Q0 ΔPQ (R, t) + Q(t)ΔPQ (R, 0) − Q(0)ΔPQ (R, t)

t
dΔPQ (R, t − τ )
− Q(τ ) dτ. (3.4.8)
0 dτ
But Q(0) = Q0 , by definition, so the first and third terms on the right
cancel out. And ΔPQ (R, 0) is the drawdown at time zero, which must
be zero, and so the second term on the right also drops out.
Next, use of the chain rule shows that
dΔPQ (R, t − τ ) −dΔPQ (R, t − τ )
= , (3.4.9)
dτ dt
in which case Eq. (3.4.8) can finally be written as

t
dΔPQ (R, t − τ )
ΔP (R, t) = Q(τ ) dτ. (3.4.10)
0 dt
This integral allows us to calculate the drawdown for any production
history, provided that we know the drawdown function for the case
of constant production rate, ΔPQ (R, t). It implies that, for a given
reservoir shape, we only ever need to solve the problem of constant
production rate!

Problems for Chapter 3

Problem 3.1. Which, if any, of the following differential equations
are linear, and why (or why not)?
d2 y dy
(a) dx2
+ y dx + y = 0.
d2 y dy
(b) dx2
+ x dx + y = 0.
d2 y dy
(c) dx2
+ x dx + xy = 0.

Problem 3.2. Find an expression for the wellbore pressure in a

vertical well in a laterally infinite reservoir, if the production rate
increases linearly as a function of time according to Q(t) = Q∗ t/t∗ ,
where Q∗ and t∗ are constants. Use convolution, in the form of either
Eq. (3.4.6) or Eq. (3.4.10), and recall that ΔPQ (R, t) for a well in an
infinite reservoir is given by Eq. (3.3.6).
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Chapter 4

Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries

In the previous two chapters, we assumed that the well was located in
a laterally infinite reservoir. But all real reservoirs are bounded. For
example, many reservoirs contain nearly vertical faults which, due
to mineralisation processes, or to the creation of fault gouge caused
by relative motion between the two sides of the fault, may serve as
impermeable barriers to flow. In this chapter, we will learn how to use
spatial superposition of fictitious “image” wells to model the effect
that such impermeable faults will have on the pressure behaviour
measured at the actual production well. In particular, this analysis
will allow us to calculate the distance from the well to the nearest
impermeable sealing fault. The method of image wells can also be
used to model the effect of linear constant-pressure boundaries, such
as may be caused by an aquifer abutting against the reservoir.

4.1. Superposition of Sources/Sinks in Space

In Section 3.1, we saw that if we add together two different line source
solutions that “start” at different times, we still have a legitimate
mathematical solution to the pressure diffusion equation. We can also
add together solutions that represent line sources that are located at
different places in space, and their sum will represent a solution to
the diffusion equation.
The simplest and most straightforward example of the use of
spatial superposition is for the problem of two wells located in an
infinite reservoir, as shown in Figure 4.1. Well 1 is located at point

57
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58 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 4.1. Two wells producing from an infinite, homogeneous reservoir, with
the pressure monitored at an observation well C.

A, and the distance from A to a generic point C in the reservoir is

denoted by R1 . Well 2 is located at point B, and the distance from B
to C is denoted by R2 . Well 1 starts producing at rate Q1 at time t1 ,
and well 2 starts producing at rate Q2 , starting at time t2 . It may be
convenient to imagine an observation well located at C, fitted with
a pressure gauge.
We now claim that the drawdown at arbitrary point C in the
reservoir, at some time t, is given by the sum of the two relevant line
source solutions
   
μQ1 −φμcR12 μQ2 −φμcR22
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei + Ei .
4πkH 4k(t − t1 ) 4πkH 4k(t − t2 )
(4.1.1)
To prove that this is indeed the proper solution to this problem, we
note that:
(1) The line source solution for well 1 satisfies the diffusion
equation at all points in the reservoir (except at R1 = 0, where it
gives an “infinite” drawdown), and at all times. Likewise for the
second line source solution. Hence, their sum satisfies the pressure
diffusion equation at all times, and at all points except R1 = 0 and
R2 = 0. But these two points are not actually located in the reservoir
(they are located “in the well”), so we do not care that the diffusion
equation is not satisfied there!
(2) Both line source solutions satisfy the initial condition of zero
drawdown, so their sum also satisfies this initial condition.
(3) Both line source solutions satisfy the far-field boundary
condition that the drawdown is zero “at infinity”, and so their sum
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Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 59

also satisfies this boundary condition, i.e.

μQ μQ
P (R → ∞, t) = Pi + Ei(−∞) + Ei(−∞) = Pi ,
4πkH 4πkH
(4.1.2)

because, as can be seen from Table 2.1, Ei(−x) goes to zero as

x becomes very large. Hence, we have verified that the drawdown
given by Eq. (4.1.1) is the correct solution for the two-well problem.
Obviously, spatial superposition can be used for any number of wells.
The principle of superposition can also be used in conjunction
with the concept of “image” wells, to solve problems such as finding
the effect of a nearby impermeable fault, as explained in the next
section.

4.2. Effect of an Impermeable Vertical Fault

Hydrocarbon reservoirs are often transected by faults, many of which
are nearly vertical. Due to mineral deposition on the fault surfaces,
accumulation of fault gouge and other geological processes, faults
are often impermeable to flow. In order to properly interpret the
results of well tests, it is important to understand the effect that
an impermeable boundary will have on a drawdown test. It is
therefore desirable to find the solution to the problem of constant-
rate production from a well located in a homogeneous reservoir that
is bounded on one side by a vertical fault of infinite extent, and which
is impermeable to flow. This solution can easily be found using the
Theis solution for a well in an infinite unbounded reservoir, and using
the principle of spatial superposition.
Consider a well located at a perpendicular distance (i.e. nearest
distance) d from an impermeable fault, which appears in planview
as a straight line that extends infinitely far in both directions, as in
Figure 4.2. This well produces fluid at a constant rate Q, starting at
t = 0. Now imagine a fictitious “image well” that is situated as the
“mirror image” of the first well (i.e. located at a distance d on the
other side of the fault), which also produces fluid from the reservoir
at rate Q starting at t = 0. In this hypothetical situation, we ignore
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60 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 4.2. Use of an image well to solve the problem of a well near an
impermeable fault.

the fact that the fault exists, and assume that the reservoir extends
infinitely far in all horizontal directions, just as in the Theis problem.
Due to the symmetry of this situation, no fluid will ever cross the
plane of the fault. Hence, this plane will effectively act as a no-flow
boundary. This scenario therefore gives us the solution for a well near
an impermeable fault!
The pressure drawdown in this situation is the superposition of
the drawdown due to the actual well, plus the drawdown due to the
fictitious image well:
   
μQ −φμcR12 μQ −φμcR22
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei + Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4kt
(4.2.1)

To find the pressure in the wellbore, we put

R1 = Rw , R2 = 2d − Rw ≈ 2d, (4.2.2)

in which case Eq. (4.2.1) becomes

 2
  
μQ −φμcRw μQ −φμc(2d)2
Pw (t) = Pi + Ei + Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4kt
(4.2.3)

There are several time regimes to consider:

(i) An early time regime, during which the logarithmic approxi-
mation is not yet valid for either the actual well solution, or for the
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Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 61

image-well solution. From Eq. (2.4.7), this regime is defined by

2
25φμcRw
t< , or tDw < 25. (4.2.4)
k
In this regime, we would have to use the full infinite series expansion
for the exponential integral function. However, we saw in Section 2.4
that the duration of this regime is usually very short, and so there
is no need for us to study it further.
(ii) An intermediate time regime in which the logarithmic
approximation can be used for the well solution, but the drawdown
in the wellbore due to the image solution is still negligible. The start
of this regime is defined by Eq. (4.2.4), i.e.
2
25φμcRw
t> , or tDw > 25. (4.2.5)
k
This regime ends when the front edge of the pressure pulse from the
image well reaches the actual well, which is located at a distance 2d
away from the image well. We can consider that this occurs when
the second Ei function in Eq. (4.2.3) reaches, say, 0.01. According
to Table 2.1, this will occur when the argument of the Ei function
reaches about 3.3. Therefore, the upper limit of this second time
regime is defined by
0.3φμcd2
t< , or tDw < 0.3(d/Rw )2 . (4.2.6)
k
In this regime, the pressure in the well is given by
 
μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
. (4.2.7)
4πkH φμcRw
This is precisely the drawdown that would occur in the absence of
the fault, because in this time regime the actual pressure pulse has
not yet had time to travel to the fault and reflect back to the wellbore
(where it can be detected). In particular, during this regime the slope
on a semi-log plot of the wellbore pressure curve will be
dPw ΔPw −μQ
= = . (4.2.8)
d ln t Δ ln t 4πkH
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62 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

(iii) A late time regime during which the logarithmic approxi-

mation is valid for both the actual well solution, and the image well
solution. This regime is defined by

25φμc(2d)2
t> , or tDw > 100(d/Rw )2 . (4.2.9)
k
In this regime, the pressure at the actual well is given by
   
μQ 2.246kt μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
− ln
4πkH φμcRw 4πkH φμc(2d)2
    
μQ 2.246k 2.246k
= Pi − ln t + ln 2
+ ln t + ln
4πkH φμcRw φμc4d2
    
μQ 2.246k 2.246k
= Pi − 2 ln t + ln 2
+ ln .
4πkH φμcRw φμc4d2
(4.2.10)

This equation will also yield a straight line on a plot of Pw versus

ln t, but with a slope that is twice that of the earlier slope, i.e.
dPw ΔPw −2μQ −μQ
= = = . (4.2.11)
d ln t Δ ln t 4πkH 2πkH
Doubling of the slope of the graph of Pw versus ln t is therefore an
indication of a nearby impermeable boundary. Moreover, the distance
from the production well to the fault can be estimated from the
transition time between the regime when Eq. (4.2.7) is applicable, to
the regime when Eq. (4.2.10) becomes applicable (see Problem 4.1).
Physical Explanation: Because of the impermeable boundary,
oil is being produced from a “semi-infinite” reservoir, rather than
an infinite reservoir. So, at large times, only half as much oil will
be produced, for a given wellbore pressure. Therefore, in order to
maintain a constant flow rate, we must double the drawdown.

4.3. Two Intersecting Impermeable Vertical Faults

The method of images can also be used to study the effect of two
or more intersecting faults. For example, consider a well located
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Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 63

Figure 4.3. Well located near two intersecting impermeable faults.

Figure 4.4. Use of image wells to solve problem of a well near two intersecting
impermeable faults.

equidistant from two impermeable faults that intersect at a right

angle, as in Figure 4.3.
To solve this problem, we again first imagine that the reservoir is
laterally infinite in extent, and contains no impermeable boundaries.
However, we want the locations of the actual impermeable boundaries
to correspond to “no-flow” boundaries in our fictitious unbounded
reservoir. This will be the case if we have two perpendicular lines
of symmetry located at distances d from the actual well. This can
be accomplished by introducing the following three images wells, as
shown in Figure 4.4.
Image wells 1 and 3 are both located at a distance 2d from the
actual well, whereas the distance from the actual well to image well 2
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64 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

√
is 2 2d. Hence, we must add three “fictitious” line source solutions to
the line source solution for the actual well, each with the appropriate
radius variable. The resulting drawdown at the actual production
well is given by
 2   
4πkH[Pw (t) − Pi ] −φμcRw −φμc4d2
= Ei + 2Ei
μQ 4kt 4kt
 
−φμc8d2
+ Ei . (4.3.1)
4kt

Recalling the definitions of dimensionless time and dimensionless

drawdown given in Section 2.2, we can write Eq. (4.3.1) in dimen-
sionless form as
     
1 −1 −(d/Rw )2 1 −2(d/Rw )2
ΔPDw = − Ei − Ei − Ei .
2 4tDw tDw 2 tDw
(4.3.2)

The wellbore pressure will exhibit an early stage in which the

effect of the image wells is not yet apparent, and the semi-log
slope of the wellbore pressure versus time curve will be −μQ/4πkH.
Eventually, at a sufficiently long time such that the drawdown in the
actual well due to production from all four wells can be approximated
by the logarithmic approximation, the semi-log slope will be four
times greater in magnitude, i.e. −μQ/πkH.
Note that application of the method of images is not as simple
as saying “if we had one impermeable boundary we added one image
well, so for two impermeable boundaries we should add two image
wells”; this statement might seem logical, but it is not correct. The
trick is to place image wells so as to create a fictitious unbounded
reservoir that has the proper symmetry in its flow field.
Several other examples of the use of the method of images, such
as two infinite parallel faults, two faults intersecting at 45◦ , etc., can
be found in the book Well Testing in Heterogeneous Formations, by
Streltsova (1988).
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Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 65

4.4. Well Near a Linear Constant-pressure

Vertical Boundary
Another situation that sometimes arises in reservoirs is that of a
linear constant-pressure boundary. This boundary may, for example,
be formed by a gas cap that borders a slightly dipping oil reservoir.
The effect that such a boundary has on a drawdown test can also be
studied by using the method of images.
In this case, imagine an image well, located as in Figure 4.2,
but injecting fluid at a rate Q. Again, we “ignore” the actual
constant-pressure boundary, and assume that the actual well and
the image well are located in an infinite reservoir. By superposition,
the drawdown at a generic location in the reservoir will in this
case be
   
μQ −φμcR12 μQ −φμcR22
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei − Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4kt
(4.4.1)

Now consider a point on the mid-plane between the two wells. At

such a point, R1 = R2 , and so Eq. (4.4.1) gives
    
μQ −φμcR12 −φμcR12
P (midplane, t) = Pi + Ei − Ei
4πkH 4kt 4kt
= Pi for all t (4.4.2)

which proves that the mid-plane is indeed a plane of constant

pressure.
Now, consider the pressure drawdown in the actual well, which
is found by setting R1 = Rw and R2 = 2d − Rw ≈ 2d
 2   
μQ −φμcRw μQ −φμc(2d)2
P (R, t) = Pi + Ei − Ei .
4πkH 4kt 4πkH 4kt
(4.4.3)

Again, aside from a very-early time regime defined by Eq. (4.2.4),

which we ignore, we have, in analogy with Eqs. (4.2.5) and (4.2.6),
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66 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

a regime defined by tDw > 25 and

0.3φμcd2
t< , or tDw < 0.3(d/Rw )2 , (4.4.4)
k
during which the effect of the image well has not yet been felt in the
actual well, and so the pressure in the well is given by
 
μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
. (4.4.5)
4πkH φμcRw
There exists a late-time regime during which the logarithmic
approximation is valid at the production well for both the actual
line source solution and the image line source solution. In analogy
with Eq. (4.2.9), this regime is defined by

25φμc(2d)2
t> , or tDw > 100(d/Rw )2 . (4.4.6)
k
In this regime, the pressure in the production well is given by
   
μQ 2.246kt μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
+ ln
4πkH φμcRw 4πkH φμc(2d)2
    
μQ 2.246k 2.246k
= Pi − ln t + ln 2
− ln t − ln
4πkH φμcRw φμc(2d)2
  
μQ 2.246k 2
= Pi − ln − ln(Rw )
4πkH φμc
  
2.246k 2
− ln + ln[(2d) ]
φμc
μQ
= Pi − ln[(2d/Rw )2 ]
4πkH
 
μQ 2d
= Pi − ln . (4.4.7)
2πkH Rw
We see that the pressure at the production well eventually stabilises
to a constant value. The steady-state value of the drawdown depends
on the dimensionless distance to the boundary (i.e. relative to the
wellbore radius).
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Effect of Faults and Linear Boundaries 67

Figure 4.5. Wellbore pressure for a well near a vertical fault.

Recall that the slope of Pw versus ln t was −μQ/4πkH for a well

in an infinite reservoir. An impermeable linear boundary eventually
causes an additional slope of −μQ/4πkH, leading to a total late-time
slope of −μQ/2πkH. On the other hand, a constant-pressure linear
boundary causes and “additional” slope of + μQ/4πkH, leading to a
late-time slope of 0, as shown in Figure 4.5.

Problems for Chapter 4

Problem 4.1. As explained in Section 4.2, a doubling of the slope

on a semi-log plot of drawdown versus time indicates the presence of
an impermeable linear fault. The drawdown data can also be used
to find the distance from the well to the fault, as follows. If we plot
the data and then fit two straight lines through the early-time and
late-time data, the time at which these lines intersect is called tDw .
Show that the distance to the fault is then given by the equation
d = (0.5615tDw )1/2 Rw .

Problem 4.2. The curves in Figure 4.5 were drawn for the case
d = 200Rw . What would the curves look like for the case of a fault
located at a distance d = 400Rw ?
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68 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Problem 4.3. Consider a well located equidistant from two orthogo-

nal boundaries, as in Figure 4.3, but imagine that the boundaries are
constant-pressure boundaries, rather than impermeable boundaries.
How would you utilise the method of images to find the drawdown
in this well?
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Chapter 5

Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage

In the line source solution that we have been discussing thus far,
all effects associated with the borehole itself are actually ignored,
and the borehole is idealised as an infinitely thin “line”. In this
chapter, we will examine two physical phenomena associated with
the borehole that necessitate a more detailed analysis of flow to a
well. One of these phenomena is the existence of a zone of altered
permeability around the borehole; the second is the effect of transient
fluid storage within the borehole itself.

5.1. Wellbore Skin Concept: Steady-state Model

The solutions to the pressure diffusion equation that were presented
in previous chapters were all based on the assumption that the
permeability of the reservoir is uniform in space. However, it is often
the case that the rock immediately surrounding the wellbore has a
lower permeability than the remainder of the reservoir, for various
reasons:
(1) Infiltration of drilling mud into the formation, which clogs up
the pores of the rock.
(2) Swelling of clays in the formation due to contact with drilling
fluid.

69
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70 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 5.1. “Skin” zone surrounding a wellbore.

(3) Incomplete perforation of the wellbore casing, which causes the

flowpaths of the fluid to be constricted as they approach the
wellbore. This has an effect that is similar to that caused by a
low-permeability zone near the wellbore.

To account for these possibilities, we introduce the concept of

“wellbore skin”, which can be thought of as a thin annular region
surrounding the borehole in which the permeability ks is lower than
that of the undamaged reservoir rock, as illustrated schematically in
Figure 5.1. The permeability in this idealised composite reservoir is
discontinuous, with k(R) given by

Rw < R < Rs → k = ks , (5.1.1)

Rs < R < Ro → k = kR . (5.1.2)

To quantify the effect of the wellbore skin, consider the steady-

state radial flow model that was discussed in Section 1.4. The
governing equation is the radial version of Darcy’s law

2πkH dP
Q= R , (5.1.3)
μ dR

where we use the convention that Q > 0 for production.

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Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 71

We can separate the variables of Eq. (5.1.3), and then integrate

from R = Rw to R = Ro , bearing in mind that k depends on R:
1 dR 2πH
= dP
k R μQ
 Rs  Ro  Po
1 dR 1 dR 2πH
+ = dP
Rw ks R Rs kR R Pw μQ

1 Rs 1 Ro 2πH
ln + ln = (Po − Pw )
ks Rw kR Rs μQ
 
1 Ro kR Rs 2πH
ln + ln = (Po − Pw )
kR Rs ks Rw μQ
 
1 Ro Rs kR Rs Rs 2πH
ln + ln + ln − ln = (Po − Pw )
kR Rs Rw ks Rw Rw μQ
     
1 Ro Rs kR Rs 2πH
ln + − 1 ln = (Po − Pw )
kR Rs Rw ks Rw μQ
 
2πkR H(Po − Pw ) Ro kR Rs
= ln + − 1 ln . (5.1.4)
μQ Rw ks Rw
Equation (5.1.4) is identical to Eq. (1.4.3), except for the second
term on the right-hand side. This excess dimensionless pressure drop,
due to the presence of the skin effect, is denoted by s, in which case
Eq. (5.1.4) can be written as
2πkR H(Po − Pw ) Ro
= ln + s. (5.1.5)
μQ Rw
The effect of the skin is therefore to add an additional component to
the pressure drawdown, over-and-above the drawdown that is due to
the hydraulic resistance of the reservoir itself.
The dimensional form of the pressure drawdown in the well can
be written as
 
μQ Ro
Pw = Po − ln +s , (5.1.6)
2πkR H Rw
 
kR Rs
where s = − 1 ln . (5.1.7)
ks Rw
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72 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The additional pressure drop caused by the skin is

μQs
ΔPs = . (5.1.8)
2πkR H
Equation (5.1.7) shows that if the permeability in the damaged
zone is reduced, or the thickness of the damaged zone is increased,
the skin effect will increase. The value of the mechanical skin factor is
usually less than 20. However, factors such as incomplete perforation
of the well casing can lead to an “apparent skin factor” that may be
as large as 300. On the other hand, well stimulation processes such as
acidising can increase the near-wellbore permeability, and give rise
to a negative skin factor. A practical lower limit to s is about −6.
The wellbore skin effect is illustrated schematically in Figure 5.2,
adapted from Pressure Transient Analysis by Stanislav and Kabir
(1990).
Another interpretation of the skin effect is based on the obser-
vation that the effect of skin is the same as the effect of having a
smaller wellbore radius, i.e. it reduces the flow, for a given pressure
drawdown. Hence, we can write Eq. (5.1.6) as
 
μQ Ro
Pw = Po − ln − ln(e−s )
2πkR H Rw
 
μQ Ro
= Po − ln
2πkR H Rw e−s

Figure 5.2. Effect of skin on the pressure drawdown near a well.

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Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 73

 
μQ Ro
= Po − ln eff
, (5.1.9)
2πkR H Rw
eff
where Rw = Rw e−s . (5.1.10)

The term Rw eff can be thought of as the hypothetical wellbore

radius, in an undamaged formation, that would lead to the same

drawdown as is actually observed in the well that is surrounded by
the damaged formation. However, this interpretation is potentially
misleading, because in general it is not correct to merely replace the
actual wellbore radius with the effective radius given in Eq. (5.1.10).
This interpretation only applies to drawdown tests in an infinite
reservoir.

5.2. Effect of Wellbore Skin on Drawdown

or Buildup Tests
The preceding derivation was carried out under the steady-state
assumption. However, the thickness of the skin region is usually
small, and so transient effects due to the skin region will die out
rapidly. The time required for “transient effects” to die out within
the skin region can be estimated using Eq. (1.6.12), with the distance
taken to be Rs :
(φμc)s Rs2
ts = . (5.2.1)
4ks
If we assume reasonable values of the parameters, such as φ ≈ 10−1 ,
μ ≈ 10−3 Pa s, c ≈ 10−9 /Pa, Rs ≈ 100 m, and ks ≈ 10−15 m2 ,
we find that ts ≈ 25 s. So, after a short period of time, the skin
region will be in a quasi-steady regime. If the flow rate into the
wellbore is constant, then the pressure drop through the skin region
will be constant. Therefore, it is usually assumed that, even during
a transient well test, the effect of the skin region is to contribute a
constant, additional pressure drop in the wellbore, the magnitude of
which is given by Eq. (5.1.8).
For example, the drawdown in an infinite reservoir producing at
a constant rate, with a skin region around the wellbore, is found by
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74 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

adding the skin-related pressure drop given by Eq. (5.1.8), to the

drawdown given by the line source solution:

  2  
μQ φμcRw
Pw = Pi − −Ei + 2s , (5.2.2)
4πkH 4kt

where we now revert to using k instead of kR to denote the reservoir

permeability, since the skin-zone permeability ks has been absorbed
into the skin factor, s.
If t is large enough that the logarithmic approximation can be
used for the Ei function, the drawdown will be given by
   
μQ kt
Pw = Pi − ln 2
+ 0.80907 + 2s , (5.2.3)
4πkH φμcRw
 
μQ 2.246e2s kt
or, Pw = Pi − ln 2
. (5.2.4)
4πkH φμcRw

It is clear from Eq. (5.2.3) that the skin will have no effect on the
semi-log slope of pressure versus ln t, but it will shift the entire
drawdown curve downward by a constant amount.
The skin factor can be found by proper interpretation of a
pressure buildup test. Incorporating the skin effect into the equation
for the buildup pressure, Eq. (3.2.5), gives

    
μQ 2.246e2s k(t + Δt) 2.246e2s kΔt
Pw = Pi − ln 2
− ln 2
4πkH φμcRw φμcRw
 
μQ t + Δt
→ Pw = Pi − ln . (5.2.5)
4πkH Δt

The two skin terms cancel out, and do not appear in the equation
for the wellbore pressure.
Now consider the difference between the wellbore pressure imme-
diately before shut-in, which we will call Pw− , and the wellbore
pressure a short time after shut-in, Pw+ . Using Eq. (5.2.4) for Pw− ,
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Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 75

and Eq. (5.2.5) for Pw+ , we find

   
μQ t + Δt μQ 2.246e2s kt
Pw+ − Pw− = − ln + ln 2
4πkH Δt 4πkH φμcRw
     
−μQ t + Δt 2.246k
= ln − ln 2
− 2s . (5.2.6)
4πkH tΔt φμcRw

For times shortly after shut-in, Δt is small, and (t + Δt)/t ≈ 1, so

Eq. (5.2.6) reduces to
   
μQ 2.246k
Pw+ − Pw− = ln Δt + ln 2
+ 2s , (5.2.7)
4πkH φμcRw

which provides an equation that can be solved for s.

In practice, however, we cannot use the pressure at a time
immediately after shut-in in Eq. (5.2.7), for several reasons:

(a) Wellbore storage effects, (called “afterproduction” in the case

of a buildup test), will cause the actual pressure drawdown
measured in the borehole at reservoir depth to deviate from that
predicted by the equations used above, for a certain period of
time; see Section 5.3 below.
(b) Equation (5.2.5) made use of the logarithmic approximation to
the exponential integral function; this approximation is only
valid after a sufficiently long time has elapsed after shut-in.

It is traditional practice to use Eq. (5.2.7) with Pw+ evaluated

after one-hour of shut-in time; this value was originally chosen
because, when using “oilfield” units, ln Δt = ln 1 = 0 when Δt = 1 h.
However, in many cases 1 h is not enough time for afterproduction
to cease and radial flow to be established. Therefore, we must
extrapolate the straight-line portion of the Horner plot back to
Δt = 1 h, and use that pressure for Pw+ . Use of buildup data to
estimate the skin factor is illustrated in more detail in the MSc course
module on Well Test Analysis.
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76 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

5.3. Wellbore Storage Phenomena

The pressure drawdown is usually measured at reservoir depth in the
borehole, whereas the flow rate is usually measured at the wellhead.
The flow rate Q in our equations, however, refers to the “sandface”
flow rate from the reservoir into the borehole, denoted by Qsf . In
a quasi-steady situation, the measured wellhead flow rate will be
identical to the influx from the reservoir.
However, immediately after a change in flow rate, such as after
the start of a drawdown test, or after flow is shut-in at the wellhead,
these two flow rates will differ. The difference is due to the fact that
the fluid in the borehole is compressing (or expanding) due to the
changing pressure to which it is subjected.
For example, imagine that we begin to withdraw fluid at time
t = 0 at rate Qwh that is measured at the wellhead. Initially, the fluid
that flows at the wellhead is taken mainly from the wellbore itself;
only gradually does this fluid begin to be supplied by the reservoir.
Eventually, the fluid in the wellbore reaches a quasi-steady state, and
all of the flow measured at the wellhead does in fact emanate from
the reservoir. After this time, Qwh = Qsf .
Conversely, if a well that is producing at a constant rate is shut-in
at the surface, fluid will continue to enter the borehole from the
reservoir, even though it is not allowed to flow out at the wellhead.
This additional fluid will be trapped within the wellbore; as the mass
of the fluid in the wellbore increases, the wellbottom pressure will
gradually increase. These two situations are illustrated in Figure 5.3,
modified from p. 43 of Stanislav and Kabir (1990).
We can begin to analyse the effect of wellbore storage by doing
a mass balance on the fluid in the wellbore, along the lines of that
given for the reservoir in Section 1.5. Assuming that the wellbore is
completely filled with a single-phase liquid, then:
Mass flux in − Mass flux out = rate of change of mass storage

d(ρf Vw )
i.e. ρf Qsf − ρf Qwh = , (5.3.1)
dt
where Vw is the volume of the wellbore.
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Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 77

Figure 5.3. Effect of wellbore storage on pressure tests.

If we assume uniform pressure and uniform density of the fluid

within the wellbore, we have

dρf dρf dPw dPw

ρf (Qsf − Qwh ) = Vw = Vw = Vw ρf cf ,
dt dPw dt dt
dPw dPw
→ Qsf − Qwh = Vw cf ≡ Cs , (5.3.2)
dt dt
where Cs = Vw cf is the wellbore storage coefficient, and Vw is the
total volume of fluid within the wellbore, from the wellbottom to the
surface.

Aside: If the wellbore is not fully filled with liquid, the appropriate
expression for Cs can be found in the SPE monograph Advances in
Well Test Analysis (Earlougher, 1977); see also Problem 5.1.
At early times after the start of a drawdown test, Qwh = Q,
where Q is the nominal flow rate, but Qsf ∼ = 0, so Eq. (5.3.2) takes
the form
dPw
−Q = Cs . (5.3.3)
dt
Equation (5.3.3) can be integrated, using the initial condition that
Pw = Pi when t = 0:
 t  Pw (t)
Q Qt
− dt = dPw → Pw = Pi − . (5.3.4)
0 Cs Pi Cs
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78 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Equation (5.3.4) can be written in dimensionless form as follows.

First, rewrite Eq. (5.3.4) in terms of the dimensionless pressure:

2πkH(Pi − Pw ) 2πkHQt
PDw = = . (5.3.5)
μQ μQCs
Now, express the right-hand side of Eq. (5.3.5) in terms of tDw :

2πkHQ φμct Rw2t tDw

Dw
PDw = ≡ , (5.3.6)
μQCs k CD
where the dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient CD is defined by
Cs
CD = 2
, (5.3.7)
2πHφct Rw
where ct is the total reservoir compressibility. Aside from the factor of
2, CD is the ratio of the storativity of the fluid in the entire borehole,
to the storativity of the rock that had occupied the borehole (in
the reservoir, not including the overburden) before the borehole was
drilled.
On a log-log plot, Eq. (5.3.6) takes the form
d ln PDw
ln PDw = ln tDw − ln CD , → = 1. (5.3.8)
d ln tDw
Therefore, a slope of unity occurring at early times on a log-log
plot (dimensionless or not) of wellbore pressure versus time is an
indication of a pressure response that is dominated by wellbore-
storage effects, and not by the reservoir properties!

5.4. Effect of Wellbore Storage on Well Tests

The preceding analysis focused on fluid produced from wellbore
storage, and neglected flow from the reservoir into the wellbore. In
reality, fluid is supplied to the wellhead by wellbore storage at early
times, but these effects gradually die out as the flow regime in the
wellbore reaches a steady state.
An analysis that includes contributions to the measured well-
head flow rate from both wellbore storage and the reservoir, can be
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Wellbore Skin and Wellbore Storage 79

carried out by solving Eq. (2.1.1), with the inner boundary condition,
Eq. (2.1.3), replaced by (see Eq. (5.3.2)):
   
2πkH ∂P ∂P
R = Qwh + Cs . (5.4.1)
μ ∂R Rw ∂t Rw

Note that the right-hand side is the sand-face flow rate, Qsf , which
is the flow rate that must be used in Darcy’s law for the reservoir.
This problem has been solved by Wattenbarger and Ramey
(1970) using finite differences, and by Agarwal et al. (1970) using
Laplace transforms. Their analyses show that there are three regimes
of behaviour for a well in an infinite reservoir, with skin and wellbore
storage effects:

(a) An early-time regime that is dominated by wellbore storage,

during which the drawdown is given by Eq. (5.3.6). The duration
of this regime is defined by

tDw < CD (0.04 + 0.02s). (5.4.2)

(b) A transition regime during which both wellbore storage and

reservoir inflow contribute to the wellhead flow rate. The dura-
tion of this regime is defined by

CD (0.04 + 0.02s) < tDw < CD (60 + 3.5s). (5.4.3)

(c) A third regime during which wellbore storage effects have died
off, and the drawdown is given by Eq. (5.2.4). The duration of
this regime is defined by

tDw > CD (60 + 3.5s). (5.4.4)

Criterion (5.4.4) can be used to estimate when the drawdown

curve can be approximated by the logarithmic equation (5.2.4).
During a buildup test, however, the time required in order to reach a
“straight line” on the Horner plot is best estimated by the following
equation (Chen and Brigham, 1978)

tDw > 50CD exp(−0.14s). (5.4.5)

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80 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 5.4. Effect of wellbore storage on drawdown.

The effect of wellbore storage on the pressure drawdown in the

well is shown in very rough schematic form in Figure 5.4.
Finally, it should be noted that wellbore storage effects during
buildup tests can be eliminated by having the flow shut-in at the
reservoir depth, rather than at the wellhead.

Problem for Chapter 5

Problem 5.1. Imagine a wellbore that is filled with liquid only up

to some height h above the top of the reservoir. The liquid has
density ρ. Even if this liquid were incompressible, a wellbore storage
effect would still occur, due to the raising or lowering of the fluid
column. Derive an expression for the wellbore storage coefficient Cs
in this case.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch06 page 81

Chapter 6

Production From Bounded Reservoirs

In this chapter, we will solve the pressure diffusion equation in

finite reservoirs that are bounded by impermeable no-flow boundaries
or by aquifers that provide constant-pressure boundaries. We start
with a well at the centre of a circular reservoir, and then move on
to consider reservoirs having more general shapes. The Boltzmann
transformation that was used to develop the line source solution does
not work in a bounded reservoir, and so we will use the method
of eigenfunction expansions to relate the pressures and flow rates
observed at the wellbore to physical parameters such as permeability,
storativity and reservoir size/shape.

6.1. Production From Bounded Reservoirs

and/or Finite Drainage Areas
Thus far, we have assumed that our wells are located in an infinite,
or at least semi-infinite, reservoir. In reality, the reservoir is always of
finite size, and the pressure disturbance will eventually reach some
outer boundary that effectively encloses the reservoir. This outer
boundary may be an “aquifer”, i.e. a vast expanse of water-filled
rock that surrounds the hydrocarbon-filled reservoir. In this case,
the appropriate outer boundary condition may be one of constant
pressure.
On the other hand, if a number of wells are producing from the
same reservoir, each will drain fluid from only a finite region, and so
each well will effectively behave as if it were surrounded by a no-flow

81
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82 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 6.1. Bounded reservoir containing several production wells.

boundary, as illustrated in Figure 6.1. The effective drainage area of

each well will depend on the production rate of that well, and of all
nearby wells (Dake, 1978).
Problems involving a well producing oil from a finite, bounded
drainage area can be solved using either of two mathematical
techniques: Laplace transforms, or eigenfunction expansions. Laplace
transforms will be discussed in Chapter 7. In this chapter, we will
use the method of eigenfunction expansions to solve the problem of
a well located at the centre of a circular reservoir, with its outer
boundary maintained at constant pressure, and with a constant
wellbore pressure. This is not the most important example of a
bounded-reservoir problem, but it will allow us to demonstrate the
method of eigenfunction expansions in a (relatively) simple context.
The first point to note is that the Boltzmann transformation,
η = φμcR2 /kt, is not applicable in bounded-reservoir problems. The
reason that the Boltzmann transformation “worked” in the infinite-
reservoir case is that the initial condition, at t = 0, and the outer
boundary condition, at R → ∞, both correspond to η → ∞, and
both also correspond to the initial pressure, Pi . This “collapse” of
two conditions into one allowed us to replace a second-order partial
differential equation (PDE), which requires two boundary conditions
+ one initial condition = three conditions, with a second-order
ordinary differential equation (ODE), which requires a total of only
two boundary conditions.
The collapse of the initial condition and the far-field boundary
condition into one single boundary condition does not occur in the
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 83

bounded-reservoir problem, because when R = Re , η still varies with

time, and so does not correspond to any constant value at which a
boundary condition can be imposed. More generally, a Boltzmann-
type transformation will not work for a problem that contains a
natural physical length scale, such as a wellbore radius or an outer
radius; the problem of an infinitely small line source in an infinite
reservoir had no natural length scale associated with it.

6.2. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir

With Constant Pressure on Its Outer Boundary
and Constant Wellbore Pressure
Imagine that we have a well located at the centre of a circular
reservoir, which is initially at some initial pressure Pi . At time t = 0,
the pressure in the wellbore is immediately lowered to some value
Pw , and it is thereafter maintained at that value (Figure 6.2). In
contrast to previous problems, in which the flow rate was controlled,
and we calculated the drawdown, in this problem the drawdown is
specified, and we must calculate the flow rate. This problem can be
stated mathematically as follows:
 
1 d dP φμc dP
Governing PDE: R = , (6.2.1)
R dR dR k dt
BC at wellbore: P (R = Rw , t) = Pw , (6.2.2)

Figure 6.2. Circular reservoir with constant-pressure inner and outer boundaries.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch06 page 84

84 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

BC at outer boundary: P (R = Re , t) = Pi , (6.2.3)

Initial condition: P (R, t = 0) = Pi . (6.2.4)

The first step in solving this problem is to simplify its appearance

by introducing dimensionless variables. Define

Dimensionless radius: RD = R/Rw , (6.2.5)

kt
Dimensionless time: tD = 2
, (6.2.6)
φμcRw
Pi − P
Dimensionless pressure: PD = . (6.2.7)
Pi − Pw
The dimensionless time is defined here similarly to that used in
the line source solution, with the well radius as the length scale.
(To simplify the notation, in this chapter we will usually write
tD . But in some cases, to show the connection with the infinite-
reservoir problem, we will write the dimensionless time as tDw .) The
dimensionless pressure is defined so that it equals 1 at the well, and
always equals 0 at the outer boundary. Note that the production
rate Q is a priori unknown, so we cannot define PD as we did
before, in terms of Q. In terms of these dimensionless variables,
Eqs. (6.2.1–6.2.4) take the form
 
1 d dPD dPD
Governing PDE: RD = , (6.2.8)
RD dRD dRD dtD
BC at wellbore: PD (RD = Rw /Rw = 1, tD ) = 1, (6.2.9)
BC at outer boundary: PD (RD = Re /Rw ≡ RDe , tD ) = 0,
(6.2.10)

Initial condition: PD (RD , tD = 0) = 0. (6.2.11)

Next, we invoke the principle of superposition to break up the

pressure into a steady-state part, PDs (RD ), and a transient part,
pD (RD , tD ):

PD (RD , tD ) = PDs (RD ) + pD (RD , tD ). (6.2.12)

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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 85

By definition, the steady-state pressure function must satisfy

Eq. (6.2.8), as well as both BCs, (6.2.9) and (6.2.10). The time
derivative is zero for the steady-state part, by definition, so the
governing differential equation for PDs (RD ) is Eq. (6.2.8), with the
right-hand side set to zero. Therefore, as time is no longer relevant
for the steady-state pressure, PDs (RD ) is governed by the following
ODE:
 
1 d dPDs
Governing ODE: RD = 0, (6.2.13)
RD dRD dRD
BC at wellbore: PDs (RD = 1) = 1, (6.2.14)
BC at outer boundary: PDs (RD = RDe ) = 0. (6.2.15)
To find the steady-state pressure, we first integrate Eq. (6.2.13)
once, using an indefinite integral, to obtain
dPDs
RD = constant = B. (6.2.16)
dRD
Next, we separate the variables in Eq. (6.2.16) and integrate again:
 P s (RD )  RD
D dRD
dPDs = B +A
RD
→ PDs (RD ) = B ln RD + A, (6.2.17)

where A and B are constants of integration. Comparison of

Eq. (6.2.17) with the boundary conditions (6.2.14) and (6.2.15)
shows that A = 1 and B = −1/ ln RDe , and so Eq. (6.2.17) can be
written as
ln RD − ln(RD /RDe )
PDs (RD ) = 1 − = . (6.2.18)
ln RDe ln RDe
Note 1: The steady-state pressure satisfies the diffusion equation
(6.2.8), and the boundary conditions (6.2.9, 6.2.10), but it does not
satisfy the initial condition (6.2.11); this is why we also need the
transient component of the pressure.
Note 2: The steady-state pressure given by Eq. (6.2.18) is just the
Thiem equation, Eq. (1.4.3), in dimensionless form!
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86 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

If we now substitute Eq. (6.2.12) into Eqs. (6.2.8–6.2.11), and

make use of Eq. (6.2.18), we see that the transient pressure function
must satisfy the following equations:
 
1 d dpD dpD
Governing PDE: RD = , (6.2.19)
RD dRD dRD dtD
BC at wellbore: pD (RD = 1, tD ) = 0, (6.2.20)
BC at outer boundary: pD (RD = RDe , tD ) = 0, (6.2.21)
ln(RD /RDe )
Initial condition: pD (RD , tD = 0) = .
ln RDe
(6.2.22)

Thus far, we have transformed a diffusion equation with a non-

zero BC, Eq. (6.2.9), and zero IC, Eq. (6.2.11), into a diffusion
equation with zero BC and a non-zero IC, Eq. (6.2.22). We may
not appear to be making progress, but in fact we are because the
eigenfunction method requires “zero” boundary conditions, but does
not require “zero” initial conditions.
To solve Eqs. (6.2.19–6.2.22), we again make use of the superpo-
sition principle, and first search for as many functions as we can find
that each satisfy Eq. (6.2.19) and the BCs (6.2.20, 6.2.21); later,
we will superpose these functions to satisfy the initial condition,
Eq. (6.2.22). We proceed as follows:

(a) Assume that these functions can be written in the form

pD (RD , tD ) = F (RD )G(tD ). (6.2.23)

(b) Insert Eq. (6.2.23) into Eq. (6.2.19) to find

  
1 d dF dG
G(tD ) RD = F (RD ) . (6.2.24)
RD dRD dRD dtD

(c) Divide through by F (RD )G(tD ) to find

 
1 d dF 1 dG
RD = . (6.2.25)
RD F (RD ) dRD dRD G(tD ) dtD
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 87

(d) The left-hand side of Eq. (6.2.25) does not depend on tD , and
the right-hand side does not depend on RD ; since they are equal
to each other, they cannot depend on tD or on RD ! Hence, each
side of Eq. (6.2.25) must equal a constant, which we call −λ2 :
 
1 d dF 1 dG
RD = = −λ2 . (6.2.26)
RD F (RD ) dRD dRD G(tD ) dtD

(e) The space-dependent part of Eq. (6.2.26) can be written as

1 
F  (RD ) + F (RD ) + λ2 F (RD ) = 0. (6.2.27)
RD
(f) We now make a change of variables x = λRD , after which
Eq. (6.2.27) can be written as
1 
F  (x) + F (x) + F (x) = 0. (6.2.28)
x
Equation (6.2.28) is known as a Bessel equation of order zero. It
is a second-order ordinary differential equation, so it must have two
independent solutions. One solution is easily found by assuming a
power-series solution:
∞

F (x) = an xn . (6.2.29)
n=0

If we insert Eq. (6.2.29) into Eq. (6.2.28), we find

∞
 ∞
 ∞

n−2 n−2
n(n − 1)an x + nan x + an xn = 0. (6.2.30)
n=0 n=0 n=0

In order to have x appear to the nth power in each term, so

that we can easily add them together, we let n → n + 2 in the
first two series (which is permissible, because n is just a “dummy
index”), which, after combining the first two series and taking the
“unmatched” terms outside of the series, leads to
∞

−2 −1
0a0 x + a1 x + [(n + 2)2 an+2 + an ]xn = 0. (6.2.31)
n=0
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88 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The coefficient of each power of x in Eq. (6.2.31) must be zero. The

x−2 term already has a pre-factor of zero, so it will vanish regardless
of the choice of a0 ; we therefore may as well pick

a0 = 1. (6.2.32)

In order for the x−1 term to vanish, we must pick

a1 = 0. (6.2.33)

For all higher-order terms to vanish, Eq. (6.2.31) shows that the
coefficients must satisfy the following recursion relationship
−an
an+2 = . (6.2.34)
(n + 2)2
This recursion relationship allows us to generate all subsequent
coefficients, starting with the first two coefficients, which are given
by Eqs. (6.2.32) and (6.2.33). For example, with n = 0, Eq. (6.2.34)
generates a2 = −a0 /4 = −1/4. In this manner, we find:

a3 = a5 = a7 = · · · = 0, (6.2.35)
−1 1 −1
a2 = , a4 = , a6 = ··· . (6.2.36)
4 64 2304
The solution to Eq. (6.2.28) that is given by Eqs. (6.2.29), (6.2.35)
and (6.2.36) is known as the Bessel function of the first kind, of order
zero, and is denoted by J0 (x):

x2 x4 x6
J0 (x) = 1 − + − + ··· ,
4 64 2304
x2 x4 x6
or J0 (x) = 1 − + − + · · · , (6.2.37)
22 (1!)2 24 (2!)2 26 (3!)2
where n! ≡ 1 × 2 × 3 × · · · × n is the factorial function.
The function J0 (x) is similar to a damped cosine function
(see Figure 6.3.). It “starts” at J0 (0) = 1, oscillates, but not
quite periodically, and then slowly decays to zero according to a
√
factor proportional to 1/ x. Specifically (see A Treatise on the
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 89

1.0

0.5

Jo(x) or Yo(X)
0.0

–0.5 Jo(x)
Yo(x)
–1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
X

Figure 6.3. Bessel functions of order zero.

Theory of Bessel Functions, Watson (1944), or almost any book on

advanced applied mathematics), for large values of x, this function
is approximately given by

2 π

J0 (x) ≈ cos x − as x → ∞. (6.2.38)

πx 4
The derivation of the second independent solution to Eq. (6.2.28)
requires a somewhat lengthier procedure (which will not be given
here) because this second solution is not analytic, i.e. it is not a pure
power series. This solution, called the Bessel function of the second
kind, of order zero, is defined by

2  (−1)n hn x
2n
∞
2 ln(γx/2)
Y0 (x) = J0 (x) − , (6.2.39)
π π (n!)2 2
n=1

where γ ≈ 1.781, and

1 1
hn = 1 + + ··· + . (6.2.40)
2 n
This function becomes infinitely negative as x → 0, due to the
ln x term, then oscillates in a manner similar to J0 (x), and eventually
decays to zero according to (Figure 6.3)

2 π

Y0 (x) ≈ sin x − as x → ∞. (6.2.41)

πx 4
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90 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The general solution to Eq. (6.2.28) can be written as a linear

combination of these two kinds of Bessel functions:

F (x) = AJ0 (x) + BY0 (x), (6.2.42)

where these two constants A and B are unrelated to the constants

that appeared in Eq. (6.2.17). Recalling that x = λRD , we can say
that the function

F (RD ) = AJ0 (λRD ) + BY0 (λRD ) (6.2.43)

will be a solution to Eq. (6.2.28) for any value of λ. (Recall that

the general solution to a second-order ODE contains two arbitrary
constants, in this case A and B.)
However, Eq. (6.2.43) will satisfy the boundary conditions
(6.2.20) and (6.2.21) only for certain special values of λ, which we
will now find. Insertion of Eq. (6.2.43) into BCs (6.2.20) and (6.2.21)
yields

AJ0 (λ) + BY0 (λ) = 0, (6.2.44)

AJ0 (λRDe ) + BY0 (λRDe ) = 0. (6.2.45)

These two equations can be written in matrix form as

    
J0 (λ) Y0 (λ) A 0
= . (6.2.46)
J0 (λRDe ) Y0 (λRDe ) B 0

In order for Eq. (6.2.46) to have non-zero solutions for A and B, the
determinant of the matrix must be zero, i.e.

J0 (λ)Y0 (λRDe ) − Y0 (λ)J0 (λRDe ) = 0. (6.2.47)

The values of λ that satisfy Eq. (6.2.47) are called the eigenvalues
of this problem. They will depend on the dimensionless size of the
reservoir, RDe = Re /Rw . It can be proven that there are an infinite
number of eigenvalues, and they can be arranged in order as

0 < λ1 < λ2 < · · · < λn → ∞. (6.2.48)

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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 91

Each of these eigenvalues generates its own eigenfunction,

Eq. (6.2.43):

Fn (RD ) = An J0 (λn RD ) + Bn Y0 (λn RD ). (6.2.49)

From Eq. (6.2.44), we see that An and Bn are related by

−An J0 (λn )
Bn = , (6.2.50)
Y0 (λn )

and so Eq. (6.2.49) can be written as

J0 (λn )
Fn (RD ) = An J0 (λn RD ) − An Y0 (λn RD )
Y0 (λn )
An
= [Y0 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J0 (λn )Y0 (λn RD )]
Y0 (λn )
= Cn [Y0 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J0 (λn )Y0 (λn RD )], (6.2.51)

where Cn is just another name for An /Y0 (λn ), and the functions
inside the brackets are called the eigenfunctions of this problem.
Note that at this stage, we do not yet know the values of the
constants Cn .
We now return to the time-dependent part of the solution, which,
according to Eq. (6.2.26), must satisfy

dGn
= −λ2n Gn (tD ). (6.2.52)
dtD

The solution to Eq. (6.2.52) is

2
Gn (tD ) = e−λn tD . (6.2.53)

Note that we do not need an arbitrary constant of integration for

Gn (tD ), since the function Fn (RD ) already includes an arbitrary
constant, as seen in Eq. (6.2.51), and eventually these two functions
will be multiplied together.
Recalling Eq. (6.2.23), the most general solution that satisfies
the diffusion equation (6.2.19) and the BCs (6.2.20, 6.2.21) is
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92 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

given by
∞
 2
pD (RD , tD ) = Cn [Y0 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J0 (λn )Y0 (λn RD )]e−λn tD .
n=1
(6.2.54)
All that remains now is to satisfy the initial condition,
Eq. (6.2.22). Evaluating Eq. (6.2.54) at tD = 0, and invoking
Eq. (6.2.22), yields
∞
 ln(RD /RDe )
Cn [Y0 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J0 (λn )Y0 (λn RD )] = .
n=1
ln RDe
(6.2.55)
The constants Cn must be chosen so that Eq. (6.2.55) is satisfied
for all values of RD . This can be done using the orthogonality
properties of eigenfunctions, as is shown in Chapter 10 of The Flow
of Homogeneous Fluids through Porous Media (Muskat, 1937). The
result, skipping the details, is
πJ0 (λn )J0 (λn RDe )
Cn = . (6.2.56)
J02 (λn ) − J02 (λn RDe )
We now combine the transient and steady-state pressures to find,
from Eqs. (6.2.12), (6.2.18), (6.2.54) and (6.2.56), the full expression
for the pressure as a function of R and t:
PD (RD , tD )
∞
− ln(RD /RDe )  πJ0 (λn )J0 (λn RDe ) 2
= + 2 2 Un (λn RD )e−λn tD ,
ln RDe J (λn ) − J0 (λn RDe )
n=1 0
(6.2.57)
where Un (λn RD ) = Y0 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J0 (λn )Y0 (λn RD ).
This completes the solution to this problem. The dimensional
values can be found by recalling Eqs. (6.2.5–6.2.7).
The flow rate into the well can be found by differentiating the
pressure, and applying Darcy’s law at the wellbore. A detailed
analysis of the flow rate would show that at early times it is
proportional to t−1/2 , and then gradually approaches a steady-state
value given by the Thiem equation, Eq. (1.4.3).
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch06 page 93

Production From Bounded Reservoirs 93

Figure 6.4. Circular reservoir with constant flow rate into well, constant pressure
at outer boundary.

6.3. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir With

Constant Pressure on Its Outer Boundary and
Constant Flow Rate into the Wellbore
Consider a well at the centre of a circular reservoir, producing
fluid at a constant rate, with the pressure at the outer boundary
maintained at the initial pressure at all times (Figure 6.4). The
mathematical formulation of this problem is equivalent to that
discussed in Section 6.2, except that the inner BC, Eq. (6.2.2) is
replaced by
 
2πkH dP
BC at wellbore: R = Q, (6.3.1)
μ dR R=Rw

where we take Q > 0 if the fluid flows into the borehole.

This problem can also be solved using the method of eigenfunc-
tion expansions, as in the previous section. The solution is (Muskat,
1937, p. 643)
   ∞
RD πJ02 (λn RDe )Un (λn RD ) −λ2n tD
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = − ln − e ,
RDe λ [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 0
(6.3.2)
where the eigenfunctions Un are given by

Un (λn RD ) = Y1 (λn )J0 (λn RD ) − J1 (λn )Y0 (λn RD ), (6.3.3)

March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch06 page 94

94 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

and the eigenvalues λn are defined implicitly by

Un (λn RDe ) = Y1 (λn )J0 (λn RDe ) − J1 (λn )Y0 (λn RDe ) = 0. (6.3.4)

The functions J1 and Y1 are Bessel functions of order one, of the

first and second kind, respectively, and are defined by

dJ0 (x) dY0 (x)

J1 (x) ≡ − , Y1 (x) ≡ − . (6.3.5)
dx dx
The dimensionless variables in Eq. (6.3.2) are defined by

Dimensionless radius: RD = R/Rw , (6.3.6)

kt
Dimensionless time: tD = 2
, (6.3.7)
φμcRw
2πkH(Pi − P )
Dimensionless drawdown: ΔPD = . (6.3.8)
μQ

The pressure in the wellbore, ΔPD (tD ), is found by setting RD =

1 in Eq. (6.3.2), and then making use of the following Bessel-function
identity (Muskat, 1937, p. 631):

−2
Y1 (x)J0 (x) − J1 (x)Y0 (x) = . (6.3.9)
πx
The result is (Matthews and Russell, 1967, p. 12)
∞
 2
2J02 (λn RDe )e−λn tD
ΔPDw (tD ) = ln RDe + . (6.3.10)
λ2 [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 0

A detailed (but mathematically cumbersome) analysis of this

solution would show that at early times, the pressure agrees with that
given by the Theis line source solution. This is to be expected because
at early times the pressure pulse will not yet have reached the outer
boundary of the reservoir, and so the finite-reservoir solution should
coincide with the infinite-reservoir solution. Eventually, the wellbore
reaches a steady-state pressure (see Figure 6.6) that is equivalent to
that which occurs in the Thiem problem.
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 95

Figure 6.5. Circular reservoir with constant flow rate into borehole, and no flow
across the outer boundary.

Figure 6.6. Well at the centre of a circular reservoir, with constant flow rate into
the wellbore.

6.4. Well at the Centre of a Circular Reservoir

With a No-flow Outer Boundary and Constant
Flow Rate into the Wellbore
The problem of a well at the centre of a circular reservoir with a
no-flow outer boundary and constant flow rate into the wellbore
(Figure 6.5) is similar to the problem treated in Section 6.3, except
that the outer BC is now replaced by
 
2πkH dP
BC at outer boundary: R = 0. (6.4.1)
μ dR R=Re
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96 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The solution to this problem was found by Muskat (1937) using

the eigenfunction method, and was re-derived by van Everdingen
and Hurst (1949), using Laplace transforms (see Chapter 7). The
solution is
 2 
1 RD 2
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = 2 + 2tD − RDe ln RD
RDe − 1 2
 4 4 ln R 2 
3RDe − 4RDe De − 2RDe − 1
− 2 − 1)2
4(RDe
∞
πJ12 (λn RDe )Un (λn RD ) −λ2n tD
+ e , (6.4.2)
λ [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 1

where the eigenfunctions Un are given by

Un (λn RD ) = J1 (λn )Y0 (λn RD ) − Y1 (λn )J0 (λn RD ), (6.4.3)
the eigenvalues λn are defined implicitly by
J1 (λn )Y1 (λn RDe ) − Y1 (λn )J1 (λn RDe ) = 0, (6.4.4)
and the dimensionless variables are defined as in Section 6.3.
Because of the importance of this problem, we will examine this
solution in detail. The pressure in the wellbore is found by setting
RD = 1 in Eq. (6.4.2), and again using Eq. (6.3.9) to simplify
 
1 1
ΔPDw (tD ) = 2 + 2tD
RDe − 1 2
 4 4 ln R 2 
3RDe − 4RDe De − 2RDe − 1
− 2 − 1)2
4(RDe
∞
 2
2J12 (λn RDe )e−λn tD
+ . (6.4.5)
λ2 [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 1

In most cases of practical interest, RDe  1, and Eq. (6.4.5) can

effectively be written as
∞
3  2J12 (λn RDe )e−λn tD
2
2tD
ΔPDw (tD ) = 2 + ln RDe − + .
RDe 4 n=1 λ2n [J12 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
(6.4.6)
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 97

There are three important time regimes in this problem:

(a) A regime in which tD (henceforth denoted by tDw ) is sufficiently
large that the logarithmic approximation to the line source
solution is valid, but for which the leading edge of the pressure
pulse has not yet reached the outer boundary of the reservoir.
From Eq. (2.4.7) and Figure 2.3, we find that this regime is
defined by
2
25 < tDw < 0.1RDe . (6.4.7)
As we would expect, Eq. (6.4.5) reduces to the line source
solution, Eq. (2.4.10), during this time regime, although this is
not obvious from Eq. (6.4.5), or easy to prove.
(b) A second regime that is “late” enough that the presence of the
closed outer boundary is felt at the well, but still early enough
that the exponential terms in Eq. (6.4.6) have not yet died
out. The start of this regime is given by the upper bound in
Eq. (6.4.7); it ends when tDw ≈ 0.3RDe 2 (see Problem 6.1). This

regime is therefore defined by

2 2
0.1RDe < tDw < 0.3RDe . (6.4.8)
In this regime we must use the entire series in Eq. (6.4.6) to
calculate the wellbore pressure, and the ΔPDw (tDw ) curve has
no simple description.
(c) A third regime that is late enough such that the exponential
terms in Eq. (6.4.6) have effectively died out. This regime is
defined by
2
tDw > 0.3RDe . (6.4.9)
In this regime, the wellbore drawdown is given by
2tDw 3
ΔPDw = 2 + ln RDe − . (6.4.10)
RDe 4
Note: These regimes have been given various names in
the petroleum engineering literature, such as early-transient,
intermediate, late-transient, pseudo-steady-state, semi-steady-state,
steady-state, etc. There is no consistent usage of these terms, and
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98 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

many of them are mathematically incorrect. We will refer to the first

regime as the “infinite reservoir” regime, the second as the “transition
regime”, and the last as the “finite reservoir” regime.
An important feature of the finite reservoir regime is that the
pressure in the well declines linearly with time. The rate of pressure
decline can be used to find the drainage area of the well, as follows.
First, rewrite Eq. (6.4.10) in terms of the actual variables, rather
than the dimensionless variables, so that the pressure at the well is
given by
   
Qμ 2kt Re 3
Pw (t) = Pi − + ln − . (6.4.11)
2πkH φμcRe2 Rw 4
Now take the derivative of Pw with respect to t:
dPw Qμ 2k −Q
=− · 2
= . (6.4.12)
dt 2πkH φμcRe πRe2 Hφc
The rate of change of the late-time well pressure can therefore be
used to find the radius of the drainage area, or, equivalently, the
drainage area A, i.e.
 1/2
−Q
Re = , (6.4.13)
πHφc(dPw /dt)
−Q
A = πRe2 = . (6.4.14)
φcH(dPw /dt)

Equation (6.4.12) can also be “derived” in the following simpler

way, by doing a mass balance on the oil in the reservoir:

(a) Imagine that the entire reservoir is at a uniform pressure, P (i.e.

a zero-dimensional model, so to speak).
(b) Let M = ρV φ be the total amount of oil in the reservoir.
(c) Following the line of reasoning of Section 1.6, the change on the
mass of oil contained in the reservoir is related to the change in
pressure by
dM dP
= ρV φct . (6.4.15)
dt dt
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 99

(d) −dM/dt is the mass flow rate out of the reservoir, and Q is the
volumetric flow rate, so dM/dt = −ρQ, in which case
dP
−Q = V φc . (6.4.16)
dt
(e) The volume of the reservoir is V = πRe2 H, so Eq. (6.4.16) is
equivalent to Eq. (6.4.12)!

The dimensionless wellbore pressure for a well located at the

centre of a bounded circular reservoir is plotted from Eq. (6.4.6)
in Figure 6.6, for various values of the dimensionless reservoir size,
RDe = Re /Rw . Also shown is the wellbore pressure for the case of
constant flow rate into the borehole and constant pressure at the
outer boundary, from Eq. (6.3.10). Note that:
• In accordance with Eq. (6.4.7), the semi-log straight line begins at
about tDw = 25.
• In accordance with Eq. (6.4.8), the “infinite reservoir” regime ends
when tDw = 0.1RDe2 .

For example, when RDe = 1,000, the curve begins to deviate from
2 = 1 × 105 .
the semi-log straight line at about tDw = 0.1RDe

6.5. Non-circular Drainage Regions

If the drainage region is not circular, and/or the well is not located
at the centre, then the problem treated in Section 6.4 is more
difficult to solve. If the drainage region is bounded by a polygon,
as would occur if the reservoir was bounded by a set of linear
faults, then the problem can be solved by superposing solutions from
appropriately located image wells, as in Section 4.3. For example,
an infinite array of production image wells arranged on a square
lattice will create a square reservoir that is bounded by four no-flow
boundaries. Examples of this type of analysis can be found in the
monograph Well Testing in Heterogeneous Formations by Streltsova
(1988).
Without going into the details of this analysis, the following can
be said about a well producing from within a non-circular drainage
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100 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

region. There is an “infinite reservoir” regime, during which the

pressure pulse has not yet reached any portion of the outer boundary.
The duration of this regime can be calculated using Eq. (1.6.11), if
the geometry of the drainage area and the location of the well are
known. During this regime,
1
ΔPDw = [ln(tDw ) + 0.80907]. (6.5.1)
2
In this regime, the overall shape of the reservoir is irrelevant, and the
drawdown is the same as that which would occur in an unbounded
reservoir.
At sufficiently long times, the mass-balance argument presented
in Section 6.4 must hold, and so the rate at which the wellbore
drawdown changes must be given by Eq. (6.4.12), with Re2 replaced by
A/π. Hence, an equation of the same form as Eq. (6.4.10) must hold
for the drawdown, except that the constant term may be different.
The duration of this regime is roughly given by Eq. (6.4.9), again with
Re2 replaced by A/π, although the start of this regime is delayed if
the well is located off-centre of the drainage region by an appreciable
amount. During this regime, the dimensionless wellbore drawdown is
traditionally written in the following form:
 
1 4A
ΔPDw = 2πtDA + ln 2C
, (6.5.2)
2 γRw A

where γ = 1.781, CA is a dimensionless constant known as the “Dietz

shape factor” (Dietz, 1965), and tDA is a dimensionless time based
on the drainage area:
kt
tDA = . (6.5.3)
φμcA

Comparison of Eq. (6.5.2) with Eq. (6.4.10) reveals that, for a

well at the centre of a circular reservoir,
4π
CA = = 31.62. (6.5.4)
γe−3/2
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Production From Bounded Reservoirs 101

Figure 6.7. Dietz shape factors for various reservoir geometries.

The shape factor tends to decrease as the drainage area becomes

more non-circular, or as the location of the well becomes more
off-centre. Shape factors for numerous geometries can be found on
p. 111 of Matthews and Russell (1967); a few cases are shown in
Figure 6.7.

Problems for Chapter 6

Problem 6.1. Starting with the expression for the pressure draw-
down, Eq. (6.4.6), show that the transition regime for a closed
circular reservoir with constant production rate ends when t ≈
0.3φμcRe2 /k.
Hints:
(a) e−x ≈ 0 when x > 4, so all terms in the series will be negligible
when λ2n tD > 4 for all n.
(b) When RDe is large, the first eigenvalue, λ1 , defined as the
smallest value of λ that satisfies Eq. (6.4.4), is very small. This
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102 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

fact should help you to estimate the value of λ1 as a function of

RDe , by making the reasonable assumption that λ1 is inversely
proportional to RDe .
(c) Make use of Eqs. (6.2.37), (6.2.39), (6.2.48) and Figure 6.3.

Problem 6.2. Starting with Eq. (6.4.2), calculate the average

pressure in the reservoir during the finite reservoir regime, tDw ≡
2 , as a function of time. Is your result consistent with the
tD > 0.3RDe
mass-balance that is embodied in Eq. (6.4.16)?

Problem 6.3. Starting with Eq. (6.3.2), calculate the average

pressure in a circular reservoir with a constant-pressure outer
boundary, during the late-time regime in which all of the exponential
terms have died out. Use this result to find an equation for the
well productivity, which relates the production rate to the difference
between the average reservoir pressure and the pressure at the well.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch07 page 103

Chapter 7

Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir

Engineering

The most widely used method for solving the pressure diffusion
equation, for different reservoir geometries and different boundary
conditions, is the method of Laplace transforms. Using this approach,
the partial differential diffusion equation is transformed into an
ordinary differential equation, in the “Laplace domain”, which in
general is straightforward to solve. The solution in the Laplace
domain is then transformed back into the “time domain”, using well-
known analytical or numerical algorithms.
In this chapter, we will introduce the Laplace transform method,
present many of the useful properties of the Laplace transform that
facilitate its use in solving the pressure diffusion equation, and
then give an example of its use in solving an important reservoir
engineering problem: flow to well containing a vertical hydraulic
fracture. Finally, the concept of convolution, introduced in Chapter 3,
will be shown to have a particularly simple and elegant form when
expressed in the Laplace domain.

7.1. Introduction to Laplace Transforms

The diffusion equation for fluid flow in a porous medium, in the
linearised form that was derived in Chapter 1 and used thus far in
these notes, is a linear partial differential equation (PDE). As such,
many of the classical methods of applied mathematics can be used

103
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104 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

to solve it. In Section 2.1, we used the Boltzmann transformation

to solve the problem of a single, fully penetrating well in an
infinite, homogeneous reservoir. We then learned in Section 6.1
that this method is only applicable to problems in unbounded
reservoirs.
In Chapter 6, we used the method of eigenfunction expansions
to solve problems involving a well in a circular reservoir. Although
the method of eigenfunction expansions is the most widely used
method in applied mathematics, and was used by Muskat (1937)
in his monumental book The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through
Porous Media, since the 1940s, reservoir engineers have tended to
solve the pressure diffusion equation using Laplace transforms.
The method of Laplace transforms allows us to transform linear
PDEs, which are generally difficult to solve, into linear ordinary
differential equations (ODEs), which can be solved in essentially all
cases. Specifically, the function P (R, t), which satisfies a PDE, is

formally transformed into a different function P (R, s), which satisfies
an ODE, where s is a Laplace variable that plays the role of a
parameter (since no derivatives are taken with respect to s). This

ODE is then solved to find P (R, s). The most difficult part of
the method of Laplace transforms is the process of “inverting” the
function from the “Laplace domain” back into the “time domain”,
to recover P (R, t). This last step can be achieved either by contour
integration in the complex plane, or by numerical integration along
the real axis, as will be explained below.
In this section, we present the definition of the Laplace transform,
along with a few of its more important properties. A fuller treatment
can be found in essentially any textbook on applied mathematics.
Three books that are devoted exclusively to Laplace (and related)
transforms are as follows:

(1) R. V. Churchill (1958) Operational Mathematics, McGraw-Hill.

(2) H. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger (1949) Operational Methods in
Applied Mathematics, Oxford University Press.
(3) C. J. Tranter (1971) Integral Transforms in Mathematical
Physics, Chapman & Hall.
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 105

Definition: If we have a function f (t), its Laplace transform is

defined by

 ∞
L{f (t)} ≡ f (s) ≡ f (t)e−st dt. (7.1.1)
0

Both notations, L{f (t)} and f (s), are useful, depending on the
context. In the general theory of Laplace transforms, the parameter
s must be regarded as a complex variable, but for our purposes we
can usually think of it as a real number.
If we have a function of two variables, such as P (R, t), we can
define its Laplace transform in the same manner:
 ∞

P (R, s) ≡ P (R, t)e−st dt. (7.1.2)
0

Note that the Laplace transform is taken with respect to the time
variable, not the spatial variable. To simplify the notation, we will
usually suppress the R variable when discussing the general theory.
The Laplace transform operator L is a linear operator, because
it follows directly from definition (7.1.1) that
 ∞  ∞
−st
L{cf (t)} = cf (t)e dt = c f (t)e−st dt = cL{f (t)}, (7.1.3)
0 0

 ∞
L{f1 (t) + f2 (t)} = [f1 (t) + f2 (t)]e−st dt
0
 ∞  ∞
= f1 (t)e−st dt + f2 (t)e−st dt
0 0

= L{f1 (t)} + L{f2 (t)}. (7.1.4)

The most important property of the Laplace transform is that

differentiation in the time domain essentially corresponds to multi-
plication by s in the Laplace domain. To prove this, consider the
Laplace transform of the time derivative of f (t):
 ∞

L{f (t)} ≡ f  (t)e−st dt. (7.1.5)
0
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106 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Now recall the general formula for integration by parts:

 ∞  ∞
 ∞
f (t)g(t)dt = f (t)g(t)]0 − f (t)g (t)dt. (7.1.6)
0 0

If we apply formula (7.1.6), with g(t) = e−st , we find

 ∞
L{f  (t)} = f (t)e−st ]∞
0 + s f (t)e−st dt,
0
−s·∞
= f (∞)e − f (0)e−s·0 + sL{f (t)}
i.e. L{f  (t)} = sL{f (t)} − f (0). (7.1.7)

Hence, the Laplace transform of f  (t) is equal to the Laplace

transform of f (t) multiplied by s, minus the initial value of f (t).
Equation (7.1.7) illustrates two important properties of Laplace
transforms:
(a) Differentiation in the time domain corresponds (essentially) to
multiplication by s in the Laplace domain.
(b) The initial conditions become incorporated directly into the
governing equation. This is unlike the situation in “time domain”
methods, where initial conditions must be considered separately
after we have found the general solution to the differential
equation.
Note: Since we usually work with pressure “drawdowns”, which are
defined so as to be zero when t = 0, the f (0) term will usually drop
out of our calculations.
As differentiation with respect to time corresponds to multiplica-
tion by s in the Laplace domain, we might expect, correctly, that
integration with respect to time corresponds to division by s in
the Laplace domain. To prove this, let F (t) be the time integral
of f (t), i.e.
 t
F (t) ≡ f (τ )dτ , (7.1.8)
0

where τ is a dummy variable of integration, used to avoid confusion

with the specific value of t that appears at the upper limit of
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 107

integration. By definition, then,

 0
F  (t) = f (t), F (0) ≡ f (τ )dτ = 0. (7.1.9)
0

Now, using property (7.1.7),

 t 

L{F (t)} = sL{F (t)} − F (0) = sL{F (t)} = sL f (τ )dτ ,
0

which can be rearranged to give

 t 
1 1 1
L f (τ )dτ = L{F  (t)} = L{f (t)} = f (s), (7.1.10)
0 s s s
which shows that, in order to find the Laplace transform of the
integral of f (t), we merely have to take the Laplace transform of
f (t), and divide it by s. Note that since the “initial condition” of
a definite integral is zero, no initial condition term appears in this
relation.
Another useful property of Laplace transforms is the “time-shift”
property. Consider a function f (t), and the time-shifted function
f (t − t0 ), defined by the graph in Figure 7.1.
Note that f (t − t0 ) is defined to be 0 if t < t0 , which is
consistent with the fact that, when using Laplace transforms, we
always consider all functions f (t) to equal zero when t < 0. (This
assumption is consistent with the physical fact that the pressure
drawdown will be zero before production begins!)

Figure 7.1. A function, f (t), and its time-shifted variant, f (t − t0 ).

March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch07 page 108

108 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Laplace transform of f (t − t0 ) can be found directly from

the Laplace transform of f (t), as follows. First, by definition,
 ∞
L {f (t − t0 )} = f (t − t0 )e−st dt. (7.1.11)
0
Now do a change of variables, letting t−t0 = τ , in which case dt = dτ .
The limits of integration change, according to
τ = −t0 when t = 0, τ =∞ when t = ∞. (7.1.12)
Hence,
 ∞
L{f (t − t0 )} = f (τ )e−s(τ +t0 ) dτ . (7.1.13)
−t0

But f (t) = 0 when t < 0, so

 ∞  ∞
−s(τ +t0 )
L{f (t − t0 )} = f (τ )e dτ = f (τ )e−sτ e−st0 dτ
0 0
 ∞ 
−st0
=e f (τ )e−sτ dτ = e−st0 f (s). (7.1.14)
0

So, we see that “delaying” a function f (t) by an amount of time t0

corresponds to multiplying its Laplace transform by e−st0 .
If we take a function f (t), and “damp it out” by multiplying it
by e−at , this is equivalent to replacing s with s + a in the Laplace
transform of f (t). The proof is as follows:
 ∞
−at
L{e f (t)} = f (t)e−at e−st dt
0
 ∞ 
= f (t)e−(s+a)t dt = f (s + a). (7.1.15)
0

Finally, consider a function f (t), and the “stretched” function

f (at). The Laplace transform of f (at) is related to the Laplace
transform of f (t) as follows (see Problem 7.2):
1
f (s/a).
L{f (at)} = (7.1.16)
a
If we think of a as a frequency, as in the function sin(at),
Eq. (7.1.16) shows that “speeding up” a function by a factor a is
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 109

somewhat equivalent to “slowing down” its Laplace transform by the

factor 1/a.
The usefulness of the rules presented above is that they minimise
the number of times we actually have to calculate a Laplace
transform using the basic definition (7.1.1). By knowing the Laplace
transforms of a few functions, we can use these rules to calculate the
Laplace transforms of many other functions. For example, first note
that if f (t) = 1, then
 ∞
−1 −st ∞ 1
L{f (t)} = L{1} = 1e−st dt = e ]0 = . (7.1.17)
0 s s
Aside: The function f (t) = 1 is very well behaved mathematically,

but its Laplace transform is not, since f (s) → ∞ when s = 0. Points

where f (s) becomes infinite, or is otherwise non-analytic (i.e. cannot
be represented by a Taylor series), are known as singularities. The
 
singularities of f (s) are actually the keys to “inverting” f (s) in order
to find the actual function, f (t). However, we will not pursue these
ideas very far, because they require knowledge of complex variable
theory.
Now suppose that we want to calculate L{t}. We could use
Eq. (7.1.1), but it is easier to see from Eq. (7.1.10) that, since t is
the integral of 1, then L{t} can be found by dividing L{1} by s, i.e.
 t 
1 1
L{t} = L 1 dτ = L{1} = 2 . (7.1.18)
0 s s
Repeated application of Eq. (7.1.10) leads to a general expression for
the Laplace transform of tn , where n is any non-negative integer (see
Problem 7.3):
n!
L{tn } = . (7.1.19)
sn+1
Another Laplace transform that appears often when solving diffusion
problems is L{t−1/2 }:
 ∞
−1/2
L{t }= t−1/2 e−st dt. (7.1.20)
0
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110 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

To evaluate this integral, first make the change of variables st = u,

in which case dt = du/s, and the integral becomes
 ∞  ∞
du 1
L{t−1/2 } = (u/s)−1/2 e−u =√ u−1/2 e−u du. (7.1.21)
0 s s 0

√
Now put u = m2 , in which case du = 2mdm = 2 udm, and so
 ∞ √ 
−1/2 2 −m2 2 π π
L{t }= √ e dm = √ = , (7.1.22)
s 0 s 2 s

which can also be expressed as

L−1 {π 1/2 s−1/2 } = t−1/2 . (7.1.23)

By applying the rule that division by s in the Laplace domain

corresponds to integration with respect to t in the time domain, we
can show, starting with Eq. (7.1.23), that
 t
−1 1/2 −3/2
L {π s }= τ −1/2 dτ = 2t1/2
0
√
π
→ L{t1/2 } = . (7.1.24)
2s3/2

This process can be repeated to give, for n = 1, 2, . . . ,

√
n−(1/2) 1 · 3 · 5 · . . . · (2n − 1) π
L{t }= . (7.1.25)
2n sn+(1/2)

For example, for n = 3, Eq. (7.1.25) shows that L{t5/2 } =

√
15 π/8s7/2 .
The most difficult aspect of using Laplace transforms is

“inverting” the Laplace transform f (s) to find the function f (t). The
difficulty lies in the fact that, even though we, as petroleum engineers,
are ultimately interested only in real-valued functions, the standard
inversion procedure involves integration in the complex plane. The

inversion formula, which allows us to recover f (t) from f (s), is as
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 111

Figure 7.2. Path of integration for the Laplace transform inversion integral given
in Eq. (7.1.26).

follows:
 α+i∞ 
1
f (t) = f (s)est ds, (7.1.26)
2πi α−i∞
√
where i = −1 is the imaginary unit number, and the integration
takes place along any vertical line in the complex plane that lies to

the right of all the singularities of f (s); see Figure 7.2, in which
s = x + iy. The proof of Eq. (7.1.26), which is not simple, can be
found in the aforementioned books by Carslaw and Jaeger (1949), or
Churchill (1958).
One additional fact about Laplace transforms that is needed in
order to use this method to solve the pressure diffusion equation is
the following rule:

• If P (R, t) is a function of R and t, and P (R, s) is its Laplace
transform, as defined in Eq. (7.1.2), then the Laplace transform of
the partial derivative of P with respect to R is equal to the partial
derivative, with respect to R, of the Laplace transform of P , i.e.
  
dP d d P (R, s)
L = [L{P (R, t)}] = . (7.1.27)
dR dR dR
The proof of this rule follows directly from Leibnitz’s theorem for
differentiating an integral with respect to a parameter that appears
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112 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

in the integrand:

   ∞
dP (R, t) dP (R, t) −st
L = e dt
dR 0 dR
 ∞ 
d −st d P (R, s)
= P (R, t)e dt = . (7.1.28)
dR 0 dR

In the second term we first differentiate with respect to R, and

then integrate with respect to t, whereas in the third term we first
integrate with respect to t, and then differentiate with respect to R.
Leibnitz’s theorem tells us that the order in which we carry out these
two operations does not matter.

7.2. Flow to a Hydraulically Fractured Well

In general, exact inversion (as opposed to numerical inversion, which
will be discussed in Section 7.4) of a LT requires knowledge of
complex variable theory. One of the few important flow problems
that we can solve with LTs without knowledge of complex integration
is the one-dimensional (1D) diffusion equation in a semi-infinite
region.
The 1D pressure diffusion problem is relevant to flow to a
“hydraulically fractured” well, for example. In low permeability
reservoirs, fractures are often introduced into the rock by pumping
fluid into the borehole at high pressure; see the geomechanics module
of this MSc course. These “hydraulic fractures” then provide very
conductive paths for the oil to reach the wellbore. Oil first flows to
the fracture, and then through the fracture to the well.
Imagine that the thickness of the reservoir is H, and that
the hydraulic fracture extends out from the vertical borehole by a
distance L in each direction, as shown in Figure 7.3. Initially, fluid
flows straight to the nearest part of the fracture, after which it travels
through the hydraulic fracture to the wellbore. If the length L is large,
or equivalently, at early times, we can model this process as uniform,
1D, horizontal flow.
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 113

Figure 7.3. Schematic diagram of a 1D flow to a hydraulically fractured well.

The governing equation for this problem is the 1D pressure

diffusion equation in Cartesian co-ordinates, Eq. (1.6.8):

dP d2 P
PDE: =D 2, (7.2.1)
dt dz

where z is the coordinate normal to the fracture plane, and D is the

hydraulic diffusivity, k/φμct .
If the total flow rate into the well is Q, and this flow is distributed
uniformly over an area of 4LH(two fractures with two faces, each of
area LH), then the initial and boundary conditions are

IC: P (z, t = 0) = Pi , (7.2.2)

far-field BC: P (z → ∞, t) = Pi , (7.2.3)
dP μQ
fracture BC: (z = 0, t) = . (7.2.4)
dz 4kLH

To solve this problem, we first define the LT of P (z, t):

 ∞

P (z, s) ≡ P (z, t)e−st dt. (7.2.5)
0

Next, we take the LT of both sides of Eq. (7.2.1). Using Eq. (7.1.7),
and Eq. (7.2.2), the LHS of Eq. (7.2.1) is transformed as
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114 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

follows:
 
dP 
L = sL{P (z, t)} − P (z, t = 0) = s P (z, s) − Pi . (7.2.6)
dt
Applying rule (7.1.27) twice, the LT of the RHS of Eq. (7.2.1) is
  
d2 P d2 d2 P (z, s)
L D 2 = D 2 [L{P (z, t)}] = D . (7.2.7)
dz dz dz 2
So, the transformed representation of Eq. (7.2.1) is

d2 P (z, s) 
ODE : D 2
− s P (z, s) = −Pi . (7.2.8)
dz

Although P (z, s) is a function of two variables, z and s, no derivatives

of P (z, s) with respect to s appear in Eq. (7.2.8). So, s actually
appears in Eq. (7.2.8) as a parameter, not a variable. Consequently,
Eq. (7.2.8) is an ODE, rather than a PDE.
The initial condition is already incorporated into Eq. (7.2.8).
However, we must now take the LTs of the two BCs, Eqs. (7.2.3)
and (7.2.4):

Far-field BC:
 Pi
L{P (z = ∞, t)} = P (z = ∞, s) = L{Pi } = , (7.2.9)
s
Fracture BC:
    
dP dP μQ μQ
L (z = 0, t) = (z = 0, s) = L = .
dz dz 4kLH 4kLHs
(7.2.10)

Next, we solve the problem in the Laplace domain. The general

solution to Eq. (7.2.8) is
 √ √ Pi
z s/D
P (z, s) = Ae + Be−z s/D + , (7.2.11)
s
where A and B are arbitrary constants. Applying the far-field
boundary condition, Eq. (7.2.9), to the general solution (7.2.11),
shows us that A must be zero. Applying the fracture boundary
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 115

condition, Eq. (7.2.10), to the general solution (7.2.11), implies that


dP  μQ
(z = 0, s) = −B s/D = ,
dz 4kLHs
−μQ
→B=  . (7.2.12)
4kLHs s/D
So, we have now found A and B, and the solution to this problem in
the Laplace domain is
√
 Pi μQ D −z √s/D
P (z, s) = − e . (7.2.13)
s 4kLHs3/2

Finally, we must invert P (z, s) to find P (z, t). To keep the analysis
simple and brief, we will only invert for the pressure in the fracture,
P (z = 0, t), which is actually the pressure that we are most interested
in. If the permeability of the fracture is much greater than that of
the reservoir (which is the idea behind hydraulic fracturing!), then
there will be very little pressure drop in the fracture itself, and the
pressure in the fracture will be equal to the pressure in the wellbore.
So, in the fracture,
√
 Pi μQ D
P (z = 0, s) = − . (7.2.14)
s 4kLHs3/2
Note: This illustrates another advantage of LTs: we can usually find
the wellbore pressure without having first to find the pressure at every
point in the reservoir. With most other mathematical methods, you
must find P (z, t) first as a complete function, and then set z = 0.
We now “invert” to find P (z = 0, t), using Eqs. (7.1.17) and
(7.1.24), to find (Stewart, 2011, p. 478):
 √ 
 Pi μQ D
−1 −1
P (z = 0, t) = L {P (z = 0, s)} = L −
s 4kLHs3/2
  √  
−1 1 μQ D −1 1
= Pi L − L
s 4kLH s3/2

μQ Dt
= Pi − . (7.2.15)
2kLH π
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116 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Equation (7.2.15) shows that at early times, the drawdown in a

fractured well will increase in proportion to t1/2 .

7.3. Convolution Principle in the Laplace Domain

The convolution integral that appeared in Eq. (3.4.6) is a partic-
ular case of a more general mathematical operation that can be
defined by
 t
f ∗g ≡ f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ , (7.3.1)
0

which is known as the convolution of the two functions f and g.

If we let t − τ = x in Eq. (7.3.1), then τ = t − x and dτ = −dx,
and the limits of integration are transformed into x = t and x = 0.
Hence,
 0  t
f ∗g =− f (t − x)g(x)dx = f (t − x)g(x)dx ≡ g ∗ f , (7.3.2)
t 0

which shows that f ∗ g = g ∗ f , for any two functions f and g.

Now, let us look at the LT of f ∗ g:
 t=∞  τ =t

L{f ∗ g} = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ e−st dt. (7.3.3)

t=0 τ =0

The region of integration covers the first octant of the {t, τ } plane,
as can be seen from Figure 7.4. The thick line on the left runs from
τ = 0 to τ = t, for fixed t, which corresponds to the inner integral
in Eq. (7.3.3). If we sweep this line across from left to right, then t

Figure 7.4. Two paths of integration for Eq. (7.3.3).

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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 117

will cover the range from t = 0 to t = ∞, which corresponds to the

outer integral.
But this octant can also be covered by first letting t run from
t = τ , out to t = ∞, for fixed τ (see the thick line on right), and
then letting τ run from τ = 0 to τ = ∞. Hence, we can also write
the convolution integral as
 τ =∞  t=∞

−st
L{f ∗ g} = g(t − τ )e dt f (τ )dτ. (7.3.4)
τ =0 t=τ

If we now let t − τ = x in Eq. (7.3.4), then t = τ + x, dt = dx, and

the limits of integration of the inner integral are transformed into
x = 0 and x = ∞, and so
 τ =∞  x=∞

−s(τ +x)
L{f ∗ g} = g(x)e dx f (τ )dτ
τ =0 x=0
 τ =∞
 x=∞

 
= f (τ )e−sτ dτ g(x)e−sx dx = f (s) g (s).
τ =0 x=0
(7.3.5)

We have therefore proven that convolution of two functions in the

time domain corresponds to multiplication of the their LTs. This fact
is extremely useful, because:

(a) It implies that, if we can break up a difficult LT into the product

of two simpler transforms whose inverses are known, then we can
find the complete inverse function, in the time domain, by merely
doing a convolution integral.
(b) More importantly, it implies that, for any given reservoir geom-
etry, if we can solve the diffusion equation for the case of a
constant production rate, then the solution for an arbitrary
production schedule can be found by convolution.

Actually, we already knew this from Section 3.4. However,

the concept is more general, since, for example, we can also use
convolution to find the solution for the case of varying wellbottom
pressure from the solution for the case of constant wellbottom
pressure.
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118 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

As an example of the use of convolution in the Laplace domain,

consider the hydraulic fracture problem of Section 7.2, but with an
arbitrary time-dependent flow rate into the fracture, Q(t). The only
change in the formulation of the problem will be in the fracture
boundary condition, Eq. (7.2.4), which now becomes
dP μQ(t)
(z = 0, t) = . (7.3.6)
dz 4kLH
If we follow the solution procedure used in Section 7.2, the only
change occurs when we take the LT of this boundary condition, in
which case μQ/4kLHs is replaced with the more general expression

μ Q(s)/4kLH. The solution in Laplace space then becomes
 √
 Pi μ Q(s) D −z √s/D
P (z, s) = − e . (7.3.7)
s 4kLHs1/2
We again restrict our attention to the fracture, where z = 0:
 √
 Pi μ Q(s) D
P (z = 0, s) = − . (7.3.8)
s 4kLHs1/2
We now take the inverse LT, and in doing so make use of linearity
and convolution:
⎧ ⎫
⎨P  √ ⎬
 i μ Q(s) D
P (z = 0, t) = L−1 {P (z = 0, s)} = L−1 −
⎩s 4kLHs1/2 ⎭
⎧ ⎫
  √
1 μ D −1 ⎨ Q(s) ⎬
= Pi L−1 − L
s 4kLH ⎩ s1/2 ⎭
√
 
μ D 
−1 −1 −1/2
= Pi − L { Q(s)} ∗ L {s } . (7.3.9)
4kLH

But, L−1 {Q(s)} = Q(t), by definition, and L−1 {s−1/2 } = (πt)−1/2
by Eq. (7.1.23), so
√
μ D
P (z = 0, t) = Pi − [Q(t)] ∗ [(πt)−1/2 ]
4kLH
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 119

 
μ D/π t Q(τ )
= Pi − √ dτ
4kLH 0 t − τ
  t
1 μ Q(τ )
= Pi − √ dτ
4LH πkφc 0 t − τ
  t
1 μ Q(τ )
= Pi − √ dτ
A πkφc 0 t − τ
  t
μ q(τ )
= Pi − √ dτ. (7.3.10)
πkφc 0 t − τ

Equation (7.3.10) allows us to find the pressure in the fracture as a

function of the time-varying flow rate per unit area, q(t) = Q(t)/A,
by merely doing an integral in the time domain.
Although it may be difficult to evaluate this integral analytically
for some particular production rate q(t), it will always be straight-
forward to evaluate it numerically. Convolution leads to an integral
over time, which is a real variable, and such integrals are generally
easier to evaluate than the complex inversion integral specified in
Eq. (7.1.26).

7.4. Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transforms

The complex integral that allows us to invert the LT of the pressure
to obtain the pressure as a function of time is often very difficult
to evaluate in closed form. Consequently, many algorithms have
been devised to carry out this inversion numerically. Their use
in petroleum engineering is reviewed in Fundamental and Applied
Pressure Analysis by Daltaban and Wall (1998).
In petroleum engineering, the most widely used such algorithm
is the Stehfest (1968) algorithm. Although the derivation of this
algorithm is lengthy, and beyond the scope of these notes, we can
gain a rough understanding of it as follows.
In general, any integral can be approximated by a summation
whose terms consist of the integrand evaluated at various discrete
points, with each functional evaluation multiplied by an appropriate
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120 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure 7.5. Approximation of an integral using the trapezium rule.

weighting factor. For example, consider the numerical approximation

of an integral based on the trapezium rule. Imagine a function f (x),
which we want to integrate from x = a to x = b. Recall that
an integral can be interpreted as the area under the graph of the
function.
The area under the graph of f (x) can be approximated by the
area of the trapezium shown in Figure 7.5, i.e.
 b

f (a) + f (b)
f (x)dx ≈ (b − a). (7.4.1)
a 2

This formula approximates the integral by evaluating the integrand

at x = a and x = b, multiplying the two function values by
the weighting factor (b − a)/2, and then summing. More accurate
numerical approximations of an integral can be made by:

(a) evaluating the integrand at a larger number of points,

(b) carefully choosing the points at which the integrand is evaluated
(i.e. they need not be equally spaced),
(c) carefully choosing the weighting factors.

With these ideas in mind, we can think of the Stehfest algorithm

as a clever method for approximating the complex inversion integral
by a weighted finite sum of function evaluations.

If we have the LT of, say, the wellbore pressure P w (s),
the actual wellbore pressure at time t is given, according to
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Laplace Transform Methods in Reservoir Engineering 121

Stehfest, by
2N  
ln 2   n ln 2
Pw (t) = Vn P w s = , (7.4.2)
t t
n=1

where the weighting factors Vn are defined by

min(n,N )
 kN (2k)!
n
Vn = (−1) , (7.4.3)
(N − k)!k!(k − 1)!(n − k)!(2k − n)!
k=(n+1)/2

and the total number of terms in the series is take to be 2N .

An advantage of the Stehfest algorithm it that it allows us to

avoid evaluating f (s) at complex values of s, as would be required
by the path of integration shown in Eq. (7.1.26); instead, the method

requires only that f (s) be evaluated at real values of s.
Note, however, that if we could perform the inversion integration
analytically, we would arrive at a single mathematical expression
that would be valid for all values of t. But, if we use a numerical
procedure, such as the Stehfest algorithm, we must perform a new
calculation for each value of t. This is a drawback that is shared by
all numerical methods.
In principle, the accuracy of the approximation should increase as
the number of terms in the series, which is 2N , increases. In practice,
if too many terms are taken, accumulated round-off error begins to
overshadow the additional accuracy. It has generally been found that
an optimum value of 2N is about 18.

Problems for Chapter 7

Problem 7.1. What is the Laplace transform of the function
f (t) = e−at ?
Problem 7.2. Starting with the basic definition of the Laplace
transform, Eq. (7.1.1), verify Eq. (7.1.16).
Problem 7.3. Using the various general properties of Laplace
transforms, derive Eq. (7.1.19), L{tn } = n!/sn+1 , where n is any
non-negative integer.
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122 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Problem 7.4. Following the steps that were taken in Section 7.2,
use Laplace transforms to solve the problem of linear flow into a
hydraulic fracture with constant pressure in the fracture:
1 dP d2 P
PDE: = , (i)
D dt dz 2
IC: P (z, t = 0) = Pi , (ii)
far-field BC: P (z → ∞, t) = Pi , (iii)
fracture BC: P (z = 0, t) = Pf . (iv)


First, find the pressure function in the Laplace domain, P (z, s). Next,
find an expression for the flow rate into the fracture, in the Laplace
 
domain; call it Q f (s). Lastly, invert Q f (s) to find the flow rate into
the fracture as a function of time, Qf (t).
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Chapter 8

Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs

Many reservoirs contain a network of interconnected, naturally occur-

ring fractures, which provide most of the reservoir-scale permeability.
In fact, it has been estimated that about 40% of the world’s known
reserves reside in naturally fractured reservoirs. Fluid flow through
such reservoirs is more complicated than through unfractured reser-
voirs, and cannot be accurately modelled with the equations that we
have developed and solved in the previous chapters. In this chapter,
we will derive the governing equations for the “dual-porosity” model
that is widely used for naturally fractured reservoirs, and present the
“line source” solution for flow to a vertical well in a dual-porosity
reservoir.

8.1. Dual-porosity Model of Barenblatt et al.

The basic mathematical model used for fractured reservoirs, referred
to as the dual-porosity model, was first developed by Barenblatt
et al. (1960), and was used by Warren and Root (1963) to solve
the problem of flow to a well in an unbounded fractured reservoir.
Several refinements have been made since then, and the resulting
equations have been solved for many different reservoir geometries,
with and without wellbore storage, skin effects, etc. In this section,
we will briefly describe this model, and present and discuss the
solution for flow to a well in an unbounded naturally fractured
reservoir.

123
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124 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

In the dual-porosity model, the “macroscopic-scale” permeability

of the reservoir is assumed to be provided solely by the fracture
network. Fluid can only flow into the well via those fractures that
are connected to the well. The regions of rock between the fractures,
called “matrix blocks”, contain most of the fluid, and feed this fluid
into the fractures, but do not directly transmit fluid to the well.
The first step in constructing a dual-porosity model for fractured
reservoirs is to start with a pressure diffusion equation for the porous
medium that is formed by the fracture network. An obvious and
straightforward modification to the derivation given in Chapter 1
shows that, in general, the diffusion equation can include a source-
sink term, that provides fluid to, or takes fluid away from, the fracture
system.
In the present case of a dual-porosity system, the source-sink
term will represent the volumetric flux of fluid from the matrix blocks
into the fractures, per unit time and per unit volume of the reservoir.
Hence, in radial coordinates, the pressure diffusion equation for the
“fracture system” takes the form
 
dPf kf 1 d dPf
(φc)f = R + qmf , (8.1.1)
dt μ R dR dR
where the subscript f denotes the properties of the fracture network.
The “fracture-matrix interaction term” qmf in Eq. (8.1.1) has dimen-
sions of (m3 /m3 s), or (1/s). The compressibility term is the total
compressibility of the fluid-filled fracture system, and includes the
contributions of both the formation compressibility (of the fractured
rock mass) and the fluid compressibility.
The continuum-scale permeability of the fracture network, kf , is
related to, but is by no means equal to, the “permeability” of the
individual fractures; see Section 12.8 of Jaeger et al. (2007). Roughly
speaking, if the fractures each have aperture h, and the spacing
between fractures is S, the “permeability” of any individual fracture
will be kif = h2 /12, the permeability of the fracture network will be
roughly given by kf = h3 /12S, and so the ratio of the permeability
of the fracture network to the permeability of an individual fracture
is on the order of h/S. Typical values of h are 100−1,000 μm, and
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Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 125

typical fracture spacings are on the order of 10−100 cm, so this

permeability ratio will be in the range of 10−4 –10−2 . This point
is emphasised mainly to help avoid confusion when reading the
literature.
Note: In a dual-porosity model, every “point” R is supposed to
represent a representative elementary volume (REV) (see Section
1.3) that is large enough to encompass several fractures and matrix
blocks. Having said this, such considerations are rarely invoked in
practice, and dual-porosity models have been used in geothermal
reservoirs, for example, where fracture spacings are as large as tens
of metres!
The fracture-matrix flow term could be found by solving a flow
equation within the matrix blocks, as has been done by Kazemi
(1969) and others. However, most dual-porosity formulations follow
Barenblatt et al. (1960) and assume that the flow from the matrix
blocks to the fractures, at point R in the reservoir, is proportional to
the difference between the pressure in the fractures and the average
pressure in the matrix blocks, P̄m ; this assumption is called “pseudo-
steady-state fracture/matrix flow”. Since the flow is expected to
be proportional to the permeability of the matrix, and inversely
proportional to the fluid viscosity, qmf is assumed to have the form
αkm
qmf = (P̄m − Pf ), (8.1.2)
μ
where α is a “shape factor” that accounts for the size and shape of
the matrix block.
Dimensional analysis shows that α must have dimensions of
(1/L2 ), or (1/m2 ) in SI units. Numerous expressions for shape
factors have appeared in the literature, usually based on rough finite-
difference approximations to flow within the block. For example,
for a cubic block of side L, Warren and Root (1963) suggested
α = 60/L2 , Kazemi et al. (1976) suggested α = 12/L2 , and Quintard
and Whitaker (1996) suggested α = 49.62/L2 .
The correct value of α for a matrix block of a given shape
can be found by calculating the smallest eigenvalue of the pressure
diffusion equation inside the matrix block, with constant-pressure
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126 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

outer boundary conditions, as shown by Zimmerman et al. (1993).

The shape factors for a few simple, idealised geometries are as follows:

• spherical block of radius a:

π2
α= , (8.1.3)
a2
• long cylindrical block of radius a:

5.78
α= , (8.1.4)
a2
• cubical block of side L:

3π 2
α= , (8.1.5)
L2
• rectangular block of sides {Lx , Ly , Lz }:
 
1 1 1
α = π2 + + . (8.1.6)
L2x L2y L2z

If the fracture system in the reservoir consists of three mutually

orthogonal sets of parallel fractures, with spacings {Lx , Ly , Lz }, then
the matrix blocks would be rectangular slabs. Hence, this latter
model, although simplified, is not unrealistic.
Equations (8.1.1) and (8.1.2) give two equations for the three
unknowns, {Pf , P̄m , qmf }. A third equation is found by performing a
mass-balance on the matrix blocks. In analogy with Eq. (6.4.16), we
find

dP̄m
qmf = −(φc)m , (8.1.7)
dt
where the compressibility term represents the total compressibility
of the matrix block, including both the matrix formation compress-
ibility, and the fluid compressibility. Equations (8.1.1), (8.1.2) and
(8.1.7) give a complete set of equations that can be solved to obtain
the unknown pressures and flow rates.
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Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 127

8.2. Dual-porosity Equations in Dimensionless Form

Before presenting the solution for the pressures at the well in an
unbounded dual-porosity reservoir, under conditions of constant flow
rate into the well, it is convenient to first write the governing
equations in dimensionless form. We first define the following dimen-
sionless variables:

• Dimensionless time:
kf t
tD = 2
; (8.2.1)
(φf cf + φm cm )μRw

this is the “standard” definition, but based on the permeability

of the fracture network, which is kf , and the total storativity,
which is the sum of fracture storativity plus the matrix storativity.
• Dimensionless pressure in the fractures:

2πkf H(Pi − Pf )
PDf = ; (8.2.2)
μQ

this is again the standard definition, as in Section 2.2, where Q is

again the flow rate into the well.
• Dimensionless pressure in the matrix blocks:

2πkf H(Pi − P̄m )

PDm = ; (8.2.3)
μQ

this definition is based on kf , rather than km , so as to be consistent

with the definition of PDf .
• Dimensionless radius:
R
RD = ; (8.2.4)
Rw
which is the standard definition that we used previously for single-
porosity reservoirs.

We now use these definitions, along with the chain rule, to

transform Eqs. (8.1.1), (8.1.2) and (8.1.7) into dimensionless form.
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128 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

We start with the left-hand side of Eq. (8.1.1):

dPf dPf dPDf dtD
(φc)f = (φc)f · ·
dt dPDf dtD dt
   
−μQ dPDf kf
= (φc)f 2
2πkf H dtD (φf cf + φm cm )μRw
 
φf cf Q dPDf
=− 2
. (8.2.5)
(φf cf + φm cm )2πHRw dtD
Applying the same procedure to the spatial derivative term in
Eq. (8.1.1) gives
   
kf 1 d dPf −Q 1 d dPDf
R = 2 R dR
RD . (8.2.6)
μ R dR dR 2πHRw D D dRD
Lastly, we transform the term qmf in Eq. (8.1.1), using Eq. (8.1.7).
In analogy with Eq. (8.2.5), this term becomes
 
dP̄m φm cm Q dPDm
qmf = −(φc)m = 2
. (8.2.7)
dt (φf cf + φm cm )2πHRw dtD
Inserting Eqs. (8.2.5–8.2.7) into Eq. (8.1.1) yields
 
1 d dPDf
RD
RD dRD dRD
φf cf dPDf φm cm dPDm
= + . (8.2.8)
(φf cf + φm cm ) dtD (φf cf + φm cm ) dtD
Equation (8.2.8) is the dimensionless form of Eq. (8.1.1).
We now write Eq. (8.1.2) in terms of the dimensionless variables:
αkm −αkm Q
qmf = (P̄m − Pf ) = (PDm − PDf ). (8.2.9)
μ 2πkf H
Equating this result to Eq. (8.2.7) gives
φm cm dPDm 2
αkm Rw
= (PDf − PDm ). (8.2.10)
(φf cf + φm cm ) dtD kf
Equations (8.2.8) and (8.2.10) are two coupled differential equations
for the two dimensionless pressures, PDf and PDm .
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Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 129

These two equations contain two dimensionless parameters. The

first is the ratio of fracture storativity to total (fracture + matrix)
storativity, denoted by ω:
φf cf
ω= . (8.2.11)
φf cf + φm cm

The second dimensionless parameter, the transmissivity ratio λ, is

essentially a ratio of matrix permeability to fracture permeability,
modified by some geometrical factors:
2
αkm Rw
λ= . (8.2.12)
kf

Since the fracture porosity is typically much less than the matrix
porosity, and the fracture permeability is much greater than the
matrix permeability, in practice it is usually the case that ω < 0.1
and λ < 0.001.
In terms of the dimensionless parameters ω and λ, and the dimen-
sionless variables defined in Eqs. (8.1.1–8.1.4), the two governing
equations for radial flow in a dual-porosity reservoir are
 
1 d dPDf dPDf dPDm
RD =ω + (1 − ω) , (8.2.13)
RD dRD dRD dtD dtD
dPDm
(1 − ω) = λ(PDf − PDm ). (8.2.14)
dtD
If the reservoir were actually a “single-porosity” reservoir, then the
storativity ratio ω would equal 1, and the two equations (8.2.13) and
(8.2.14), would reduce to the standard pressure diffusion Eq. (6.2.8).
This situation occurs in some fractured reservoirs that have very low
matrix porosity and/or low matrix permeability, in which case the
matrix blocks can be ignored.
In the usual form of the dual-porosity model, fluid does not flow
from one matrix block to another. Only the fractures provide the
macroscopic, reservoir-scale permeability. Hence, the pressure that
we measure at the wellbore represents the pressure in those fractures
that are nearest to the wellbore. Therefore, the drawdown at the
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130 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

wellbore is found from

ΔPDw (tD ) ≡ PDf (RD = 1, tD ). (8.2.15)
A more general model for naturally fractured reservoirs, in which
fluid can also flow from one matrix block to another, is known as
the “dual-permeability model”. This model is sometimes used by
hydrologists, but is not often used in petroleum engineering.

8.3. Line Source Problem in a Dual-porosity

Reservoir
Warren and Root (1963) solved the problem of a well producing
at constant flow rate Q in an unbounded dual-porosity reservoir,
using Laplace transforms. They found that, if the dimensionless time
satisfies the condition
tD > 100 ω, (8.3.1)
which usually covers the times of interest to petroleum engineers, the
dimensionless pressure drawdown at the well is described by
    
1 −λtD −λtD
ΔPDw = ln tD + 0.8091 + Ei − Ei .
2 ω(1 − ω) (1 − ω)
(8.3.2)
As usual, it is instructive to analyse the behaviour of the solution
in the various time regimes. In the early-time regime when tD >
100 ω, but is not “too large”, the variables inside the Ei functions in
Eq. (8.3.2) will still be small enough to use Eq. (2.4.4), which says
that, if x < 0.01,
−Ei(−x) ≈ −0.5772 − ln x. (8.3.3)
Use of Eq. (8.3.3) in Eq. (8.3.2) yields
    
1 λtD λtD
ΔPDw = ln tD + 0.8091 + ln − ln
2 ω(1 − ω) (1 − ω)
    
1 λtD λtD
= ln tD + 0.8091 + ln − ln ω − ln
2 (1 − ω) (1 − ω)
1
= {ln(tD /ω) + 0.8091} . (8.3.4)
2
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Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 131

If we use Eqs. (8.2.1), (8.2.2) and (8.2.11) to convert the drawdown

to dimensional form, we find

2πkf HΔPw
μQ
   
1 kf t [(φc)f + (φc)m ]
= ln 2
· + 0.8091
2 [(φc)f + (φc)m ]μRw (φc)f
   
μQ kf t
i.e. ΔPw = ln 2
+ 0.8091 , (8.3.5)
4πkf H (φμc)f Rw

which is precisely the drawdown that would occur in a single-porosity

system consisting only of the fractures (i.e. without matrix blocks)!
Note also that in the early-time regime, the drawdown will be a
straight line on a semi-log plot.
The physical explanation of this behaviour is as follows. At
early times, fluid flows to the well only through the fractures; fluid
has not yet had time to flow out of the matrix blocks because of
their relatively low permeability. Hence, in this regime, the matrix
storativity is irrelevant.
Now let us consider “very large” times (but still assuming an
unbounded reservoir). Recall from Table 2.1 that when x is large,
Ei(−x) → 0. So, in this regime the two Ei terms in Eq. (8.3.2) drop
out, and the drawdown is

1
ΔPDw = {ln tD + 0.8091}, (8.3.6)
2
which in dimensional form is
   
μQ kf t
ΔPw = ln 2
+ 0.8091 . (8.3.7)
4πkf H [(φc)f + (φc)m ]μRw

This is the drawdown that would occur in a single-porosity reservoir

whose permeability is that of the fracture system, but whose
storativity is that of the fractures plus the matrix blocks.
The physical explanation of this behaviour is (essentially) as
follows. At very large times, the matrix blocks have had sufficient
time for their pressures to “equilibrate” with the pressure in the
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132 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

fractures. So at large times, the reservoir behaves like a homogeneous,

single-porosity reservoir whose storativity is composed of the fracture
storativity plus the matrix storativity. The overall permeability of the
reservoir is always the permeability of the fracture system, because
the matrix blocks are assumed not to be interconnected to each other.
Both the early-time solution given by Eq. (8.3.5), and the late-
time solution given by Eq. (8.3.7), will give straight lines when
plotted on a semi-log plot, with exactly the same slope,
dΔPw μQ
= . (8.3.8)
d ln t 4πkf H

The vertical offset of these two lines, denoted by δΔPDw , can be

found by comparing Eqs. (8.3.4) and (8.3.6):
1 1
δΔPDw = − ln ω = ln(1/ω). (8.3.9)
2 2
In dimensional form, the vertical offset is
μQ
δPw = ln(1/ω). (8.3.10)
4πkf H

The full curve for the drawdown in a well in an infinite dual-

porosity reservoir is shown in schematic form in Figure 8.1, adapted
from Gringarten (1984). This figure shows that there is a transition
regime between the two semi-log straight lines, in which the pressure

Figure 8.1. Drawdown in a well in an unbounded dual-porosity reservoir.

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Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs 133

drawdown changes very gradually. This regime is dominated by the

effect of fluid beginning to flow out of the matrix blocks and into the
fractures. During this regime, the flow from the matrix blocks into
the fractures nearly compensates for the flow from the fractures into
the borehole, and the wellbore pressure is (nearly) constant.
Bourdet and Gringarten (1980) showed that if a horizontal line
is drawn through the drawdown curve at the midpoint between the
two semi-log straight lines, it will intersect the first semi-log straight
line at a dimensionless time tD1 that is given by
ω
tD1 = , (8.3.11)
γλ
where γ = 1.781, and ω and λ are the two dual-porosity parameters
defined by Eqs. (8.2.11) and (8.2.12). This horizontal line intersects
the late-time semi-log straight line at a dimensionless time tD2
given by
1
tD2 = . (8.3.12)
γλ
Equations (8.3.11) and (8.3.12) show that the horizontal offset of
the two asymptotic semi-log straight lines is equal to ln(1/ω). These
two equations provide a simple means to estimate the value of the
storativity ratio ω, and the transmissivity ratio λ, from a well test.
In dimensional form, these intercept times are
(φμc)f
t1 = , (8.3.13)
αγkm
μ[(φc)f + (φc)m ]
t2 = . (8.3.14)
αγkm
The first intercept time, t1 , is essentially a measure of the time
required for the volume of fluid that has been depleted from the
matrix blocks near the wellbore to become of the same order of
magnitude as the volume depleted from the fractures. The second
intercept time, t2 , is a measure of the time required for the pressure
in the matrix blocks nearest the well to come into equilibrium with
the pressure in the surrounding fractures.
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134 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Problems for Chapter 8

Problem 8.1. Without looking at the paper by Warren and Root,
describe and sketch the way that the drawdown curve in Figure 8.1
would change if (a) the storativity ratio ω increased (or decreased)
by a factor of 10, or (b) the transmissivity ratio λ increased (or
decreased) by a factor of 10.
Problem 8.2. By examining Eq. (8.3.2), and making use of either
Eq. (2.1.22) or Table 2.1, derive an expression for the dimensionless
time that must elapse in order for the approximation (8.3.6) to be
accurate to within about 1%. Your answer should be expressed in
terms of the parameter λ.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 135

Chapter 9

Flow of Gases in Porous Media

Most of the equations derived and analysed in previous chapters

are applicable only when the flowing fluid is a liquid, in which case
the compressibility and viscosity can be assumed to be constant,
and independent of pressure. For gas reservoirs, the assumption that
these parameters are independent of pressure is not very accurate,
and incorporation of their pressure dependence into the pressure
diffusion equation renders it nonlinear. In this chapter, we will show
how the resulting nonlinear diffusion equation for gas flow can be
(approximately) linearised, by expressing it in terms of a new variable
known as the pseudo-pressure.
Another important assumption made in all previous chapters
was the validity of Darcy’s law, which states that the flow rate is
linearly proportional to the pressure gradient. However, this “law”
becomes inaccurate at high flow rates, where it is usually replaced by
a nonlinear relation between flow rate and pressure gradient known
as the Forchheimer equation. Although this deviation from Darcy’s
law occurs for both liquids and gases, flow rates in gas reservoirs
are typically higher, due to the lower viscosity of gases, and so it is
much more likely that flow in a gas reservoir will take place in this
non-Darcy regime.
Deviations from Darcy’s law can also occur for gas flow if the
pressure is sufficiently low, relative to some characteristic pressure
that is inversely proportional to the mean pore size. In this situation,
the “effective gas permeability” differs from the true permeability,

135
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136 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

due to slippage of the gas molecules along the pore walls. This
so-called “Klinkenberg effect” must be taken into account when
analysing laboratory permeability measurements performing using
gas at low pressures, and also for gas flow (at any pressure) in ultra-
low permeability formations such as shales.

9.1. Diffusion Equation for Gas Flow in Porous Media

The main difference between analysing flow in gas reservoirs as
opposed to liquid reservoirs is that, for gases, the governing partial
differential equation becomes unavoidably nonlinear. The main
reason for this nonlinearity is that, whereas the compressibility of
a liquid can be assumed to be constant, and relatively small, in the
sense that was quantified in Section 1.6, the compressibility of a gas
varies strongly with pressure. Furthermore, the viscosity of a gas
usually also varies with pressure. The result is that the governing
equation for gas flow cannot usually be well approximated by a
linear diffusion equation with constant coefficients, as was the case
for liquids.
To derive the governing equation for gas flow, we return to the
analysis given in Section 1.7, and note that, up to Eq. (1.7.5), no
assumptions were made about the magnitude of the compressibility.
Hence, we can begin our analysis of gas flow with Eq. (1.7.5):
d(ρqR) d(ρφ)
− =R . (9.1.1)
dR dt
We now use Darcy’s law, in the form given by Eq. (1.4.1), for the
flux term q on the left-hand side, i.e.
k dP
q=− , (9.1.2)
μ dR
in which case Eq. (9.1.1) takes the form
 
1 d ρk dP d(ρφ)
R = . (9.1.3)
R dR μ dR dt
We next note that the process of expressing the right-hand side
of Eq. (9.1.3) in terms of the pressure, which was carried out in
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Flow of Gases in Porous Media 137

Section 1.6, did not require any assumptions about the magnitude
of the compressibility terms, etc. Hence, we can use Eq. (1.6.1) to
rewrite Eq. (9.1.3) as
 
1 d ρk dP dP
R = ρφ(cf + cφ ) . (9.1.4)
R dR μ dR dt
Equation (9.1.4) is completely general, in that it contains no
assumption that the compressibility of the pore fluid is small. It
also allows for the possibility that the density, permeability and
viscosity vary with pressure. As such, it is too general to be useful,
except as the basis of a numerical solution. However, there are many
cases of practical interest in which it can be either linearised, or
“almost” linearised, after which the standard solutions presented in
the previous chapters can be used.

9.2. Ideal Gas, Constant Reservoir Properties

One situation in which the nonlinear diffusion equation for gas flow
can be effectively linearised is if the gas can be assumed to obey the
ideal gas law:

P = ρRT, (9.2.1)

where R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If

we use Eq. (9.2.1) to express the density in terms of the pressure,
Eq. (9.1.4) takes the form
 
1 d kP dP φ(cf + cφ ) dP
R = P . (9.2.2)
R dR μRT dR RT dt
The simplest model of gas flow can be derived from Eq. (9.2.2)
by making the following assumptions:

(a) The temperature is constant.

(b) The viscosity of the gas is independent of pressure. This is
rigorously true for an ideal gas, for which the viscosity depends
only on temperature. This assumption allows us to take μ outside
of the derivative on the left-hand side of Eq. (9.2.2).
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138 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

(c) The compressibility of the gas is much larger than that of the
formation, which is often the case for gas reservoirs. In fact, the
compressibility of an ideal gas is 1/P , since
   
1 dρ RT d P RT 1 1
cf = = = = . (9.2.3)
ρ dP T P dP RT T P RT P

As the reservoir pressure is usually less than 10,000 psi, the

compressibility is at least 10−4 /psi. The formation compress-
ibility, on the other hand, is usually on the order of 10−5 /psi
(Matthews and Russell, 1967; Zimmerman, 1991). Hence, we can
often neglect cφ relative to cf .
(d) Assume that the permeability of the formation is independent
of the pore pressure. This is reasonably accurate for many
reservoirs, but is sometimes not a very good assumption in
fractured reservoirs or in tight gas sands, for example. This
assumption allows us to take k outside of the derivative on the
left-hand side of Eq. (9.2.2).

Under these four assumptions, Eq. (9.2.2) can be written as

 
1 d dP φμ dP
RP = P . (9.2.4)
R dR dR kP dt

We now note that

dP 1 d(P 2 ) dP 1 d(P 2 )
P = , P = , (9.2.5)
dt 2 dt dR 2 dR
which allows us to write Eq. (9.2.4) as
 
1 d d(P 2 ) φμ d(P 2 )
R = . (9.2.6)
R dR dR kP dt

Equation (9.2.6) is the standard diffusion equation in radial coordi-

nates, except that

(a) The dependent variable is P 2 rather than P ;

(b) The compressibility term, ct ≈ cf = 1/P , varies with pressure.
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Flow of Gases in Porous Media 139

Because of point (b), Eq. (9.2.6) is still nonlinear, and is not quite
equivalent to the diffusion equation used for liquid flow. However, we
can linearise Eq. (9.2.6) by evaluating the term P in the denominator
of the RHS at either the initial pressure, Pi , or at the mean wellbore
pressure during the test, i.e. at

Pi + Pw (end of test)
Pm = . (9.2.7)
2

If this is done, then Eq. (9.2.6) becomes a linear diffusion equation,

with P 2 rather than P as the dependent variable.

9.3. Real Gas, Variable Reservoir Properties

The ideal gas law is a good approximation to gas behaviour only
at low pressures. It is also generally more accurate for monatomic
or diatomic gases than for larger molecules such as gaseous hydro-
carbons. For gas reservoirs, which are usually at relatively high
pressures, it is more accurate to replace the ideal gas law, Eq. (9.2.1),
with the “real gas” equation of state,

P
P = ρzRT, or ρ= , (9.3.1)
zRT

where z is the (dimensionless) “gas deviation factor”. Using this

equation of state, Eq. (9.1.3) takes the form
   
1 d k dP d P
R P =φ . (9.3.2)
R dR μzRT dR dt zRT

Under isothermal conditions, this becomes

   
1 d k dP d P
R P =φ . (9.3.3)
R dR μz dR dt z

Equation (9.3.3) is highly nonlinear, but we can “partially linearise”

it by defining a new variable, the “real gas pseudopressure”, as fol-
lows; see Chapter 7 of Principles of Petroleum Reservoir Engineering,
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140 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

by Chierici (1994):
 P
k(P )P
m(P ) = 2 dP. (9.3.4)
0 μ(P )z(P )
The real gas pseudopressure m(P ) is just a generalisation of the
P 2 parameter that was used for ideal gases. This can be seen by
noting that if we assume that the permeability and viscosity are
both independent of pressure, and recall that z = 1 for an ideal gas,
then

2k P k
m(P ) → P dP = P 2 . (9.3.5)
μ 0 μ
Hence, for an ideal gas in a stress-insensitive reservoir, the pseudo-
pressure m(P ) is, aside from a multiplicative constant, equal to P 2 .
Returning to the real gas case, we differentiate Eq. (9.3.4) with
respect to P , to find
dm(P ) 2k(P )P
= , (9.3.6)
dP μ(P )z(P )
which implies that
dm dm dP 2k(P )P dP
= = . (9.3.7)
dR dP dR μ(P )z(P ) dR
Substituting Eq. (9.3.7) into the left-hand side of Eq. (9.3.3) leads to
   
1 d dm d P
R =φ . (9.3.8)
2R dR dR dt z
The left-hand side of Eq. (9.3.8) is essentially in the standard
form for the diffusion equation. On the right-hand side, we recall
that P/z = ρRT , so that under isothermal conditions,
 
d P d(ρRT ) dρ dρ dP
= = RT = RT . (9.3.9)
dt z dt dt dP dt
But from the definition of compressibility,
   
1 dρ dρ
cg = , so = ρcg , (9.3.10)
ρ dP T dP T
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Flow of Gases in Porous Media 141

in which case Eq. (9.3.9) can be written as

 
d P dP
= RT ρ(P )cg (P ) . (9.3.11)
dt z dt
Next we recall from Eq. (9.3.1) that ρ = P/zRT , and rewrite
Eq. (9.3.11) as
 
d P cg (P )P dP
= . (9.3.12)
dt z z(P ) dt
Combining Eq. (9.3.12) with Eq. (9.3.8) yields
 
1 d dm φcg (P )P dP
R = . (9.3.13)
2R dR dR z(P ) dt
But by analogy with Eq. (9.3.7), we have
dm 2k(P )P dP
= , (9.3.14)
dt μ(P )z(P ) dt
so that
dP μ(P )z(P ) dm
= . (9.3.15)
dt 2k(P )P dt
Combining Eq. (9.3.15) with Eq. (9.3.13) yields
 
1 d dm φμ(P )cg (P ) dm
R = . (9.3.16)
R dR dR k(P ) dt
Equation (9.3.16) is in the form of a standard diffusion equation in
radial coordinates, except that the diffusivity term on the right-hand
side is pressure-dependent.
As a final step in linearising the equation for gas flow to a
well, we make the approximation that the diffusivity terms on the
right can be replaced by some representative constant value, such as
the value at the mean wellbore pressure encountered during a well
test, i.e.
 
1 d dm φμ(Pm )cg (Pm ) dm
R = , (9.3.17)
R dR dR k(Pm ) dt
where Pm is defined by Eq. (9.2.7).
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 142

142 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Equation (9.3.17) is the (approximate) governing equation for

the flow of real gases to a well. If the pressure-dependent terms on
the right-hand side are evaluated at Pm , we can then use all of the
standard solutions that have been developed for liquid flow, provided
that we use m instead of P as the dependent variable.
The transformation between P and m is made by evaluating the
integral that is given in Eq. (9.3.4). If the reservoir is stress-sensitive,
we would need to know k(P ) in order to do this. Usually, we do
not have this information. If we ignore the pressure-dependence of
permeability, then the relationship between P and m becomes
 P
P
m(P ) = 2k dP. (9.3.18)
0 μ(P )z(P )

Since z(P ) and μ(P ) can be measured in the laboratory on samples

of the reservoir gas, this integral can be evaluated a priori. The result
is usually a relationship between P and m in tabular form, which is
used to transform the measured pressures into values of m that are
used in conjunction with our solutions to Eq. (9.3.17).

9.4. Non-Darcy Flow Effects

All of the previous analyses have been based on Darcy’s law, which
states that the flow rate is proportional to the pressure gradient.
Darcy’s law is an empirical law that is known to hold only at low flow
rates, which can be defined, roughly, as flows for which the Reynolds
number is less than one. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless
measure of the relative strengths of inertial forces relative to viscous
forces. Using the definition of Reynolds number, this condition can
be written as
ρvd
Re = < 1, (9.4.1)
μ
where ρ is the density of the fluid, μ is the viscosity, d is a mean pore
diameter and v is the mean (microscopic) velocity.
It would be useful to be able to express this criterion in terms of
macroscopically measurable quantities. If we use any of the common
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 143

Flow of Gases in Porous Media 143

correlations between pore diameter and permeability, such as the

Kozeny–Carman equation,
φd2 φd2
k= ≈ , (9.4.2)
96 100
we can express the pore diameter as

d = 10 k/φ. (9.4.3)

The criterion for Darcy’s law to be valid can therefore be written as

√
μ φ
v< √ . (9.4.4)
10ρ k
Next, we note that the macroscopic flow rate q must be equal to the
microscopic flow rate v, multiplied by the porosity, i.e. q = vφ, so
that
q
v= . (9.4.5)
φ
Hence, the criterion (9.4.4) for the validity of Darcy’s law can be
written as
μφ3/2
q< √ . (9.4.6)
10ρ k
The total flow rate towards the well is related to the flux by

Q = qA = 2πRHq (9.4.7)

and so condition (9.4.6) can be written as

2πRHμφ3/2 RHμφ3/2
Q< √ ≈ √ , (9.4.8)
10ρ k ρ k
which is expressed solely in terms of our usual reservoir parameters.
Criterion (9.4.8) becomes more stringent near the wellbore, where
R is smallest. This is because as a fixed volumetric flow rate
gets channelled through a smaller area, the velocity must increase.
Consequently, Darcy’s law is more likely to be become inapplicable
near the wellbore than farther out in the reservoir.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 144

144 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

If we use “typical” reservoir values in Eq. (9.4.8), we would find

that this criterion is usually violated in the vicinity of the wellbore
for gas flow, but not for liquid flow, unless the flow is occurring
through fractures rather than pores. If the flowing is occurring
through fractures, then the actual area available for flow is smaller,
and the velocity of the fluid must be greater. In this case, it is more
likely that the flow will be “non-Darcy”.
If criterion (9.4.8) is violated, Darcy’s law must be replaced with
a nonlinear law, such as Forchheimer’s equation:
dP μq
= + βρq 2 , (9.4.9)
dR k
in which the term βρq 2 represents an additional pressure gradient,
due to inertial effects, and β is the Forchheimer coefficient. Note that
when writing Eq. (9.4.9), we assume that q is positive if the fluid is
flowing towards the well. The Forchheimer equation can be justified
heuristically by noting that ρq 2 is related to the kinetic energy per
unit volume of fluid, and the kinetic energy is not negligible at higher
flow rates (recall Eq. 1.1.2).
Equation (9.4.9) implies that, for a given flow rate, the pressure
drop will be larger than that predicted by Darcy’s law. Hence, non-
Darcy effects contribute an “additional” pressure drop. Conversely,
since the “non-Darcy” pressure drop is greater than the Darcy
pressure drop for a given flow rate, then, if non-Darcy effects are
important, the flow rate due to a given pressure drop will be less
than that predicted by Darcy’s law.
Dimensional analysis of Eq. (9.4.9) shows that the factor β has
dimensions of L−1 . As k has dimensions
√ of L2 (recall Eq. 9.4.2), it is
roughly the case that β ≈ 1/ k. If this is true, then the magnitude
of the nonlinear term in Eq. (9.4.9) relative to that of the linear
term is
√
βρq 2 βρqk ρq k
ratio = = ≈ . (9.4.10)
μq/k μ μ
The term on the right of Eq.
√ (9.4.10) is essentially a Reynolds number
based on a length scale of k. Hence, if the Reynolds number is much
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 145

Flow of Gases in Porous Media 145

less than one, the nonlinear terms in Eq. (9.4.9) are negligible, and
we recover Darcy’s law.
As non-Darcy flow is confined to a region near the wellbore, its
effect during a well test is somewhat similar to a “skin” effect. In
fact, the main consequence of non-Darcy flow near the wellbore is
that the skin factor gets “replaced” by an apparent skin factor, s ,
which is given by

s = s + DQ, (9.4.11)

where D is the “non-Darcy skin coefficient”. This coefficient is related

to the coefficient β that appears in Forchheimer’s equation; see p. 241
of Chierici (1994) for details.

9.5. Klinkenberg Effect

Liquids, as well as gases at typical reservoir pressures, behave like
continua, in the sense that we can ignore the motions of individual
molecules, and instead work with mean velocities that are averaged
over a (very) large number of molecules. This leads to continuum-
type theories such as Darcy’s law for flow through porous media,
which actually arise from the Navier–Stokes equations for fluid flow
at the pore scale.
A fundamental aspect of using the Navier–Stokes equations is
that the fluid velocity is assumed to be zero at the boundary with a
solid, such as at the pore walls. This obviously must be true for the
normal component of the velocity, but it is also true for the tangential
component. This “no-slip” boundary condition is the main reason
why the Navier–Stokes equations average out (“upscale”) to yield
Darcy’s law.
However, this microscale boundary condition will not hold for a
gas at very low densities, which is to say at very low pressures. The
reasons are complicated, but they boil down to the fact that in order
for the gas to behave like a continuum, a given gas molecule must
collide much more frequently with other gas molecules than with the
pore walls. At low densities, however, each gas molecule will collide
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 146

146 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

with a pore wall much more frequently than it collides with another
gas molecule.
To quantify whether or not this will be the case, we must consider
the concept of the “mean free path”, which is essentially the mean
distance travelled by a molecule between subsequent collisions with
other molecules. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the mean
free path λ is essentially given by (see Molecular Theory of Gases
and Liquids, Hirschfelder et al. (1954)):
1 kB T
λ= √ =√ , (9.5.1)
2nπσ 2 2πσ 2 P
where n is the molecular density in molecules/volume, kB is the
Boltzmann constant (i.e. the gas constant per molecule), T is the
absolute temperature, and σ is an effective molecular diameter.
If the pore size is smaller than the mean free path, collisions
with the pore walls will be much more frequent than collisions with
other molecules, and the gas will essentially flow through the pores
as individual molecules, rather than as a fluid continuum. This type
of flow is known as “Knudsen flow”, or “slip flow”.
Klinkenberg (1941) assumed that gas flow through a porous
medium could be modelled as Knudsen flow through a capillary tube,
and showed that the “apparent” permeability measured during gas
flow will be related to the “true” absolute permeability k by
 
8cλ
kgas = k 1 + , (9.5.2)
d
where λ is the mean free path, d is the pore diameter, and c ≈ 1
is a dimensionless coefficient. If we combine Eqs. (9.5.1) and (9.5.2),
we find
 
8c kB T 1
kgas = k 1 + √ . (9.5.3)
2π dσ 2 P
If we now use Eq. (9.4.3) to relate the pore diameter to the
permeability, we find
 √ 
4c φ kB T
kgas = k 1 + √ √ . (9.5.4)
5 2π kσ 2 P
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 147

Flow of Gases in Porous Media 147

The second term in the brackets in Eq. (9.5.4) is the relative

discrepancy due to the Klinkenberg effect. Noting that the temper-
√
ature, the molecular diameter, and the term φ, will not vary by
very much, for all cases of practical interest, we see that the main
parameters that control the strength of the Klinkenberg effect are
the pressure and the permeability. Equation (9.5.4) shows that the
Klinkenberg effect is enhanced if either (i) the pressure is low, or (ii)
the permeability is low.
For a gas flowing through a given rock at a fixed temperature,
we can evaluate all the terms inside the bracket except P , and call
the result P ∗ . Equation (9.5.4) can then be written as
 
P∗
kgas = k 1 + , (9.5.5)
P
where P ∗ , which is usually written as b, is a characteristic pressure
that has the following significance: the Klinkenberg effect will
have a noticeable effect on the measured permeability if (roughly)
P < 10P ∗ . Alternatively, we can say that the Klinkenberg effect will
be negligible if P > 10P ∗ .
To quantify the magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect, consider a
rock having a porosity of φ = 0.10, with a gas flowing through it
at 300◦ K. Boltzmann’s constant is 1.38 × 10−23 J/◦ K, and typical
molecular diameters are on the order of 4Å, so we find from
Eq. (9.5.4) that

for k = 10 mD: P ∗ ≈ 15 kPa ≈ 2 psi,

for k = 1000 mD: P ∗ ≈ 1.5 kPa ≈ 0.2 psi.

Reservoir pressures will be much larger than P ∗ for conventional

reservoir rocks, and so the Klinkenberg effect is usually negligible for
flow in the reservoir. Exceptions will occur in shale gas reservoirs,
where k is very small, and P ∗ will be large. In shale gas reservoirs,
Klinkenberg effects may be important.
Even for conventional reservoir rocks that do not have ultra-low
permeabilities, Klinkenberg effects must be taken into account, for
the following reason. In the laboratory, permeability tests are often
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148 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

conducted using gas at low pressures because such measurements are

quicker, safer and cheaper than measurements made at simulated
reservoir pressures. For the lab data, it will not usually be the
case that the pressures are much larger than P ∗ . Consequently, lab-
measured permeabilities conducted using a gas such as nitrogen must
always be corrected to eliminate the Klinkenberg effect, and arrive at
the “true” permeability. In this case, it is the actual permeability k
that we want to know, not the apparent gas permeability, kgas , which
in this case is an experimental artefact!
This “Klinkenberg correction” to laboratory data is achieved by
measuring kgas over a range of pressures, and then plotting the results
as a function of 1/P . According to Eq. (9.5.5), the data should fall
on a straight line with a positive slope. If we then fit a straight line
through the k versus 1/P data, and extrapolate this line back to
1/P = 0, we can find the absolute permeability, k. This procedure is
illustrated in Figure 9.1, adapted from p. 78 of Chierici (1994). Note
that 1/P = 0 corresponds to very large pressures, at which the gas
does behave like a continuum.

Figure 9.1. Apparent “gas permeability” at low pressures, extrapolated to

1/P = 0 to find the true permeability.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-ch09 page 149

Flow of Gases in Porous Media 149

Note that the parameter P ∗ contains k within it as part of its

definition, and we do not know k before we measure it! However,
the extrapolation procedure does not require knowledge of k. The
data can be plotted against 1/P in any units, dimensionless or not;
extrapolation to 1/P = 0 will give the “actual” permeability.

Problem for Chapter 9

Problem 9.1. This problem involves a simplified model for produc-
tion of gas from a hydraulically fractured shale gas reservoir.
Combining Eqs. (8.1.2) and (8.1.7) leads to the following ODE
that governs the mean pressure in a matrix block in a fractured
reservoir:
dP̄m −αkm
= (P̄m − Pf ). (P.1)
dt φm μcm
As mentioned in Section 9.2, in a gas reservoir the fluid compress-
ibility term will usually greatly exceed the formation compressibility
term, and so the total compressibility of the gas-filled matrix block
can be approximated by cm = cgas . Furthermore, if we approximate
the behaviour of the gas as an ideal gas, then according to Eq. (9.2.3),
we can say that cm = cgas = 1/Pm .

(a) Imagine that a matrix block in a gas reservoir is initially at some

pressure Pi , after which the pressure in the surrounding fractures
is lowered to some value Pf < Pi , and then held at that pressure.
Approximate the term cm = 1/Pm by its initial value 1/Pi , and
then integrate Eq. (P.1) to find the mean pressure in the matrix
block, as a function of time. Then use Eq. (8.1.2) to find an
expression for the rate of gas production from the matrix block
as a function of time.
(b) Noting that e−x will be < 0.01 when x > 5 (roughly), derive an
expression for the time at which the production rate of gas from
the matrix block has diminished to 1% of its initial value.
(c) When a shale gas reservoir is hydraulically fractured, the
interaction between the hydraulically induced fractures and the
pre-existing microfractures and bedding planes will create a
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150 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

network of fractures around the wellbore. Imagine that this

fracture network breaks up the region around the wellbore into
a collection of blocks that can be approximated by cubes of
size L. Assuming plausible values such as L = 1 m, φm = 0.1,
μ = 1 × 10−5 Pa s, km = 10−21 m2 , and Pi = 20 MPa, how
long will it take for the production rate to drop to 1% of its
initial value?
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 151

Appendix

Solutions to Problems

Problem 1.1. A well located in a 100 ft. thick reservoir having a

permeability of 100 mD produces 100 bbl/day of oil from a 10 in.
diameter wellbore. The viscosity of the oil is 0.4 cP. The pressure
at a distance of 1000 ft. from the wellbore is 3000 psi. What is the
pressure at the wellbore? Conversion factors are as follows:
1 barrel = 0.1589 m3 ,
1 Poise = 0.1 N s/m2 ,
1 foot = 0.3048 m,
1 psi = 6895 N/m2 = 6895 Pa.

Solution: The wellbore pressure is given by Eq. (1.4.5), reprinted

below for convenience:
 
μQ Rw
Pw = Po + ln . (A.1)
2πkH Ro
First, convert all given data into SI units:
  
1 ft 0.3048 m
Rw = (5 in) = 0.127 m,
12 in 1 ft
 
0.3048 m
Ro = (1000 ft) = 304.8 m,
1 ft
 
0.3048 m
H = (100 ft) = 30.48 m,
1 ft

151
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152 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

  
1P 0.1 Pa s
μ = (0.4 cP) = 4 × 10−4 Pa s,
100 cP 1P
  
1D 0.987 × 10−12 m2
k = (100 mD)
1000 mD 1D
= 9.87 × 10−14 m2 ,
    
bbl 0.1589 m3 1 day 1 hr
Q = 100
day bbl 24 hr 3600 sec
= 1.84 × 10−4 m3 /s.

Plugging these values into Eq. (A.1), and then converting the answer
back into psi, gives
 
(4 × 10−4 Pa s)(1.84 × 10−4 m3 /s) ln 0.127
Pw − Po = 304.8
,
2π(9.87 × 10−14 m2 )(30.48 m)
 
1 psi
= −30310 Pa = −4.4 psi.
6895 Pa
⇒ Pw = Po − 4.4 psi = 3000 − 4.4 psi = 2995.6 psi.

Problem 1.2. Carry out a derivation of the diffusion equation

for spherically-symmetric flow, in analogy to the derivation given
in Section 1.7 for radial flow. (This equation can be used to model
flow to a well in situations when only a small length of the well has
been perforated, in which case the large-scale flow field will, at early
times, be roughly spherical). The result of your derivation should be
an equation similar to Eq. (1.7.8), but with a slightly different term
on the right-hand side.

Solution: The derivation is essentially the same as for the cylindrical

geometry; the only difference being that we use a spherical shell of
radius R and thickness ΔR, rather than a cylindrical shell.
So, the cross-sectional area normal to the flow will be 4πR2 rather
than 2πRH, and the volume of the shell will be 4πR2 ΔR rather than
2πRHΔR. For clarity, the derivation will be presented step-by-step,
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 153

Solutions to Problems 153

starting with Eq. (1.5.4), which is generic

[A(x)ρ(x)q(x) − A(x + Δx)ρ(x + Δx)q(x + Δx)]Δt

= m(t + Δt) − m(t). (A.2)

Replace x with R, and note that A(R) = 4πR2

[4πR2 ρ(R)q(R) − 4π(R + ΔR)2 ρ(R + ΔR)q(R + ΔR)]Δt

= m(t + Δt) − m(t). (A.3)

As before, divide by Δt, and let Δt → 0, to find

dm
4π[R2 ρ(R)q(R) − (R + ΔR)2 ρ(R + ΔR)q(R + ΔR)] = .
dt
(A.4)

On the right side:

m = ρφV = ρφ4πR2 ΔR, (A.5)

dm d(ρφ4πR2 ΔR) d(ρφ)
⇒ = = 4πR2 ΔR. (A.6)
dt dt dt

Equate Eqs. (A.4) and (A.5), divide by ΔR, and let ΔR → 0. The
4π terms cancel out, leaving

d(ρqR2 ) d(ρφ)
− = R2 . (A.7)
dR dt

Equation (A.7) is the spherical-flow version of the conservation of

mass equation.
Now use Darcy’s law in the form of Eq. (1.1.5) for q on the left
side of Eq. (A.7), use Eq. (1.6.1) on the right side, and then divide
through by k/μ, to get
 
d 2 dP ρμφ(cf + cφ )R2 dP
ρR = . (A.8)
dR dR k dt
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154 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Expand out the left side using the product rule for derivatives,
treating ρ and R2 (dP/dR) as the two terms:

     
d 2 dP dρ 2 dP d 2 dP
ρR = R +ρ R
dR dR dR dR dR dR
    
dρ dP 2 dP d 2 dP
= R +ρ R
dP dR dR dR dR
 2  
dP d dP
= ρcf R2 +ρ R2 . (A.9)
dR dR dR

For liquids, the first term on the right of Eq. (A.9) is usually negligible
compared to the second, so Eq. (A.8) becomes

 
d dP ρμφ(cf + cφ )R2 dP
ρ R2 = . (A.10)
dR dR k dt

Cancel out ρ from both sides, and rename (cf + cφ ) as ct , to obtain

the diffusion equation for spherically symmetric flow:
 
dP k 1 d dP
= R2 . (A.11)
dt φμct R2 dR dR

The solution for the “spherical point source” in an infinite

reservoir, including wellbore storage effects, can be found in Brigham
et al. (1980). The effect of wellbore skin was included in Joseph and
Koederitz (1985). Spherical flow is also discussed in some detail in
Stanislav and Kabir (1990).

Problem 2.1. A well with 3 in. radius is located in a 40 ft. thick

reservoir that has a permeability of 30 mD and a porosity of 0.20. The
total compressibility of the oil-rock system is 3×10−5 /psi. The initial
pressure in the reservoir is 2800 psi. The well produces 448 bbl/day
of oil that has a viscosity of 0.4 cP. Conversion factors can be found
in Problem 1.1.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 155

Solutions to Problems 155

Solution: First, convert all data to SI units:

  
1 ft 0.3048 m
Rw = (3 in) = 0.0762 m,
12 in 1 ft
 
0.3048 m
H = (40 ft) = 12.19 m,
1 ft
  
1P 0.1 Pa s
μ = (0.4 cP) = 4 × 10−4 Pa s,
100 cP 1P
 
0.987 × 10−15 m2
k = (30 mD) = 2.96 × 10−14 m2 ,
1 mD
   
bbl 1 day 1 hr 0.1589 m3
Q = 448
day 24 hr 3600 sec 1 bbl
m3
= 8.24 × 10−4 ,
s
 
−5 1 psi
c = (3 × 10 /psi) = 4.35 × 10−9 /Pa,
6895 Pa
 
6895 Pa
Pi = (2800 psi) = 19.31 × 106 Pa.
1 psi
(a) How long will it take in order for the line source solution to be
applicable at the wellbore wall?
According to Eq. (2.3.1), the time required for the line source solution
to be applicable at the wellbore wall will be
0.25φμcRw 2
t>
k
0.25(0.2)(0.0004 Pa s)(4.35 × 10−9 /Pa)(0.0762 m)2
= = 0.017 s!
(2.96 × 10−14 m2 )
(A.12)
So, for practical purposes, the assumption of an infinitely small
borehole radius causes no problems.
(b) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the line source solution?
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 156

156 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

According to the line source solution, Eq. (2.1.21),

 2 
μQ −φμcRw
Pw (t) = Pi + Ei . (A.13)
4πkH 4kt
First, calculate the pre-factor μQ/4πkH:
μQ (0.0004 Pa s)(8.24 × 10−4 m3 /s)
= = 7.27 × 104 Pa.
4πkH 4π(2.96 × 10−14 m2 )(12.19 m)
(A.14)
2 /4kt, when t = 6
Now calculate the value of the variable x = φμcRw
days = 5.184 × 10 s:
5

(0.2)(0.0004 Pa s)(4.35 × 10−9 /Pa)(0.0762 m)2

x=
4(2.96 × 10−14 m2 )(5.184 × 105 s)
= 3.29 × 10−8 . (A.15)

From Table 2.1, we find:

−Ei(−x) = −Ei(−3.29 × 10−8 ) = 16.62. (A.16)

Combine Eqs. (A.13), (A.14) and (A.16) to get:

Pw (6 days) = 19.31 × 106 Pa − (7.27 × 104 Pa)(16.62)

= (18.10 × 106 Pa)(1 psi/6895 Pa) = 2625 psi.

(c) How long will it take in order for Jacob’s logarithmic approxima-
tion to be valid at the wellbore?
According to Eq. (2.4.7), the time required will be
2
25φμcRw
t> , (A.17)
k
which is 100 times greater than the time required for the line source
solution itself to be meaningful for a well having a finite radius.
Hence, the logarithmic approximation will be valid at the wellbore
after only 1.7 s.
(d) What is the pressure at the wellbore after six days of production,
according to the logarithmic approximation?
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 157

Solutions to Problems 157

According to Eq. (2.4.8),

 2

μQ γφμcRw μQ
Pw (t) = Pi + ln = Pi + ln(γx). (A.18)
4πkH 4kt 4πkH

But we know from (b) that t = 6 days, x = 3.29 × 10−8 , and we also
know that γ = 1.781, so

Pw (t) = 19.31 × 106 Pa + (7.27 × 104 Pa) ln[1.781(3.29 × 10−8 )]

= 19.31 × 106 Pa − 1.21 × 106 Pa
= 18.10 × 106 Pa = 2625 psi.

As expected, based on the answer to part (c), the logarithmic

approximation gives the correct pressure at the wellbore.
(e) Answer questions (b)–(d) for a location that is 800 ft. (horizon-
tally) away from the wellbore.
Using the same equations as in parts (a)–(d), we find that:

P (R = 800 ft, t = 6 days, exact solution) = 2791 psi,

P (R = 800 ft, t = 6 days, logarithmic approximation) = 2795 psi.

So, the logarithmic approximation gives a drawdown of 5 psi, whereas

the actual drawdown is 9 psi! This is consistent with the fact that,
according to Eq. (2.4.7), the logarithmic approximation will not be
accurate at a radius of 800 ft. until 207 days have elapsed.
Problem 2.2. A well with a radius of 0.3 ft. produces 200 bbl/day
of oil, with viscosity 0.6 cP, from a 20 ft. thick reservoir. The wellbore
pressures are as follows:

t (mins) 0 5 10 20 60 120 480 1440 2880 5760

Pw (psi) 4000 3943 3938 3933 3926 3921 3911 3904 3899 3894

Estimate the permeability and the storativity of the reservoir, using

the semi-log method presented in Section 2.6.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 158

158 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Solution: First, plot the well pressure versus the logarithm of time;
it is not necessary to convert the data to SI units (see Figure A.1).
Next, look for a straight line at late times, and find its slope:
   
 ΔP  4004 − 3890 6895 Pa

m=  = = 7.07 psi × = 48758 Pa.
Δ ln t  7(2.303) psi

Note 1: 4004 psi is the value obtained by extrapolating the straight

line back to t = 0.001 min. We use this time for convenience, so that
Δt covers an integral number of log cycles; this time has no physical
significance.

Note 2: Δ ln t has the same numerical value regardless of which units

are used for t! In this case, Δt = “seven orders of magnitude”, so
Δ ln t = 7(ln 10) = 7(2.303).
Now, calculate k from Eq. (2.6.4). To do this, first convert the
data to SI units:
 
0.001 Pa s
μ = 0.6 cP × = 0.0006 Pa s,
cP
bbl 0.1589 m3 day hr −4 m
3
Q = 200 × × × = 3.68 × 10 ,
day bbl 24 hr 3600 s s
H = 20 ft × (0.3048 m/ft) = 6.096 m,
μQ (0.0006 Pa s)(3.68 × 10−4 m3 /s)
k= =
4πmH 4π(48, 758 Pa)(6.096 m)
 
−14 1 mD
= 5.91 × 10 m 2
= 59.9 mD.
0.987 × 10−15 m2

Note that the “exact value”, i.e. the value used to generate the
synthetic pressure data, was 60 mD.
To estimate the storativity term, φc, extrapolate the straight
line back to the initial pressure, 4000 psi (see Figure A.1). The
extrapolated line crosses the horizontal line Pw = 4000 psi at t∗ =
0.0016 min = 0.096 sec. We then use Eq. (2.6.5) to calculate φc.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 159

Solutions to Problems 159

Figure A.1. Semi-log plot of pressure used in the estimation of reservoir

properties.

First, we need to convert the wellbore radius to SI units: Rw =

(0.3 ft) × (0.3048 m/ft) = 0.0914 m. Finally, using Eq. (2.6.5), we find
2.246kt∗ 2.246(5.91 × 10−14 m2 )(0.096 s)
φc = 2
=
μRw (0.0006 Pa s)(0.0914 m)2
= 2.54 × 10−9 /Pa.

Problem 3.1. Which, if any, of the following differential equations

are linear, and why (or why not)?
d2 y dy
(a) 2
+y + y = 0.
dx dx
d2 y dy
(b) 2
+x + y = 0.
dx dx
d2 y dy
(c) 2
+x + xy = 0.
dx dx
Solution: The main test to see if an equation is linear is that a linear
differential equation can only contain the dependent variable (in this
case, y), or its derivatives, to the first power. If the equation contains
y or any of its derivatives taken to a higher power, or multiplied
together, then it is nonlinear. So, terms such as y(dy/dx) will make
the equation nonlinear.
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160 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

By this rule, it seems that Eq. (a) is nonlinear, but Eqs. (b) and
(c) are linear. Note that multiplying y by the independent variable x
is OK — this will not make the equation nonlinear. However, just to
be sure, we should also check the basic definition of linearity. So, let
us denote the “operator” in Eq. (a) by “M (y)”, then plug y = y1 +y2
into M (y), and see what we get:
d2 (y1 + y2 ) d(y1 + y2 )
M (y1 + y2 ) = 2
+ (y1 + y2 ) + (y1 + y2 )
dx dx
 
d2 y1 d2 y2 dy1 dy2
= + + (y1 + y2 ) + + (y1 + y2 )
dx2 dx2 dx dx
d2 y1 d2 y2 dy1 dy1 dy2
= 2
+ 2
+ y1 + y2 + y1
dx dx dx dx dx
dy2
+ y2 + y1 + y2
dx
 2   2 
d y1 dy1 d y2 dy2
= + y1 + y1 + + y2 + y2
dx2 dx dx2 dx
dy2 dy1
+ y1 + y2
dx dx
dy2 dy1
= M (y1 ) + M (y2 ) + y1 + y2 .
dx dx
Because of the terms such as y1 (dy2 /dx), in general it will not be true
that M (y1 + y2 ) = M (y1 ) + M (y2 ) for arbitrary y1 and y2 ; therefore,
Eq. (a) is nonlinear. Similarly, we can show that Eqs. (b) and (c) are
linear.
Additionally, to rigorously verify linearity, we must also check
that M (cy) = cM (y) for any function y and any constant c. It is
easy to see that Eq. (a) also fails this test, but (b) and (c) satisfy
this criterion.
The property of linearity is crucial, because all the standard
methods used to solve the diffusion equation (Laplace transforms,
eigenfunction expansions, Green’s functions, etc.) work only for linear
equations.
Problem 3.2. Find an expression for the wellbore pressure in a
vertical well drilled into an infinite reservoir, if the production rate
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 161

Solutions to Problems 161

increases linearly as a function of time according to Q(t) = Q∗ t/t∗ ,

where Q∗ and t∗ are constants. Use convolution, in the form of either
Eq. (3.4.6) or Eq. (3.4.10), and recall that ΔPQ (R, t) for a well in an
infinite reservoir is given by Eq. (3.3.6).

Solution: According to Eq. (3.4.10), the drawdown due to an

arbitrary flow rate Q(t) can be found from the solution for constant
flow rate by evaluating the following convolution integral:
 t
dΔPQ (R, t − τ )
ΔP (R, t) = Q(τ ) dτ. (A.19)
0 dt

where ΔPQ (R, t), given by Eq. (3.3.6), is the drawdown per unit flow
rate for the case of constant flow rate:
 
−μ −φμcR2
ΔPQ (R, t) = Ei
4πkH 4kt
 ∞
μ e−u
= du. (A.20)
4πkH φμcR2 u
4kt

Using the chain rule on the term on the right side of Eq. (A.20), the
derivative appearing in Eq. (A.19) is found to be

dΔPQ (R, t) −μ exp(−φμcR2 /4kt) d(φμcR2 /4kt)
=
dt 4πkH (φμcR2 /4kt) dt
μ 2
= exp−(φμcR /4kt) . (A.21)
4πkHt
Using Q(t) = Q∗ t/t∗ and Eq. (A.21) in Eq. (A.19), we find
 ∞ 2
Q∗ τ μ exp−[φμcR /4k(t−τ )]
ΔP (R, t) = dτ. (A.22)
0 4πkHt∗ (t − τ )

We now make the following change of variables:

φμcR2 φμcR2 φμcR2

x= → τ =t− → dτ = dx.
4k(t − τ ) 4kx 4kx2
(A.23)
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162 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Note that τ is the integration variable in Eq. (A.22), whereas t is

just a parameter. We also need to change the limits of integration:

φμcR2
when τ = 0, x= , (A.24)
kt
when τ = t, x = ∞. (A.25)

Inserting Eqs. (A.23–A.25) into Eq. (A.22) gives

 ∞  
Q∗ μ φμcR2 e−x
ΔP (R, t) = t− dx
4πkHt∗ φμcR2 4kx x
4kt
 ∞
Q∗ μt e−x
= dx
4πkHt∗ φμcR2 x
4kt
  ∞
Q∗ μt φμcR2 e−x
− dx. (A.26)
4πkHt∗ 4kt φμcR2 x2
4kt

The first integral on the right side in Eq. (A.26) is, aside from
the sign, the Ei function, and noting that Q(t) = Q∗ t/t∗ , thus far
we have:
 
−μQ(t) −φμcR2
ΔP (R, t) = Ei
4πkH 4kt
  ∞
μQ(t) φμcR2 e−x
− dx. (A.27)
4πkH 4kt φμcR2 x2
4kt

To evaluate the remaining integral, we use integration-by-parts, with

the following choices for “u” and “v”:

−1 1
u = e−x , dv = dx, du = −e−x dx, v= . (A.28)
x2 x

The integral in Eq. (A.27) can now be evaluated as follows:

 ∞ ∞  ∞
−e−x e−x e−x e−w
dx = + dx = − − Ei(−w).
w x2 x w w x w
(A.29)
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Solutions to Problems 163

Using result (A.29) in Eq. (A.27) gives

 
−μQ(t) −φμcR2
ΔP (R, t) = Ei
4πkH 4kt
⎡ „ −φμcR2 « ⎤
  4kt  
μQ(t) φμcR ⎢ e 2 −φμcR ⎥
2
− ⎣ φμcR2  + Ei ⎦.
4πkH 4kt 4kt
4kt

(A.30)
This result can be written in dimensionless form as
 
1 1 −1/4tD
ΔPD (R, t) = − 1+ Ei(−1/4tD ) + e , (A.31)
2 4tD
where the dimensionless time is defined in the usual way as
kt
tD = , (A.32)
φμcR2
and the dimensionless drawdown is defined as
2πkHΔP (t)
ΔPD (R, t) = . (A.33)
μQ(t)
When tD > 50, the exponential approximation can be used for
the Ei function, the term e−1/4tD is essentially equal to 1, and the
term 1/4tD is negligible compared to 1, in which case Eq. (A.31)
reduces to
1 1
ΔPD (R, t) = − [ln(1/4tD ) + ln γ + 1] = [ln(4tD ) − ln γ − 1]
2 2
1 1
= (ln 4 + ln tD − ln γ − 1) = (ln tD − 0.191).
2 2
(A.34)
The graph of the dimensionless drawdown versus dimensionless time
is shown in Figure A.2, with the exact solution shown by the solid
curve, and the late-time approximation shown by the dashed curve.
The dotted vertical line at tD = 50 indicates the time at which the
approximate solution becomes accurate to within 1%.
Dimensionless drawdown versus dimensionless time, as given by
the exact expression, Eq. (A.31), and the approximate expression,
Eq. (A.34).
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164 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure A.2. Dimensionless drawdown versus Dimensionless time, as given by the

exact expression, Eq. (A.31), and the approximate expression, Eq. (A.34).

Problem 4.1. As explained in Section 4.2, a doubling of the slope on

a semi-log plot of drawdown versus time indicates the presence of an
impermeable linear fault. The drawdown data can also be used to find
the distance from the well to the fault, as follows. If we plot the data and
then fit two straight lines through the early-time and late-time data, the
time at which these lines intersect is called tDw . Show that the distance
to the fault is then given by the equation d = (0.5615tDw )1/2 Rw .
Solution: According to Section 4.2, in the time regime defined by
25 < tDw < 0.3(d/Rw )2 , (A.35)
the drawdown is essentially that of a well in an infinite reservoir, i.e.
Eq. (4.2.7):
 
μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
. (A.36)
4πkH φμcRw
In the time regime defined by
tDw > 100(d/Rw )2 , (A.37)
the drawdown in the production well is described by Eq. (4.2.10)
  
μQ 2.246kt μQ 2.246kt
Pw (t) = Pi − ln 2
− ln . (A.38)
4πkH φμcRw 4πkH φμc(2d)2
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Solutions to Problems 165

Figure A.3. Intersection of the two lines given by Eqs. (A.36) and (A.38).

Both Eqs. (A.36) and (A.38) yield straight lines on a semi-log

plot of Pw versus ln t (see Figure A.3). The time at which these two
lines cross is found by setting the two pressures, from Eqs. (A.36)
and (A.38), equal to each other. They will only be equal if the third
term in Eq. (A.38) is zero, i.e. if

μQ 2.246kt
ln = 0. (A.39)
4πkH φμc(2d)2
But ln x will be zero only when x = 1, which occurs when
0.5615kt
2.246kt = φμc(2d)2 → d2 = . (A.40)
φμc
In dimensionless form, this can be written as
d2 0.5615kt
2
= 2
= 0.5615tDw → d = 0.749(tDw )1/2 Rw . (A.41)
Rw φμcRw

Problem 4.2. The curves in Figure 4.5 were drawn for the case
d = 200Rw . What would the curves look like for the case of a fault
located at a distance d = 400Rw ?
Solution: Based on the discussion given in the solution to
Problem 4.1, we see that at early times, the drawdown will still be
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166 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

given by Eq. (A.36). At a time defined by Eq. (A.41), the pressure

will veer off along another straight line with twice the slope of the
original line. All other factors being equal, the time at which the
second line diverges from the original line will scale according to d2 .
Hence, if d increases by a factor of 2, the time at which the
second curve veers off from the first will be increased by a factor of
4. But the time axis is plotted logarithmically, so this has the effect
of shifting the second curve to the right by an amount log10 (4), as in
Figure A.4.
Problem 4.3. Consider a well-located equidistant from two orthogo-
nal boundaries, as in Figure 4.3, but imagine that the boundaries are
constant-pressure boundaries, rather than impermeable boundaries.
How would you utilise the method of images to find the drawdown
in this well?
Solution: Recall that to account for one constant-pressure linear
boundary, we positioned an image well symmetrically across the
boundary, and we made it an injection well.
This method works because the drawdown caused by image well
1 along the vertical line in Figure A.5 is equal in magnitude, but

Figure A.4. If the distance to the fault is doubled, the drawdown curve is shifted
to the right by log10 (4).
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Solutions to Problems 167

Figure A.5. Image well (injector) required in order to cause the vertical dotted
line to become a constant-pressure boundary.

Figure A.6. Actual production well and two image (injection) wells. Image well
1 is located so as to cancel out the drawdown due to the actual well along the
vertical dotted line; image well 2 does the same for the horizontal line.

opposite in sign, to that caused by the actual production well. So,

if we have two constant-pressure boundaries intersecting at right
angles, we might try to install two image wells as injectors (−), one
located symmetrically to the actual well (+) with respect to the
vertical boundary, and one located symmetrically to the actual well
with respect to the horizontal boundary, as in Figure A.6.
However, this is still not quite correct, because image well 2
will cause a drawdown along the vertical boundary that is not
compensated for by either the actual well or the first image well.
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168 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure A.7. Inclusion of a third image well, to cancel out the unwanted drawdown
due to well 2 along the vertical dotted line, and to cancel out the drawdown due
to well 1 along the horizontal dotted line.

We therefore need another well to cancel out the drawdown caused

by image well 2 along the vertical boundary. This can be achieved by
placing another production well (well 3, +) in a position symmetric
to well 2 with respect to the vertical boundary, as in Figure A.7.
Note that image well 3 will also cancel out the drawdown that well
1 causes along the horizontal boundary.
To check that this configuration is correct, let us examine the
drawdown due to these four wells. Consider a generic point in the
reservoir, located at distance R from the actual well, distance R1
from well 1, etc., as in Figure A.8.
From inspection of Figure A.8, the total drawdown can be
written as
   
4πkH[P (R, t) − Pi ] −φμcR2 −φμcR32
= Ei + Ei
μQ 4kt 4kt
   
−φμcR12 −φμcR22
− Ei − Ei . (A.42)
4kt 4kt

Now consider a point that lies on the horizontal constant-pressure

boundary, such as in Figure A.9.
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Solutions to Problems 169

Figure A.8. Image wells and distances to a generic point in the reservoir.

Figure A.9. Radius variables for a point located on the horizontal constant-
pressure boundary.

Note that R2 = R and R3 = R1 , so from Eq. (A.42) the total

drawdown at this point can be written as
   
4πkH[P (R, t) − Pi ] −φμcR2 −φμcR12
= Ei + Ei
μQ 4kt 4kt
   
−φμcR12 −φμcR2
− Ei − Ei = 0,
4kt 4kt
(A.43)
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170 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

which proves that the pressure along the horizontal boundary

remains at Pi at all times.
The same is true for a point along the vertical dotted line,
thus proving that we have constructed the solution for a well
symmetrically bounded by two orthogonal, intersecting constant-
pressure boundaries.
Finally, the drawdown in the actual well is found
√ from Eq. (A.42)
by setting R = Rw , R1 = R2 = 2d, and R3 = 2 2d, to get
4πkH[Pw (t) − Pi ]
μQ
     
−φμcRw 2 −2φμcd2 −φμcd2
= Ei + Ei − 2Ei .
4kt kt kt
(A.44)
Problem 5.1. Imagine a wellbore that is filled with liquid only up to
some height h above the top of the reservoir. The liquid has density
ρ. Even if this liquid were incompressible, a wellbore storage effect
would still occur, due to the raising or lowering of the fluid column.
Derive an expression for the wellbore storage coefficient Cs in this
case.
Solution: The basic definition of the wellbore storage coefficient is
embodied in Eq. (5.3.2):
dPw
Qsf − Qwh = Cs . (A.45)
dt
Consider an increment of time Δt. The net flow of fluid into the
well during this time period will be (Qsf − Qwh )Δt. This must equal
the change in the volume of fluid stored in the well, which is AΔh,
where A is the cross-sectional area of the well. Inserting these two
expressions into Eq. (A.45) gives
dh
Qsf − Qwh = A . (A.46)
dt
Equating the two expressions (A.45) and (A.46) shows that
Cs (dPw /dt) = A(dh/dt). The pressure in the liquid at the top of
the reservoir will be ρgh, so dPw /dt = ρg(dh/dt), which shows that
Cs ρg = A, which in turn implies that Cs = A/ρg.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 171

Solutions to Problems 171

Problem 6.1. Starting with the expression for the pressure

drawdown, Eq. (6.4.6), show that the transition regime for a
closed circular reservoir with constant production rate ends when
t ≈ 0.3φμcRe2 /k.
Hints:
(a) e−x ≈ 0 when x > 4, so all terms in the series will be negligible
when λ2n tD > 4 for all n.
(b) When RDe is large, the first eigenvalue, λ1 , defined as the
smallest value of λ that satisfies Eq. (6.4.4), is very small. This
fact should help you to estimate the value of λ1 as a function of
RDe , by making the reasonable assumption that λ1 is inversely
proportional to RDe .
(c) Make use of Eqs. (6.2.37), (6.2.39) and (6.2.48) and Figure 6.3.

Solution: Recall from Section (6.4) that the wellbore pressure for a
constant flow rate well in a closed circular reservoir is given by
∞
3  2J12 (λn RDe )e−λn tD
2
2tD
ΔPDw (tD ) = 2 + ln RDe − + ,
RDe 4 λ2 [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 1
(A.47)
in which the eigenvalues λn are defined, implicitly, as the roots of the
following equation:
J1 (λn )Y1 (λn RDe ) − Y1 (λn )J1 (λn RDe ) = 0, (A.48)
and the dimensionless variables are defined as in Section 6.3.
The transition regime ends when all of the exponential terms in
Eq. (A.47) are negligible, which we can define to occur when the
values of the exponentials are all less than 0.01. Since e−4.6 = 0.01,
we can say that an exponential term e−x ≈ 0 will be “negligible”
when the variable x is greater than 4.6.
Recall from Eq. (6.2.48) that there will always be an infinite
number of positive eigenvalues λn , such that
0 < λ1 < λ2 < λ3 < · · · < λn < · · · . (A.49)
Equation (A.49) implies that
0 < λ21 tD < λ22 tD < λ23 tD < · · · < λ2n tD < · · · , (A.50)
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172 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

which in turn implies that

2 2 2 2
e−λ1 tD > e−λ2 tD > e−λ3 tD > · · · > e−λn tD > · · · . (A.51)

Hence, if we want each exponential term to be less than 0.01, we only

need to check that the first term is < 0.01. This will occur when
4.6
λ21 tD > 4.6 → tD > . (A.52)
λ21
So, our main task is to estimate the value of λ1 , the smallest
eigenvalue, which is the smallest value of λ that satisfies Eq. (A.48):

J1 (λn )Y1 (λn RDe ) − Y1 (λn )J1 (λn RDe ) = 0. (A.53)

Physically, we expect that the time required for the transition

period to end will be larger for larger reservoirs, and vice versa. So,
Eq. (A.52) implies that we should expect that as RDe increases, λ1
will decrease, and, in the limit,

λ1 → 0 as RDe → ∞. (A.54)

Since relevant values of RDe are usually >100, we know that the root
of Eq. (A.53) that we are looking for will be very close to zero. Let us
now make the reasonable assumption that λ1 and RDe are inversely
related, i.e. λ1 = c/RDe , for some constant c, whose value we do not
yet know.
We must now examine all the terms in Eq. (A.48), and see if we
can simplify them when λ1 is very small. First, recall from Eq. (6.3.5)
that
dJ0 (x) dY0 (x)
J1 (x) ≡ − , Y1 (x) ≡ − . (A.55)
dx dx
Next, recall from Eq. (6.2.37) that for small values of x,
x2
J0 (x) = 1 − + ··· . (A.56)
4
Combining Eqs. (A.55) and (A.56) shows that, for small x,
−dJ0 (x) x
J1 (x) = = + ··· . (A.57)
dx 2
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Solutions to Problems 173

Next, recall the definition of Y0 (x) given by Eq. (6.2.39)

∞
2 2  (−1)n hn 2n
Y0 (x) = ln(γx/2)J0 (x) − x . (A.58)
π π (n!)2 22n
n=1

For small x, all the terms in the series will be very small. Also,
we know from Eq. (A.56) that J0 (x) ≈ 1 for small x. Hence, we see
from Eq. (A.58) that, for small x,
2 2 2
Y0 (x) ≈ ln(γx/2) = (ln x + ln γ − ln 2) ≈ ln x, (A.59)
π π π
where we retain only the ln x term, because this is the only term
that becomes large in magnitude as x becomes small. Now, using the
second equation in Eq. (A.55), we have
 
dY0 (x) d 2 −2
Y1 (x) = − ≈− ln x = . (A.60)
dx dx π πx
With our assumption that λ1 = c/RDe , Eq. (A.48) takes the form

J1 (λ1 )Y1 (c) − Y1 (λ1 )J1 (c) = 0. (A.61)

Now, λ1 is small, and c is some (albeit unknown) finite number, so

we can use Eq. (A.57) for J1 (λ1 ), and Eq. (A.60) for Y1 (λ1 ), to find
λ1 2
Y1 (c) + J1 (c) = 0,
2 πλ1
πλ21 πc2
→ J1 (c) = − Y1 (c) = − 2 Y1 (c). (A.62)
4 4RDe
As RDe gets very large, which in practice will always will be the
case, the right-hand side of Eq. (A.62) goes to zero. Hence, the left-
hand side must also go to zero. So, the value of c that we are looking
for is the smallest value that satisfies the equation

J1 (c) = 0. (A.63)

This number is called “the first zero of J1 ”, and can be found in most
books on advanced applied mathematics. Or, we can be clever and
recall that, by Eq. (A.55), J1 (c) will be zero when the derivative of
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 174

174 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Figure A.10. Bessel functions of order zero.

J0 (c) is zero — and we can find this value of c from Figure 6.2.2,
which is repeated in Figure A.10.
We see from Figure A.10 that the smallest value of c for which
the derivative J0 (c) is zero is roughly c = 3.8; the exact value is
actually 3.83. Recalling that λ1 = c/RDe , we have
3.8
λ1 ≈ . (A.64)
RDe
So, criterion (A.52) for the end of the transition regime becomes
4.6
tD > ≈ 0.3RDe
2
. (A.65)
(3.8/RDe )2
If we use Eqs. (6.2.5) and (6.2.6) to express this result in terms
of actual physical variables, we find that the transition regime ends
when t ≈ 0.3φμcRe2 /k. Hence, although the end of the transition
regime seemed to depend on the wellbore radius, through the
dependence of RDe on Rw , when Eq. (A.65) is expressed in terms
of actual physical (dimensional) variables, it becomes clear that this
time depends on the overall size of the reservoir, but not on the radius
of the wellbore. This example shows that although it is convenient to
use dimensionless parameters during the solution process, and when
plotting the results, more physical insight can always be gained by
eventually reverting to physical variables.
Problem 6.2. Starting with Eq. (6.4.2), calculate the average
pressure in the reservoir during the finite reservoir regime, tDw ≡
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 175

Solutions to Problems 175

2 , as a function of time. Is your result consistent with the

tD > 0.3RDe
mass-balance embodied in Eq. (6.4.16)?
Solution: Recall Eq. (6.4.2) for the pressure distribution in the
reservoir:
 2
1 RD
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = 2 + 2tD − RDe ln RD
2
RDe − 1 2
 4
3RDe − 4RDe
4 ln R
De − 2RDe − 1
2
− 2 − 1)2
4(RDe
∞
πJ12 (λn RDe )Un (λn RD ) −λ2n tD
+ e . (A.66)
λ [J 2 (λn RDe ) − J12 (λn )]
n=1 n 1

When tD > 0.3RDe 2 , the terms in the series have died out, and the

pressure is given by
 2
1 RD
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = 2 + 2tD − RDe ln RD
2
RDe − 1 2
 4
3RDe − 4RDe
4 ln R
De − 2RDe − 1
2
− 2 − 1)2 . (A.67)
4(RDe
2  1, we can simplify
Since in practice it is always the case that RDe
Eq. (A.67) to the form
2
RD 2tD 3
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = 2 + 2 − ln RD − + ln RDe . (A.68)
2RDe RDe 4

This expression is difficult to interpret physically, so we will revert

to dimensional variables:
 2    
μQ R 2kt R 3 Re
P (R, t) = Pi − + − ln − + ln ,
2πkH 2Re2 φμcRe2 Rw 4 Rw
 2  
μQ R 2kt R 3
= Pi − + − ln − . (A.69)
2πkH 2Re2 φμcRe2 Re 4
To find the average pressure, we must integrate the pressure through-
out the entire reservoir, and divide by the volume of the reservoir;
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176 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

i.e. in general,
  
1 1 1
P (t)
= P (R, t)dV = P (R, t)HdA = P (R, t)dA.
V AH A
(A.70)

The second, fourth and fifth terms inside the brackets in Eq. (A.69)
are constant, so they do not need to be integrated, as the average
value of a constant Po is simply Po .
To integrate the terms that vary with R, we note that dA =
2πRdR, and so, for the R-dependent terms

2π
P (R, t)
= P (R, t)RdR. (A.71)
A
Integrating from Rw to Re , the average value of R2 can be calculated
to be

2π π  4  πRe4
R
=
2
R3 dR = Re − Rw4
≈ . (A.72)
A 2A 2A
But the area of the reservoir is given by
 
A = π Re2 − Rw 2
≈ πRe2 , (A.73)

so the average value of R2 is

πRe4 Re2
R2
≈ = . (A.74)
2πRe2 2
Similarly, after integrating by parts and using the fact that Re  Rw ,
the average value of the term ln R can be found to be given by
1
ln R
≈ ln Re − . (A.75)
2
Inserting Eqs. (A.69), (A.74) and (A.75) into Eq. (A.70), we find

μQ R2
2kt 3
P (R, t)
= Pi − + − ln R
+ ln Re −
2πkH 2Re2 φμcRe2 4

μQ 1 2kt 1 3
= Pi − + − ln Re + + ln Re −
2πkH 4 φμcRe2 2 4
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Solutions to Problems 177


μQ 2kt
= Pi −
2πkH φμcRe2
Qt
= Pi − . (A.76)
φcπRe2 H
The derivative of the average reservoir pressure with respect to t is
d P (R, t)
−Q −Q
= 2
= , (A.77)
dt φc(πRe H) φcV
which agrees with Eq. (6.4.16).
If result (A.76) is used to write the pressure distribution (A.69)
in terms of the mean reservoir pressure, which is usually denoted by
P̄ instead of P
, we obtain
 2  
μQ R R 3
P (R, t) = P̄ − − ln − . (A.78)
2πkH 2Re2 Re 4
Evaluating this expression at the wellbore, and again making use of
the fact that Rw  Re , yields the following relation between the
wellbore pressure and the mean reservoir pressure:
  
μQ Re 3
Pw = P̄ − ln − . (A.79)
2πkH Rw 4
This equation leads directly to a commonly-used expression for the
well productivity, which relates the flow rate to the difference between
the mean reservoir pressure and the wellbore pressure (Dake, 1978,
p. 145; Matthews and Russell, 1967, p. 13):

2πkH(P̄ − Pw )
Q=   . (A.80)
μ ln RRwe − 34

Problem 6.3. Starting with Eq. (6.3.2), calculate the average

pressure in a circular reservoir with a constant pressure outer
boundary, during the late-time regime in which all of the exponential
terms have died out. Use this result to find an equation for the
well productivity, which relates the production rate to the difference
between the average reservoir pressure and the pressure at the well.
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178 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Solution: After the exponential terms have died out, Eq. (6.3.2)
reduces to
 
RD
ΔPD (RD , tD ) = − ln . (A.81)
RDe
Using Eqs. (6.3.6) and (6.3.8) to revert to dimensional variables, the
pressure profile is given by
 
μQ R
P (R) = Pi + ln . (A.82)
2πkH Re
Following the same procedure as in Problem 6.2, the average reservoir
pressure is found to be
μQ
P̄ ≡ P (R, t)
= Pi + [ ln R
− ln Re ]
2πkH

μQ 1
= Pi + ln Re − − ln Re
2πkH 2
 
1 μQ
= Pi − , (A.83)
2 2πkH
in which we have used the result ln R
= ln Re − 0.5 that was found
in the solution to Problem 6.2.
The pressure at the well is found from Eq. (A.82) to be given by
 
μQ Rw
Pw = Pi + ln . (A.84)
2πkH Re
Using Eqs. (A.83) and (A.84), the difference between the mean
reservoir pressure and the well pressure is found to be
   
μQ 1 μQ Rw
P̄ − Pw = Pi − − Pi − ln
2πkH 2 2πkH Re
   
μQ 1 μQ Rw
=− − ln
2πkH 2 2πkH Re
  
μQ Re 1
= ln − , (A.85)
2πkH Rw 2
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Solutions to Problems 179

which can be rearranged to give the following expression for the well
productivity:

2πkH(P̄ − Pw )
Q=   . (A.86)
μ ln RRwe − 12

Comparison of this result with the result found in Problem 6.2 shows
that the productivity of a well in a circular reservoir with a constant-
pressure outer boundary, when defined using the difference between
the mean reservoir pressure and the well pressure as the “driving
force”, differs only slightly from that of a well in a circular reservoir
with a closed outer boundary.

Problem 7.1. What is the Laplace transform of the function

f (t) = e−at ?

Solution: Recall the basic definition given in Eq. (7.1.1)


 ∞
L{f (t)} ≡ f (s) ≡ f (t)e−st dt. (A.87)
0

If we insert f (t) = e−at into Eq. (A.87), we find

 ∞  ∞
L{e−at } = e−at e−st dt = e−(s+a)t dt,
0 0
∞
−e−(s+a)t −e−∞ + e−0 1
= = = . (A.88)
s+a s+a s+a
0

Therefore, L{e−at } = 1/(s + a).

We can use this result to find the Laplace transforms of functions
that are based on the exponential function. For example,

eat + e−at
cosh(at)= ,
2
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180 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

so:
L{cosh(at)} = 12 (L{eat } + L{e−at })
 
1 1 1 1 s+a s−a
= + = +
2 s−a s+a 2 (s − a)(s + a) (s − a)(s + a)
s s
= = 2 .
(s − a)(s + a) s − a2
Similarly, we can use the result L{e−at } = 1/(s + a) to find the
Laplace transform of functions such as sinh(at), sin(ωt), and cos(ωt).
Problem 7.2. Starting with the basic definition of the Laplace
transform, Eq. (7.1.1), verify Eq. (7.1.16).
Solution: Again, we start with the basic definition, Eq. (7.1.1):

 ∞
L{f (t)} ≡ f (s) ≡ f (t)e−st dt. (A.89)
0

According to this definition, the Laplace transform of the function

f (at) is
 ∞
L{f (at)} = f (at)e−st dt. (A.90)
0

Make a change of variables by defining x = at, in which case t → x/a

and dt → dx/a, and the limits of integration remain as 0 and ∞. This
yields
 ∞ 
−s(x/a) dx 1 ∞
L{f (at )} = f (x)e = f (x)e−(s/a)x dx. (A.91)
0 a a 0
But in the last integral in Eq. (A.91), x is just a dummy variable, so
we can replace it with t to get

1 ∞
L{f (at)} = f (t)e−(s/a)t dt. (A.92)
a 0
The integral in Eq. (A.92) is just the Laplace transform of f (t), with
the Laplace variable s replaced by s/a. Therefore,
1 1
L{f (at)} = f (s)]s→s/a = f (s/a). (A.93)
a a
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Solutions to Problems 181

Problem 7.3. Using the various general properties of Laplace

transforms, derive Eq. (7.1.19), L{tn } = n!/sn+1 , where n is any
non-negative integer.
Solution: Equations (7.1.17) and (7.1.18) already show that this
expression is true for n = 0 and n = 1. We can prove the general
formula, if we can show that “if this formula is true for an arbitrary
value n, then it is necessarily true for n + 1”; this type of reasoning
is called “mathematical induction”.
Start with the fact that
 t
tn+1
τ n dτ = . (A.94)
0 n+1
Now recall Eq. (7.1.10):
 t 
1
L f (τ )dτ = L{f (t)}. (A.95)
0 s

Apply this rule, with f (t) = tn :

 t   n+1 
n t 1
L τ dτ = L = L{tn },
0 n + 1 s
n+1
i.e. L{tn+1 } = L{tn }. (A.96)
s
Now assume that L{tn } = n!/sn+1 is true for “some” value of n.
Inserting this into the RHS of Eq. (A.96) yields

n + 1 n! (n + 1)!
L{tn+1 } = = . (A.97)
s sn+1 sn+2
If L{tn } = n!/sn+1 is true for n, then Eq. (A.97) show that it is also
true for n + 1. But we know that it is true for n = 0 because we know
that L{t0 } = L{1} = 1/s. Hence, it is true for n = 1, and similarly
then for n = 2, etc. This completes the proof by induction, showing
that L{tn } = n!/sn+1 for all non-negative integers n.
Problem 7.4. Following the steps that were taken in Section 7.2,
use Laplace transforms to solve the problem of linear flow into a
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182 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

hydraulic fracture with constant pressure in the fracture:

1 dP d2 P
PDE: = , (i)
D dt dz 2
IC: P (z, t = 0) = Pi , (ii)
far-field BC: P (z → ∞, t) = Pi , (iii)
fracture BC: P (z = 0, t) = Pf . (iv)

First, find the pressure function in the Laplace domain, P (z, s). Next,
find an expression for the flow rate into the fracture, in the Laplace
 
domain; call it Q f (s). Lastly, invert Q f (s) to find the flow rate into
the fracture as a function of time, Qf (t).
Solution: First, define the Laplace transform of P (z, t):
 ∞

P (z, s) ≡ P (z, t)e−st dt. (A.98)
0

Now, take the Laplace transform of both sides of the governing PDE,
Eq. (i). Using Eq. (7.1.7), and initial condition (ii), the left side of
Eq. (i) is transformed as follows:
 
dP 
L = sL{P (z, t)} − P (z, t = 0) = s P (z, s) − Pi . (A.99)
dt
Applying rule (7.1.27) twice, the Laplace transform of the right side
of Eq. (i) is
 2  
d P d2 d2 P (z, s)
L D 2 = D 2 [L{P (z, t)}] = D . (A.100)
dz dz dz 2
So, the transformed representation of Eq. (i) is the following ODE:

d2 P (z, s) 
D 2
− s P (z, s) = −Pi . (A.101)
dz
The general solution to Eq. (A.101) is, as in Section 7.2,
 √ √ Pi
z s/D
P (z, s) = Ae + Be−z s/D + , (A.102)
s
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Solutions to Problems 183

where A and B are arbitrary constants. The values of A and B are

found by satisfying the boundary conditions. Let us start with the
Laplace transform of the far-field BC, Eq. (iii). First, for the left-hand
side,
 ∞
L{P (z = ∞, t)} = L{ lim P (z, t)} = lim P (z, t)e−st dt
z→∞ 0 z→∞
 ∞
= lim P (z, t)e−st dt
z→∞ 0
 
= lim P (z, s) = P (z → ∞, s). (A.103)
z→∞

Now, take the Laplace transform of the right side of Eq. (iii):
Pi
L{Pi } = L{Pi · 1} = Pi L{1} = . (A.104)
s

So, the far-field BC for the transformed pressure function P (z, s) is
 Pi
P (z → ∞, s) = . (A.105)
s
By the same method, the transformed version of Eq. (iv) is
 Pf
P (z = 0, s) = . (A.106)
s
We now use the boundary conditions (A.105–A.106) to find the
constants A and B in the solution (A.102). The far-field boundary
condition, Eq. (A.105), shows that A must be zero. The fracture BC,
Eq. (A.106), implies that
 Pi Pf
P (z = 0, s) = B + = ,
s s
Pf − Pi
→ B= . (A.107)
s
The solution to this problem in the Laplace domain is therefore
 (Pf − Pi ) −z √s/D Pi
P (z, s) = e + . (A.108)
s s
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184 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Next, to find an expression for the flow rate into the fracture in
the Laplace domain, we start by applying Darcy’s law at the fracture
in the time domain
kA dP (z = 0, t)
Qf (t) = . (A.109)
μ dz

We now take the Laplace transform of both sides of Eq. (A.109).

First, on the left side, by definition

L{Qf (t)} = Q f (s). (A.110)

Now transform the right side of Eq. (A.109), using rule (7.1.27):
    
kA dP (z = 0, t) kA dP (z = 0, t) kA d P (z = 0, s)
L = L = .
μ dz μ dz μ dz
(A.111)

So, the transformed version of Eq. (A.109) is


 kA d P (z = 0, s)
Q f (s) = . (A.112)
μ dz

From Eq. (A.108), the derivative that appears in Eq. (A.112) is


d P (z, s)  (Pf − Pi ) −z √s/D (Pi − Pf ) −z √s/D
= − s/D e = √ e ,
dz s sD

d P (z = 0, s) (Pi − Pf )
→ = √ √ . (A.113)
dz D s

Combining Eqs. (A.112) and (A.113) gives

 kA(Pi − Pf )
Q f (s) = √ √ . (A.114)
μ D s

Finally, we must invert Q f (s) to find the flow rate into the
fracture as a function of time, Qf (t). Using Eq. (7.1.23) for the inverse
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 185

Solutions to Problems 185

Laplace transform of s−1/2 , we find:

 
−1 kA(Pi − Pf )

−1
Qf (t) = L {Q f (s)} = L √ √
μ D s
kA(Pi − Pf ) −1 −1/2 kA(Pi − Pf )
= √ L {s }= √ . (A.115)
μ D μ Dπt

Now recall that D = k/φμc to re-write Eq. (A.115) in the form


kA(Pi − Pf ) φck
Qf (t) =  = A(Pi − Pf ) . (A.116)
μ kπt/φμc πμt

So, if the pressure in the fracture is constant, the flow rate will drop
off as t−1/2 .
The cumulative flow from time 0 until time t is found by
integrating the instantaneous flow rate:
 t  t  
φck φckt
Qf (τ )dτ = A(Pi − Pf ) dτ = 2A(Pi − Pf ) .
0 0 πμτ πμ
(A.117)
The cumulative flow rate therefore increases as t1/2 .

Problem 8.1. Without looking at the paper by Warren and Root,

describe and sketch the way that the drawdown curve in Figure 8.1
would change if (a) the storativity ratio ω increased (or decreased)
by a factor of 10, or (b) the transmissivity ratio λ increased (or
decreased) by a factor of 10.

Solution: According to Eq. (8.3.4), the early-time straight line is

given by
1
ΔPDw = (ln tD − ln ω + 0.8091). (A.118)
2
Therefore, an increase in ω by a factor of 10 would cause this line to
move down by an amount (1/2) ln ω = (1/2) ln(10) = 1.151 on the
semi-log plot. Conversely, decreasing ω by a factor of 10 would cause
this line to move upwards by 1.151. The late-time semi-log straight
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186 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

line is given by Eq. (8.3.6):

1
ΔPDw = (tD + 0.8091). (A.119)
2
This equation does not contain ω, so the late-time straight line
will be unaffected by a change in ω. According to Eq. (8.3.12), the
intersection time tD2 does not depend on ω. So, if ω changes by a
factor of 10, and λ does not change, the drawdown curves will look
as Figure A.11.
The transmissivity ratio λ does not appear in either (8.3.4) or
(8.3.6), so the two semi-log straight lines will not move if λ changes.
To isolate the effect of λ, we need to find a property of the drawdown
curve that depends on λ but not on ω. Equation (8.3.12) shows that
the time at which the horizontal asymptote intersects the late-time
straight line is given by
1
tD2 = , or ln tD2 = − ln γ − ln λ. (A.120)
γλ
Hence, an increase in λ by a factor of 10 would cause ln tD2 to move
to the left by an amount ln 10 = 2.303. Conversely, decreasing λ by
a factor of 10 would cause ln tD2 to move to the right by an amount
ln 10 = 2.303.
The drawdowns for the pair of values {ω, λ}, and also for the
values {ω, 10λ} and {ω, 0.1λ} are shown in Figure A.12. Increased
values of λ correspond to larger values of the matrix permeability.

Figure A.11. Schematic graph of the drawdown curves for a well in a dual-porosity
reservoir, for different values of the storativity ratio, ω.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 187

Solutions to Problems 187

Figure A.12. Schematic graph of the drawdown curves for a well in a dual-porosity
reservoir, for different values of the transmissivity ratio, λ.

Hence, it makes sense that if λ increases, the drawdown curve reaches

the quasi-steady state (second) straight line in a shorter period
of time.
Problem 8.2. By examining Eq. (8.3.2), and making use of either
Eq. (2.1.22) or Table 2.1, derive an expression for the time that
must elapse in order for the approximation (8.3.6) to be accurate to
within about 1%. Your answer should be expressed in terms of the
parameter λ.
Solution: For this approximation to hold, the two Ei terms in
Eq. (8.3.2) must be negligible compared to the two terms remaining
in Eq. (8.3.6). These equations are repeated below:
   
1 −λtD −λtD
ΔPDw = ln tD + 0.8091 + Ei − Ei ,
2 ω(1 − ω) (1 − ω)
(A.121)
1
ΔPDw = (ln tD + 0.80901). (A.122)
2
Since most fractured reservoirs will have ω  1, the “x” value in
the first Ei function will be much greater than “x” in the second
Ei function. But the magnitude of Ei(−x) decreases rapidly as x
increases, so we see that we only need to consider the second Ei
term.
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188 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Therefore, the condition for the Ei terms to be negligible is

   
 −λt D  1
Ei  < 0.01 (ln tD + 0.8091) . (A.123)
 (1 − ω)  2
If ω  1, this is equivalent to

1
|Ei(−λtD )| < 0.01 (ln tD + 0.8091) . (A.124)
2
Now note that, since we are considering “large” values of time,
the term ln tD will be at least as large as the term 0.8091. So the
bracketed term on the right will be at least as large as about 1.
Hence, a sufficient condition for inequality (A.124) to be true is
|Ei(−λtD )| < 0.01. (A.125)
If we look at Table 2.1, we see that Eq. (A.125) will hold if the
term ln tD is greater than about 3. So, the criterion for Eq. (8.3.2) to
reduce to Eq. (8.3.6), which is to say, the criterion for the reservoir
to behave like a single-porosity reservoir with a storativity equal to
the combined storativity of the fractures and matrix blocks, is
tD > 3/λ. (A.126)
If we look at Figure 5 of Warren and Root (1963), and consider,
say, the drawdown curves for λ = 0.005, we see that they do indeed
reach the asymptotic curve (8.3.6) when tD is about 600, which is
exactly consistent with Eq. (A.126). Note also that, according to
(8.3.12), tD2 = 1/γλ = 0.56/λ. So, result (A.126) is also consistent
with Figure 8.3.1, which shows that the drawdown curves reach the
second straight-line asymptote somewhat after tD = tD2 .
Note 1: The above manipulations were very “approximate”, but we
somehow arrived at the correct answer. This is due to the fact that
the Ei function goes to zero very rapidly as x increases. Specifically,
for large x, it can be shown from Eq. (2.1.22) that −Ei(−x) ≈ e−x /x.
So, any error in the assumed critical value of Ei(−x) will lead to a
very small error in the critical value of x.
Note 2: Mathematically, we always work with the natural log
function, ln tD . In the schematic plots shown above, we used ln tD ,
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 189

Solutions to Problems 189

to keep the discussion simple. But more commonly, as in Figure 5 of

Warren and Root, “log base 10 of ln tD ”, i.e. “log tD ”, is used.
Problem 9.1. This problem involves a simplified model for produc-
tion of gas from a hydraulically fractured shale gas reservoir.
Combining Eqs. (8.1.2) and (8.1.7) leads to the following ODE
the governs the mean pressure in a matrix block in a fractured
reservoir:
dP̄m −αkm
= (P̄m − Pf ). (A.127)
dt φm μcm
As mentioned in Section 9.2, in a gas reservoir the fluid compress-
ibility term will usually greatly exceed the formation compressibility
term, and so the total compressibility of the gas-filled matrix block
can be approximated by cm = cgas . Furthermore, if we approximate
the behaviour of the gas as an ideal gas, then according to Eq. (9.2.3),
we can say that cm = cgas = 1/Pm .

(a) Imagine that a matrix block in a gas reservoir is initially at

some pressure Pi , after which the pressure in the surrounding
fractures is lowered to some value Pf < Pi , and then held at that
pressure. Approximate the term cm = 1/Pm by its initial value
1/Pi , and then integrate Eq. (A.127) to find the mean pressure in
the matrix block, as a function of time. Then use Eq. (8.1.2) to
find an expression for the rate of gas production from the matrix
block as a function of time.
(b) Noting that e−x will be < 0.01 when x > 5 (roughly), derive an
expression for the time at which the production rate of gas from
the matrix block has diminished to 1% of its initial value.
(c) When a shale gas reservoir is hydraulically fractured, the
interaction between the hydraulically induced fractures and the
pre-existing microfractures and bedding planes will create a
network of fractures around the wellbore. Imagine that this
fracture network breaks up the region around the wellbore into
a collection of blocks that can be approximated by cubes of
size L. Assuming plausible values such as L = 1 m, φm = 0.1,
μ = 1 × 10−5 Pa s, km = 10−21 m2 and Pi = 20 MPa, how long
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-app page 190

190 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

will it take for the production rate to drop to 1% of its initial

value?

Solution: With the fluid pressure in the fracture, Pf , held constant,

the general solution to Eq. (A.127) is readily found to be
 
−αkm t
P̄m = Pf + A exp , (A.128)
φm μcm
where A is an arbitrary constant. Imposing the initial condition that
P̄m = Pi when t = 0 shows that A = Pi − Pf . Hence, the mean
pressure in the matrix block is given by
 
−αkm t
P̄m = Pf + (Pi − Pf ) exp . (A.129)
φm μcm
Combining this result with Eq. (8.1.2) shows that the flow rate out
of the matrix block is given by
 
αkm (Pi − Pf ) −αkm t
qmf = exp . (A.130)
μ φm μcm
This flow rate will have decreased to 1% of its initial value when
αkm t 5φm μcm
= 5, or t = . (A.131)
φm μcm αkm
If the matrix blocks are roughly cubical, of size L, then Eq. (8.1.3)
shows that α = 3π 2 /L2 , and so the “depletion time scale” will be
given by
5φm μcm L2 0.17φm μcm L2
tdepleted = ≈ . (A.132)
3π 2 km km
Using the values L = 1 m, φm = 0.1, μ = 1 × 10−5 Pa s,
km = 10−21 m2 and cm = 1/Pi = 5 × 10−8 /Pa, Eq. (A.132) predicts
that production will essentially “die out” after about 107 sec, or
about 100 days. This very rough model provides an explanation
of why the production rate of a shale gas well often drops off
dramatically after a few months.
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-nomenclature page 191

Nomenclature

A = cross-sectional area normal to flow (m2 )

A = Drainage area of reservoir (m2 ); Chapter 6 only
CA = Dietz shape factor, Eq. (6.5.2) (-); Chapter 6 only
Cs = wellbore storage coefficient, = Vw cf (m3 /Pa);
Chapter 5 only
CD = dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient, Eq. (5.3.7) (-);
Chapter 5 only
c= compressibility (1/Pa)
cf = fluid compressibility (1/Pa)
ct = total compressibility, = cf + cφ (1/Pa)
cφ = formation (pore) compressibility (1/Pa)
D= non-Darcy skin coefficient, Eq. (9.4.11) (s/m3 );
Chapter 9 only
DH = hydraulic diffusivity, = k/φμct (m2 /s)
d = pore diameter (m)
d = distance from well to fault (m); Chapter 4 only
Ei = Exponential integral function, Eq. (2.1.21) (-)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
H = reservoir thickness (m)
J0 = Bessel function of first kind, order zero, Eq. (6.2.37) (-)
J1 = Bessel function of first kind, order one, Eq. (6.3.5) (-)
k = permeability (m2 )
kB = Boltzmann constant (Pa m3 /◦ K); Chapter 9 only
kf = permeability of fracture network (m2 ); Chapter 8 only

191
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-nomenclature page 192

192 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

km = permeability of matrix blocks (m2 ); Chapter 8 only

kR = permeability of undamaged reservoir (m2 );
Chapter 5 only
kro = relative permeability to oil (-); Chapter 1 only
krw = relative permeability to water (-); Chapter 1 only
ks = permeability of skin region around well (m2 );
Chapter 5 only
L = length of sample (m); Chapter 1 only
L = Laplace transform operator (s); Chapter 7 only
L = length of hydraulic fracture (m); Chapter 7 only
M = generic symbol for a mathematical operator (-);
Chapter 3 only
m = mass of fluid inside a region of porous rock (kg);
Chapter 1 only
m = magnitude of slope of drawdown vs. ln t, Eq. (2.6.3) (Pa);
Chapter 2 only
m = real gas pseudopressure, Eq. (9.3.4) (Pa m2 /s);
Chapter 9 only
P = pressure (Pa)
Pc = corrected pressure, Eq. (1.2.3) (Pa); Chapter 1 only
Pc = capillary pressure, Eq. (1.8.4) (Pa); Chapter 1 only
PD = dimensionless pressure = (Pi − P )/(Pi − Pw ) (-);
Chapter 6 only
PDf = dimensionless pressure in fractures, Eq. (8.2.2) (-);
Chapter 8 only
PDm = dimensionless pressure in matrix blocks, Eq. (8.2.3) (-);
Chapter 8 only
s
PD = steady-state component of dimensionless pressure (-);
Chapter 6 only
Pf = pressure in fractures (Pa); Chapter 8 only
Pi = initial reservoir pressure (Pa)
Pm = mean pressure during well test in a gas reservoir,
Eq. (9.2.7) (Pa); Chapter 9 only
P̄m = average pressure in matrix block (Pa); Chapter 8 only

P = Laplace transform of P , Eq. (7.1.2) (Pa s);
Chapter 7 only
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-nomenclature page 193

Nomenclature 193

P ∗ = characteristic Klinkenberg pressure, Eqs. (9.5.4, 9.5.5)

(Pa); Chapter 9 only
ΔPD = dimensionless drawdown, = 2πkH(Pi − P )/μQ (-)
ΔPDw = dimensionless drawdown at the well,
= 2πkH(Pi − Pw )/μQ (-)
ΔPQ = drawdown per unit of flow rate (Pa s/m3 )
ΔPs = excess pressure drop in skin region, = μQs/2πkR H (Pa);
Chapter 5 only
pD = transient component of dimensionless pressure (-);
Chapter 6 only
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
Qsf = sandface flow rate (from reservoir into wellbore) (m3 /s);
Chapter 5 only
Qwh = wellhead flow rate (m3 /s); Chapter 5 only
Q∗ = total volume injected into well, = Qδt (m3 );
Chapter 2 only
Q∗ = constant (m3 /s); Problem 3.2 only
q = fluid flux, = Q/A (m/s)
qmf = flux from matrix blocks to fractures (1/s); Chapter 8 only
qo = flux of oil (m/s); Chapter 1 only
qw = flux of water (m/s); Chapter 1 only
R = gas constant, Eq. (9.2.1) (Pa m3 /kg◦ K); Chapter 9 only
R = radial distance from centre of well (m)
RD = dimensionless radius, = R/Rw (-)
RDe dimensionless size of reservoir, = Re /Rw (-);
Chapter 6 only
Re = outer radius of circular reservoir (m); Chapter 6 only
Ro = outer radius of circular reservoir (m); Chapter 1 and
Chapter 5 only
Rs = radius of skin zone (m); Chapter 5 only
Rw = wellbore radius (m)
Re = Reynolds number, Eq. (9.4.1) (-); Chapter 9 only
s = skin factor, Eq. (5.1.7) (-); Chapter 5 only
s = Laplace transform variable (1/s); Chapter 7 only
T = absolute temperature (◦ K); Chapter 9 only
t = time (s)
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-nomenclature page 194

194 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

tD = dimensionless time, = kt/φμcR2 (-)

tD = dimensionless time, Eq. (8.2.1) (-); Chapter 8 only
tDA = dimensionless time based on the drainage area,
Eq. (6.5.3) (-); Chapter 6 only
tDw = dimensionless time at the well, = kt/φμcRw 2 (-)

tH = Horner time, = (t + Δt)/Δt (-); Chapter 3 only

t∗ = constant (s); Problem 3.2 only
Δt = duration of shut-in time during a pressure buildup test
(s); Chapter 3 only
v = fluid particle velocity, Eq. (9.4.5) (m/s)
x = Cartesian coordinate (m)
x = temporary variable, = λRD (-); Chapter 6 only
Y0 = Bessel function of second kind, order zero, Eq. (6.2.39) (-)
Y1 = Bessel function of second kind, order one, Eq. (6.3.5) (-)
y = temporary variable, = η(dP/dη) (Pa); Chapter 2 only
z = vertical coordinate (measured downwards) (m);
Chapter 1 only
z = distance from hydraulic fracture (m); Chapter 7 only
z = gas deviation factor, Eq. (9.3.1) (-); Chapter 9 only
zo = reference depth for computing the corrected pressure
(m); Chapter 1 only
α = matrix block shape factor, Eq. (8.1.2) (1/m2 );
Chapter 8 only
β = Forchheimer coefficient, Eq. (9.4.9) (Pa s2 /kg);
Chapter 9 only
φ = porosity (-)
γ = Euler’s number, 1.781 (-) NB: some books/papers define
γ = ln(1.781) = 0.5772
η = Boltzmann variable, = μcR2 /kt (-)
λ = eigenvalue (-); Chapter 6 only
λ = transmissivity ratio, Eq. (8.2.12) (-); Chapter 8 only
λ = mean free path of gas molecule, Eq. (9.5.1) (m);
Chapter 9 only
μ = viscosity (Pa s)
μw = viscosity of water (Pa s); Chapter 1 only
March 1, 2018 14:33 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-nomenclature page 195

Nomenclature 195

μo = viscosity of oil (Pa s); Chapter 1 only

ρ = density (kg/m3 )
σ = effective molecular diameter (m); Chapter 9 only
τ = dummy time-like variable used in integrals (s)
ω = storativity ratio, Eq. (8.2.11) (-); Chapter 8 only
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March 1, 2018 14:38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-index page 201

Index

A buildup tests, 45, 47, 50, 73–74, 79

afterproduction, 75
Agarwal, R.G., 79 C
anisotropy, 24 capillary pressure, 5, 19–20
aperture, 124 capillary tube, 146
aquifer, 9, 57, 81 carbonates, 7, 15
asymptotic straight lines, 42 Carslaw, H.S., 104, 111
average (reservoir) pressure, 102, 175,
chalk, 4
177–178
Chen, H.K., 79
Chierici, G.L., 140, 145, 148
B
Churchill, R.V., 104, 111
Barenblatt, G.I., 123, 125 clay, 4
Barrel, 20
complex variable, 105, 109, 112
Bear, J., 6
compressibility of fluid, 13, 136–138,
bedding plane, 149
140
Bernoulli’s equation, 2
conservation of energy, 2
Bessel equation, 87
conservation of mass, 1, 10–12, 17,
Bessel function, 88–90, 94, 171–174
19, 153
Bird, R.B., 146
Blunt, M.J., 20 constant pressure boundary, 65, 68,
Boltzmann, L., 26 81, 166–168, 179
Boltzmann constant, 146–147 convolution, 52, 54–55, 103, 116–119,
Boltzmann transformation, 26, 81–83, 161
104 corrected pressure, 5–6
boundary condition, 25, 47, 58, 79, cross-sectional area, 2, 4, 8, 10, 152
82–86, 93, 95, 103, 113–114, 122, cubical matrix block, 126, 149, 190
183 cumulative flow, 185
Bourdet, D., 133 Curtiss, C.F., 146
Brigham, W.E., 79, 154 cylindrical block, 126
Buckley–Leverett, 20 cylindrical coordinates, 16

201
March 1, 2018 14:38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-index page 202

202 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

D eigenfunction expansion, 45, 81–82,

Dake, L.P., 82, 177 93, 104, 160
eigenvalue, 90–91, 94, 101, 125,
Daltaban, T.S., 119
171–172
Darcy, H., 1
elapsed time, 24, 29, 33, 37–38, 48
Darcy units, 3–4
enthalpy, 2
Darcy’s law, 1–3, 5–7, 12–13, 17–18,
Euler’s number, 35
70, 79, 92, 135–136, 142–143, 145,
exponential integral function, 29, 34,
153
51, 61, 75, 162, 187–188
de Marsily, G., 13, 24–25, 30
density, 2, 19–20, 142
F
determinant, 90
Dietz, D.N., 100 fault gouge, 57, 59
Dietz shape factor, 100–101 faults, 57, 59–62, 67, 99
differential operator, 46 Fick’s law, 2
finite reservoir regime, 98, 102
dimensionless pressure drawdown,
30, 32, 64, 78, 84, 94, 127–128, fluid compressibility, 13, 15, 20, 124,
149
163
foot, 20
dimensionless radius, 84, 94, 127
Forchheimer coefficient, 144
dimensionless time, 30, 32–33, 35–36,
Forchheimer equation, 135, 144–145
64, 84, 94, 127, 163
formation compressibility, 13, 15, 124,
dimensionless wellbore storage
149
coefficient, 78
fracture porosity, 129
divergence, 12
fracture spacing, 125
drainage area, 98–99
fracture storativity, 127, 129, 132
drawdown, 9–10, 47–48, 52–53,
fracture-matrix interaction term,
55, 58–59, 62, 64, 67, 73, 80,
124
107
fractured reservoirs, 5, 123–124,
drawdown test, 39–41, 59, 73, 76
129–130, 134, 138, 149
drilling mud, 69 fractures, 124, 126, 144
dual-permeability model, 130
dual-porosity model/reservoir, G
123–125, 127, 132, 186–187
Duhamel, J.N.C., 54 gas, 14, 18, 25, 46, 135
gas cap, 65
Duhamel’s principle, 54
gas constant, 137
dummy (integration) variable, 28,
gas deviation factor, 139
106, 180
gas permeability, 135, 148
Dupuit, J., 9
gas reservoirs, 135–136, 149
Dupuit–Thiem equation, 9
gas sands, 138
gauge pressure, 5
E
geothermal reservoirs, 125
Earlougher, R.C., 77 gneiss, 4
early-time regime, 60, 79, 130–132 granite, 4
early-transient regime, 97 gravel, 4
eigenfunction, 91–93, 96 Green’s functions, 45, 160
March 1, 2018 14:38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-index page 203

Index 203

Gringarten, A.C., 132–133 Koederitz, L.F., 154

gravitational acceleration, 2 Kozeny–Carman equation, 143
groundwater, 9
L
H Laplace domain, 104–106, 110,
Hirschfelder, J.O., 146 114–115, 118, 122, 183–184
homogeneous, 24 Laplace transform, 26, 45, 79, 82, 96,
horizontal flow, 2 103–109, 111–115, 117, 120–121,
Horner plot, 75, 79 160, 179–184
Horner time, 50 Laplace variable, 104
Hurst, W., 96 late-time regime, 40, 62, 66, 102, 163
hydraulic diffusivity, 15, 113 late-transient regime, 97, 132
hydraulic fracture, 103, 112–113, 118, Leibnitz’s theorem, 111–112
122, 149 limestone, 4
line-source solution, 23, 30, 32–34,
I 38–39, 43, 48, 57–58, 64, 66,
69, 74, 81, 84, 94, 97, 155–156
ideal gas, 137, 140, 149
linear boundary, 57
image wells, 57, 59, 60–66, 99,
linear operator, 46, 105
166–168
linearity, 45, 47, 55, 159–160
infinite reservoir, 23, 51, 55, 57, 73, liquids, 14
82, 84, 154 logarithmic approximation, 34, 36–37,
infinite reservoir regime, 98–100 43, 49, 60, 62, 66, 74–75, 97,
inhomogeneity, 25 156–157
initial condition, 25, 47, 58, 82,
84–86, 92, 107, 113, 122, 190 M
integration by parts, 54, 106, 162
mathematical induction, 181
intersecting faults, 62
Matthews, C.S., 29, 94, 101, 138, 177
inverse Laplace transform, 110,
matrix block, 124–126, 132, 149, 190
118–119
matrix porosity, 129
isotropic, 24
matrix storativity, 127, 131–132
mean free path, 146
J
microfractures, 149
Jacob’s approximation, 36 milliDarcy units, 4
Jaeger, J.C., 104, 111, 124 molecular diameter, 146–147
Joseph, J.A., 154 multi-phase flow, 18
multi-rate flow tests, 51–52
K Muskat, M., 92–94, 96, 104
Kabir, C.S., 72, 76, 154
Kazemi, H., 125 N
kinetic theory of gases, 146 Navier–Stokes equations, 145
Klinkenberg, L.J., 146 nitrogen, 148
Klinkenberg correction, 148 no-flow boundary, 81, 95
Klinkenberg effect, 136, 145, 147 no-slip boundary condition, 145
Knudsen flow, 146 non-circular drainage region, 99
March 1, 2018 14:38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-index page 204

204 Fluid Flow in Porous Media

non-Darcy regime/pressure drop, 135, rectangular block, 126

142, 144 recursion relation, 88
non-Darcy skin coefficient, 145 relative permeability, 18
nonlinear diffusion equation, 135 Representative Elementary Volume
(REV), 6–7, 125
O reservoir, 1, 5, 7–9, 13, 16, 20
observation well, 38, 58 reservoir engineering, 1, 7, 23, 36, 45,
Ohm’s law, 2 103, 139
oil, 7, 15, 18, 20 reservoir simulation, 1
oil-wet, 19 Reynolds number, 142, 144
oilfield units, 2 Root, P.J., 123, 125, 130, 134, 188
ordinary differential equation, 26 Russell, D.G., 29, 94, 101, 138, 177
orthogonality, 92
S
P sand, 1, 4, 15
perforations, 21, 24, 70, 72 sand grain, 6
permeability, 1–6, 9, 20, 39–41, 43, sandstones, 4, 7, 15
81, 146 saturation, 19
permeability-thickness product, 9, 40 seismic waves, 16
Poise unit, 20 semi-log straight line, 41, 62, 64, 67,
pore compressibility, 13, 15 74, 99, 131–133, 158–159, 165–166,
pore diameter/size, 4, 135, 142, 146 185–186
pore volume, 11 semi-steady-state regime, 97
porosity, 11, 13, 19, 40, 43 shales, 4, 15, 136, 147, 149
pressure, 1–2, 5–8, 10, 28, 32, 38, 46 shape factor, 125
pressure diffusion equation, 1, 12, 15, shut-in, 45, 47, 49–50, 74–75, 80
24, 48, 81, 103, 111, 113, 124–125 silt, 4
pressure disturbance, 16 single-porosity reservoir, 129, 131, 188
pressure gradient, 1, 6, 24, 48 singularities, 109, 111
pressure pulse, 16, 32–33 skin, 69–71, 73, 79, 123, 145
pseudo pressure, 135, 139–140 skin factor, 52, 72, 74
pseudo-steady-state fracture-matrix slip flow, 146
flow, 125 soils, 19
pseudo-steady-state regime, 97 source-sink term, 124
psi unit, 20 spherical block, 126
spherical flow, 20, 153–154
Q spherical point source, 154
Stanislav, J.F., 72, 76, 154
Quintard, M., 125 steady-state flow, 7–9
steady-state regime, 97
R Stehfest, H., 119
radial flow, 7, 17–20 Stehfest algorithm, 119–121
radius of penetration, 16, 33 Stewart, G., 115
Ramey, H.J., 79 stimulation, 72
real gas, 139 storativity, 15, 39, 42–43, 78, 81, 188
March 1, 2018 14:38 Fluid Flow in Porous Media - 9in x 6in b3114-index page 205

Index 205

storativity ratio, 129, 133–134, 186 vertical well, 23

Streltsova, T.D., 64, 99 viscosity, 2, 4, 20, 41, 43, 125,
stress-sensitive reservoirs, 46 136–137, 142
superposition, 37, 45, 48–49, 51, 57,
59, 64, 84, 86 W
swelling of clays, 69 Wall, C.G., 119
Warren, J.E., 123, 125, 130, 134, 188
T water, 15, 18, 20
temperature, 137, 146–147 Watson, G.N., 89
Theis, C.V., 29 Wattenbarger, R.A., 79
Theis solution, 29, 59 well, 7–9, 16, 20–21, 23–24, 29–30, 37,
Thiem, A., 9 58, 151, 170
Thiem equation, 85, 92, 94 well productivity, 102, 177, 179
time domain, 104–106, 110, 117, 119, well test analysis, 1, 18, 23, 40, 75, 77
184 wellbore storage, 33, 69, 75–76,
time-shift property, 107 78–80, 123, 154
total compressibility, 15, 43, 126, 149 wellbore storage coefficient, 77, 170
transient flow, 9, 12, 18 wellhead, 76, 78
transition regime, 98, 101, 171, 174 Whittaker, S., 125
transmissivity, 48
transmissivity ratio, 129, 133–134, Z
186–187 Zimmerman, R.W., 4, 13, 19, 126, 138
Tranter, C.J., 104
trapezium rule, 120

V
van Everdingen, A.F., 96
vertical flow, 2