GRAMMAR II
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
An independent clause is a clause which is not part of a larger clause structure. However,
they can be coordinated and they can include embedded dependant clauses.
Ø Simple independent clause (single clause)
You can give me a cheque.
Ø Coordinated independent clauses (two or more coordinated clauses)
He was crying so I gave him back his jacket.
Ø Complex independent clause (with one or more dependent clauses)
If you pay too much they’ll give us the money back.
Independent clauses are used to perform speech-act functions. There is a general
correspondence between four basic speech-act functions and the four structural types of
independent clause.
A statement gives information and expects no specific response from the addressee. A
question asks for information and expects a linguistic response. A directive is used to give
orders or requests and expects some action from the addressee. An exclamation expresses
the strong feelings of the speaker/writer, and expects no specific response.
Structure and speech-act functions do not always agree so it is useful to distinguish
between the two (e.g. a declarative clause can be used as a directive).
Declarative clauses: have a subject-verb structure and typically express statements.
All the students studied hard for the exam.
We have been here before.
Although they usually convey information, they can also serve other speech acts in
conversation and fictional dialogue. For example subject-verb word order is occasionally
used in asking a question (the question status being signaled in speech by a rising
intonation or in writing by a question mark).
So she didn’t come? No, she preferred to stay home.
You want your jacket? No thanks, I’m not cold.
Interrogative clauses: these can be recognized by two structural clues which often occur
in combination: verb-structure subject and an initial wh- word. In addition, rising
intonation (in speech) and a question mark (in writing) are supplementary, non-
grammatical clues.
There are three main types of independent interrogative clauses: wh- questions, yes/no
questions and alternative questions. Their basic uses are:
Ø To elicit missing information
Wh- questions: these begin with a wh- word that refers to a missing element in the clause.
The missing element can be a clause element (subject, object, predicative, adverbial) or
part of a phrase.
Who’s calling? subject
What do you mean? direct object
Who are you talking about? prepositional object
How was your trip? s ubject predicative
Which photos are we looking at? part of a noun phrase
When did you see Mark? adverbial, time
Why did you buy that? adverbial, reason
What colour is the dress? part of adjective phrase
In informal language, the wh- word can be followed by an expletive to reinforce the
speaker’s feelings:
What the hell’s the matter with you?
What in the world do you want?
When the speaker asks for two pieces of information only one wh- word goes at the
beginning:
Who’s bring what?
In conversation sometimes a wh- word lacks a full clause, it may consist of only a wh-
word: these sometimes only ask for repetition, echo questions, and sometimes the wh-
word is not fronted, these are sometimes not only asking for repetition but they show
surprise and disbelief.
It’s six o’clock, isn’t it? What?
And I think she’s stealing stuff as well. She’s what?
Wh- questions can be used for different purposes:
Who needs sitcoms? Here the question is rhetorical and the meaning is similar to
‘nobody needs sitcoms’
How dare you speak to me like that? Who do you think you are? Expresses a strong
rebuke and is more like an exclamation than a question.
Why don’t we go next week? This is a suggestion and has a function similar to
‘Let’s go next week.’
Ø To ask whether a proposition is true or false
Yes/ no questions: these have a subject-verb order, they begin with the operator
followed by the subject. The addressee is expected to reply with a truth value – either yes
or no. there are, of course, other possible answers indicating various degrees of certainty or
uncertainty: definitely, perhaps, I don’t know, etc.
Is it Thursday today? No, Friday.
Do you think he’ll come? Maybe.
Are they happy? Yes, they are.
These questions are also used for purposes other than asking for information:
Isn’t the weather beautiful?! expresses an exclamation
Will you behave?! functions as a directive, a forceful command.
Can we turn that light off, please? functions as a polite request.
Sometimes yes/no questions, specially in conversation, have a minimal form and function
as backchannels (a word or minimal response used as an utterance to show the listener is
continuing to pay attention e.g. uh-uh, really), showing interest and keeping the
conversation going:
She’s a teacher. Oh, is she?
Ø To ask which of two or more alternatives is the case.
An alternative question is structurally similar to a yes/no question: it opens with operator +
subject. But instead of expecting a yes/no answer, it presents alternatives for the addressee
to choose between:
Do you want one or two?
Do you like my haircut or not?
Will you come here or shall I go there?
Although question tags are not independent clauses, it is convenient to deal with them
here. They consist of operator + pronoun subject and they are used to seek confirmation of
the statement the speaker has just uttered. The operator is a repetition of the operator just
used in the preceding declarative clause, if there is no operator, the dummy operator do is
used. The subject refers back to the subject of the preceding clause. They are placed at the
end of the sentence generally, sometimes they can take a medial position. They are usually
contrast in polarity to the preceding clause.
She’s so generous, isn’t she?
She doesn’t like fireworks, does she?
They have had a difficult time, haven’t they?
It seems a shame to break it up, doesn’t it when it seems so good.
Exclamative clauses: can be expressed by a range of structures, independent clauses with
an exclamatory function begin with a wh- word (what or how) and continue with a subject
+ verb pattern.
What a good girl you are!
What a beautiful painting!
How generous you have been!
Imperative clauses: they have no subject, use the base form of the verb and there is an
absence of modals as well as tense and aspect markers. Typically they urge the addressee
to do something. There is a special imperative clause which contains the verb let followed
by us, usually contracted to let’s to express a suggestion involving both the speaker and the
addressee.
Get off the table!
Don’t forget to go to the bank!
Go away and leave me alone!
Let’s go to the cinema. Let’s have a party! Let’s catch up with the others.
