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Graphite
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For other uses, see Graphite (disambiguation).
Graphite (/ˈɡræfaɪt/), archaically referred to as
plumbago, is a crystalline form of the element
carbon with its atoms arranged in a hexagonal
structure. It occurs naturally in this form and is
the most stable form of carbon under standard
conditions. Under high pressures and
temperatures it converts to diamond. Graphite
is used in pencils and lubricants. It is a good
conductor of heat and electricity. Its high
conductivity makes it useful in electronic
products such as electrodes, batteries, and
solar panels.
Graphite
Graphite specimen
General
Category Native mineral
Formula C
(repeating unit)
Strunz classification 1.CB.05a
Crystal system Hexagonal
Crystal class Dihexagonal
dipyramidal (6/mmm)
Hermann–Mauguin
notation: (6/m 2/m
2/m)
Space group P63mc (buckled)
P63/mmc (flat)
Unit cell a = 2.461, c =
6.708 [Å]; Z = 4
Identification
Color Iron-black to steel-
gray; deep blue in
transmitted light
Crystal habit Tabular, six-sided
foliated masses,
granular to compacted
masses
Twinning Present
Cleavage Basal – perfect on
{0001}
Fracture Flaky, otherwise rough
when not on cleavage
Tenacity Flexible non-elastic,
sectile
Mohs scale hardness 1–2
Luster Metallic, earthy
Streak Black
Diaphaneity Opaque, transparent
only in extremely thin
flakes
Specific gravity 1.9–2.3
Density 2.09–2.23 g/cm3
Optical properties Uniaxial (–)
Pleochroism Strong
Solubility Soluble in molten
nickel, warm
chlorosulfuric acid[1]
Other characteristics strongly anisotropic,
conducts electricity,
greasy feel, readily
marks
References [2][3][4]
Types and varieties …
The principal types of natural graphite, each
occurring in different types of ore deposits, are
Crystalline small flakes of graphite (or flake
graphite) occurs as isolated, flat, plate-like
particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken.
When broken the edges can be irregular or
angular;
Amorphous graphite: very fine flake graphite
is sometimes called amorphous;[5]
Lump graphite (or vein graphite) occurs in
fissure veins or fractures and appears as
massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or
acicular crystalline aggregates, and is
probably hydrothermal in origin.[6]
Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite refers to
graphite with an angular spread between the
graphite sheets of less than 1°.[7]
The name "graphite fiber" is sometimes used
to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-
reinforced polymer.
Occurrence
Properties …
Structure
…
Solid carbon comes in different forms known
as allotropes depending on the type of
chemical bond. The two most common are
diamond and graphite (less common ones
include buckminsterfullerene). In diamond the
bonds are sp3 and the atoms form tetrahedra
with each bound to four nearest neighbors. In
graphite they are sp2 orbital hybrids and the
atoms form in planes with each bound to three
nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart.[12][13]
The individual layers are called graphene. In
each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a
honeycomb lattice with separation of 0.142 nm,
and the distance between planes is
0.335 nm.[14] Atoms in the plane are bonded
covalently, with only three of the four potential
bonding sites satisfied. The fourth electron is
free to migrate in the plane, making graphite
electrically conductive. However, it does not
conduct in a direction at right angles to the
plane. Bonding between layers is via weak van
der Waals bonds, which allows layers of
graphite to be easily separated, or to slide past
each other.[15]
The two known forms of graphite, alpha
(hexagonal) and beta (rhombohedral), have
very similar physical properties, except that the
graphene layers stack slightly differently.[16]
The alpha graphite may be either flat or
buckled.[17] The alpha form can be converted
to the beta form through mechanical treatment
and the beta form reverts to the alpha form
when it is heated above 1300 °C.[18]
Scanning tunneling microscope image of
graphite surface atoms
Graphite's unit cell
Animated view of the unit cell in three layers of
graphene (note that this is a slightly different
unit cell from the one to the left)
Ball-and-stick model of graphite (two
graphene layers)
Side view of layer stacking
Plane view of layer stacking
Rotating graphite stereogram
Thermodynamics
…
Theoretically predicted phase
diagram of carbon
The equilibrium pressure and temperature
conditions for a transition between graphite
and diamond is well established theoretically
and experimentally. The pressure changes
linearly between 1.7 GPa at 0 K and 12 GPa at
5000 K (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple
point).[19][20] However, the phases have a wide
region about this line where they can coexist.
At normal temperature and pressure, 20 °C
(293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa),
the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but
diamond is metastable and its rate of
conversion to graphite is negligible.[21]
However, at temperatures above about 4500 K,
diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid
conversion of graphite to diamond requires
pressures well above the equilibrium line: at
2000 K, a pressure of 35 GPa is needed.[19]
Other properties
…
Graphite plates and sheets, 10–
15 cm high; mineral specimen from
Kimmirut, Baffin Island
The acoustic and thermal properties of
graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons
propagate quickly along the tightly bound
planes, but are slower to travel from one plane
to another. Graphite's high thermal stability
and electrical and thermal conductivity
facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and
refractories in high temperature material
processing applications. However, in oxygen-
containing atmospheres graphite readily
oxidizes to form carbon dioxide at
temperatures of 700 °C and above.[22]
Molar volume against pressure at
room temperature
Graphite is an electrical conductor, hence
useful in such applications as arc lamp
electrodes. It can conduct electricity due to the
vast electron delocalization within the carbon
layers (a phenomenon called aromaticity).
These valence electrons are free to move, so
are able to conduct electricity. However, the
electricity is primarily conducted within the
plane of the layers. The conductive properties
of powdered graphite[23] allow its use as
pressure sensor in carbon microphones.
Graphite and graphite powder are valued in
industrial applications for their self-lubricating
and dry lubricating properties. There is a
common belief that graphite's lubricating
properties are solely due to the loose
interlamellar coupling between sheets in the
structure.[24] However, it has been shown that
in a vacuum environment (such as in
technologies for use in space), graphite
degrades as a lubricant, due to the hypoxic
conditions.[25] This observation led to the
hypothesis that the lubrication is due to the
presence of fluids between the layers, such as
air and water, which are naturally adsorbed
from the environment. This hypothesis has
been refuted by studies showing that air and
water are not absorbed.[26] Recent studies
suggest that an effect called superlubricity can
also account for graphite's lubricating
properties. The use of graphite is limited by its
tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some
stainless steel,[27][28] and to promote galvanic
corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its
electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to
aluminium in the presence of moisture. For this
reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a
lubricant in aluminium aircraft,[29] and
discouraged its use in aluminium-containing
automatic weapons.[30] Even graphite pencil
marks on aluminium parts may facilitate
corrosion.[31] Another high-temperature
lubricant, hexagonal boron nitride, has the
same molecular structure as graphite. It is
sometimes called white graphite, due to its
similar properties.
When a large number of crystallographic
defects bind these planes together, graphite
loses its lubrication properties and becomes
what is known as pyrolytic graphite. It is also
highly anisotropic, and diamagnetic, thus it will
float in mid-air above a strong magnet. If it is
made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then
it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood
contacting devices like mechanical heart
valves and is called pyrolytic carbon, and is not
diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite and pyrolytic
carbon are often confused but are very
different materials.[32]
Natural and crystalline graphites are not often
used in pure form as structural materials, due
to their shear-planes, brittleness, and
inconsistent mechanical properties.
History of natural graphite
use
Uses of natural graphite
Uses of synthetic graphite
Graphite mining,
beneficiation, and milling
Graphite recycling
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Last edited 14 hours ago by El C
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