Materials Science & Engineering C 97 (2019) 954–965

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science & Engineering C

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msec

Review

Silver nanoparticles as an effective disinfectant: A review T

a,b a,c a a,⁎
S.P. Deshmukh , S.M. Patil , S.B. Mullani , S.D. Delekar
a
Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, MS, India
b
Department of Chemistry, D.B.F. Dayanand College of Arts and Science, Solapur 413 002, MS, India
c
Department of Chemistry, Karmaveer Hire College, Gargoti, Kolhapur 416 209, MS, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The paradigm modifications in the metallic crystals from bulky to micro-size to nano-scale have resulted in
Disinfectant excellent and amazing properties; which have been the remarkable interests in a wider range of applications.
Silver nanoparticles Particularly, Ag NPs have much attention owing to their distinctive optical, chemical, electrical and catalytic
Biomedical properties that can be tuned with surface nature, size, shapes, etc. and hence these crystals have been used in
HAIs
various fields such as catalysis, sensor, electronic components, antimicrobial agents in the health industry etc.
Food packaging, textiles
Among them, Ag NPs based disinfectants have paid attention due to the practical applications in our daily life.
Animal husbandry
Therefore the Ag NPs have been used in different sectors such as silver-based air/water filters, textile, animal
husbandry, biomedical and food packaging etc. In this review, the Ag NPs as a disinfectant in different sectors
have been included in detail.

1. Introduction field in wider sectors. The International Organization for

Standardization states a nanomaterial as a material with any exterior
In spite of the contemporary improvement of the hygiene in the dimension in between 1 and 100 nm; which have also been in the multi-
biomedical (hospitals), education (school/colleges), surrounding en- fold domain due to their remarkable properties. The various nanoma-
vironment (air/water), and industry (food/textile/animal husbandry); terials have been employed as efficient disinfectants by optimizing their
it is an increasingly important public health issue globally. In parti- physicochemical properties. Hence, many investigators are probing to
cular, the infectious diseases are the major challenges to the human generate multifunctional nanomaterials as a potent disinfectant. The
being because of emerging > 300 infectious diseases with a new nanomaterials have a wide range of uses like water disinfectant, hos-
adaptation. The microbial based infections are a key cause of the di- pital acquired disinfectant, food preservative, and medical devices etc.
verse infections because of which > 50% people are dying in Africa due Among the various materials inorganic metals such as the copper, silver
to a variety of infections [1]. To overcome the various strategies have and gold are used eating utensils, plates, cups, jewellery, and coins
been used to reduce infections by using different disinfectant. The water/food container for disinfection of water/food as well as human
disinfectants are chemical substances applied on the surface to kill or infections. Particularly, silver ions and silver-based compounds are the
inhibit microorganisms. It is an ideal way to disinfect various surfaces well-known antimicrobial agent for the medicinal importance from the
in hospitals, kitchens and in clinics. They are useful in our daily life 1000 BCE and they have been used as an efficient health additive in
because they particularly kill microorganisms without causing health Chinese and Indian Ayurveda medicine [3]. The choice of silver is due
hazards to human beings. In addition to that, they are abundant in to its multiple functions in the medical field. As usual silver nitrate is
quantity, efficient, a cheaper antimicrobial agent in short periods and used for antimicrobial action a long time, but nowadays nano-based
unable to generate toxic compounds after their use [2]. The various silver has efficient in antimicrobial action due to its physicochemical
chemical compounds such as alcohols, quaternary ammonium cation, property in which larger surface to volume ratio resulted into higher
aldehydes, oxidizing agents such as sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen surface exposure to the microbes which leads to furnish better anti-
peroxides, iodine etc. have been used as disinfectant effectively. How- microbial activity. In addition, the special properties such as size,
ever, these compounds are suffered from various constraints such as shape, phases play a crucial role of bacterial inactivation or killing of
harmfulness, corrosive nature and bacterial resistance. bacteria. These physicochemical properties of the silver nanomaterials
To overcome those problems, the nanomaterials have created a new and its compounds have foremost applications in the environmental,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sddelekar7@rediffmail.com (S.D. Delekar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2018.12.102
Received 25 July 2018; Received in revised form 18 December 2018; Accepted 25 December 2018
Available online 28 December 2018
0928-4931/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S.P. Deshmukh et al. Materials Science & Engineering C 97 (2019) 954–965

biomedical and industry sectors. Ag NPs are playing the crucial role in

[52,54,58,61]
References
the air/water purifications, in biomedical fields as a therapeutic agent,

[37,61]
[6,76] textile consumer products as well as wound dressing which are shown

[62]
[73]
[26]
[21]
[25]
[47]
[54]
in Table 1. Its bactericide effects are observed on Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Listeria innocua,
Salmonella choleraesuis bacteria due to higher toxic effect to the bac-
terial cells [4]. Ag NPs have imparting broad scope to enhance effi-
ciency by optimizing its physicochemical parameters, which also leads
Elimination of aerosolized bacteriophage MS2 virus particles

to greater binding capability with sulphur and phosphorous functio-

nalized biomolecules of bacteria for killing the cells [5]. Our research
Sustainable release of Ag + ion for antibacterial effect

Prompt and synergic antibacterial activity of air filter

group exhibited a detail study of nanocrystalline Ag connected to the

Photocatalytic, self-cleaning bacterial inactivation

surface of TiO2 electrostatically for the photoinactivation antibacterial

studies in the presence of UV/Visible light [6]. Therefore, due to its
multi-domain uses, Ag NPs would have the broad spectrum of the
biomedical sector for innovative formulation to resist the bacterial
Visible active antibacterial activity
Photo-oxidative killing of bacteria

growth. This review is majorly focus on the role of Ag NPs as a disin-

fectant for controlling the various infections observed in water, air,
textile, poultry, hospital acquired infections, wound healing infection
Enhance shelf life of food

Wound healing ability

Wound healing ability

and food packaging infection.

Disinfectant activity

Schematic representation for potential applications of silver nano-

Water purification

particles (Ag NPs) shown in the Fig. 1.

2. Environmental sector

2.1. Water disinfections

Providing the pure water to human beings is one of the sustainable

development goals to be achieved up to 2030. Presently, the various
Mechanical/structural, antibacterial and barrier property to UV light

methods are available to pure the water. Filtration is commonly used

Porosity, moisture retention capability, blood-clotting capability

everywhere; but it can remove only the suspended or micro-particles

present in water. Advanced oxidation treatment is another technique
used to decompose the organic matter present in water; but it is not
Reduction in band gap leads to visible active material

feasible to remove all moieties. In reverse osmosis, one can get the pure
water; but having more cost as well. In addition, UV-treated filters are
also available to remove the microorganisms present in water.
Therefore, the present water filters should be multi-functional to re-
Physicochemical properties of Ag NPs

move or decompose the moieties or microbes present in water and

hence these are un-economical to the common peoples. However, the
bare or composites of Ag NPs would have the multi-tasking ability as
Magnetic and antibacterial

these nanomaterials can degrade the moieties as well as can also kill the
Surface functionalization

different organisms in a single treatment [7]. Therefore, in connection

Spherical morphology

to these constraints, we have highlighted the use of composites in water

disinfection fields.
Size 40–60 nm
The physicochemical properties of silver nanoparticles as a disinfectant.

O2−, %OH

Anti-viral

Porosity
PLA/ZnO:Cu/Ag bionanocomposites

Ag NPs/Chitosan
Ag polyamide

AgNP@SiO2
Ag@Co-NPs
Materials

Ag@ZnO
Ag/TiO2

Ag NPs

Ag NPs

Ag/BC
Sr. No.
Table 1

10.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Fig. 1. Applications of silver nanoparticles as a disinfectant.

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S.P. Deshmukh et al. Materials Science & Engineering C 97 (2019) 954–965

Estimated 1.87 million deaths occur worldwide due to lack of pure and leaching ability of silver which has incorporated polysulfone
drinking water and sanitation problems. As per evaluated data, 780 membrane. Here, water flux is enhanced by 7 fold due to nanowire Ag
million people did not have a safe water supply for their daily needs NPs and overall antibiofouling property of polysulfone membrane has
[8]. World Health Organization (WHO) report suggests household been enhanced [16].Thin film composite was formed with uniform
drinking water quality needs to be improved by various treatments at distribution of Ag NPs on reverse osmosis membranes having surface
the point of use (POU) [9]. As increasing water inadequacy is an roughness, hydrophilicity and zeta potential properties. It exhibited
alarming rate, it is required to generate POU or advanced water treat- high functional property, in which 75% active bacteria anchored on the
ment facilities for safe, easy, secure drinking water. In this regards, the membrane hence filtered water is free from bacteria and it also reduces
use of nanomaterials as a disinfectant is a new approach. Drinking biofilm formation rate. Such type of ease method for potent anti-
water purification has involved the various water treatment processes bacterial ability resulted into practical approach to water filter mem-
such as settlement, coagulation and filtration in addition of chemical brane [17]. The cryogels are another efficient superabsorbent material
process which covers ozonation and chlorination. Chlorination is focused as alternative to ceramic filter with efficient disinfection pro-
widely used as a disinfectant method but it has some disadvantages cess. Silver impregnated polysodium acrylate (PSA) cryogels are used as
such as bad taste and odor. In some cases, it is ineffective due to mi- efficient disinfectant in POU process. This is because of its higher
crobial resistance and generated toxic product in the water. The aim of porosity, better mechanical and water absorption ability. Homogeneous
water disinfection is to remove or inactivate microbiological con- dispersion of silver nanocrystals on pore surface of cryogels resulted
taminates from the water, without changing the physicochemical into efficient disinfection with lower release rate of silver ions [13].In
properties of water, in addition to these process, silver as a disinfectant another method the percolation of water through silver adsorbed
is one of the traditional routes to kill or inactivate the bacteria [10]. blotting paper sheet has play major role in the bacterial deactivation.
Also, per the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and WHO, It's deactivation performance and leaching test confirmed that, this
silver at a low concentration in drinking water i.e. < 0.1 mg/L is safe method is good for water purification process [18]. Polyurethane foams
[11]. Silver disinfection depends on various parameters such as con- are homogeneously coated with Ag NPs without leaching during the
centration, pH, exposure time and temperature. In addition, the other washing in presence of water. This foam is used in water filtration in
content in the water such as calcium, chlorine and sulphide also play a which flow rate of 0.5 L/min was maintained and filtered water does
crucial role in the disinfection process. Calcium and sulphide in water not have any E. coli bacteria. It confirmed that this water filtration unit
affect the bactericidal activity of silver, but chloride has less effect on its is compatible with drinking water purposes [19]. To reduce hardness of
bactericidal activity [12]. Therefore nanocrystalline silver form would water cation exchange polymer matrices being routinely used in water
have better efficacy in water disinfection. The impregnation of silver treatment process with little focus on the trapping of bacteria in the
nanocrystals in ceramic water filter can act as an effective disinfectant membrane. Glover et al. reported the dynamic behaviour of Ag NPs on
than simple filter [13]. Water filters implanted with Ag NPs proved the surface under ambient conditions. The humidity dependent particle
efficient for the removal and deactivation of microbes by using two generation from the host NPs explored with successive steps are in-
mechanisms such as metallic disinfection and physical filtration. Actual volved in this process. In the first stage Ag NPs are dissolved and oxi-
impact of silver salt and its NPs on the C. parvum pathogen and its dized on the highly humid surfaces that lead to formation of the silver
complete removal from water by filtration has been revealed [14]. ions. Afterwards, in the second stage these silver ions are diffused in the
Nowadays, low-pressure membrane filtrations methods have increasing water layer from the parent particles that are different from the parent
usage in water treatment due to lower processing cost. Generally, low- particles. Later in the third stage formation of Ag NPs are observed at
pressure membrane equipment involve microfiltration (MF) and ultra- the surface through the photo-reduction or mild reduction process [20].
filtration (UF) processes. But, they have some issues related to perfor- Various stages involved in the Ag NPs generation under the ambient
mance. In which, biofouling is the major problem which can created conditions are shown in Fig. 2.
bacterial film on the membrane resulted into decreasing efficiency of .
membrane flux, thereby reducing the life of membranes. Therefore, it is For bacterial inactivation, Ag@Co NPs were embedded into polymer
needed to add antimicrobial agent into the membrane to reduce bio- matrices by soft reaction condition. These nanoparticles and their
fouling and increase capacity of the membrane. Thus, Ag NPs play dual functional groups are efficiently acted as antibacterial agents for water
role such as anti-adhesive and antimicrobial agent on the surface of purification [21]. In the current era, self-propelled micro- and nano-
membrane to inhibit bacterial adsorption, attachment and growth; re- motor have projected in the various fields, but in the water disinfection
sulted into the prohibition of biofilm formation on the membrane [15]. process micro- or nano-devices have been effectively used. The self-
The antibiofouling performance depends on the particle morphology propelled Janus microbots incorporated Ag NPs acts as a potent bac-
such as microparticle (mAg), nanoparticle (npAg), nanowire (nwAg) tericide for water disinfection process, anchored with magnetic iron

Fig. 2. Proposed steps involved in Ag nanoparticle generation from the parent nanoparticles.

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S.P. Deshmukh et al. Materials Science & Engineering C 97 (2019) 954–965

particles for controlling its migration and recovery after use from the Moreover, it does not affect filtration quality of air of the air filter [26].
treated water. It has specific properties, such as better swimming cap- Fig. 3 shows the antiviral action of Ag NPs on dust particles of the
ability and deactivation of bacteria within short time. Such innovative air filter. Ag NPs are coated on medium air filter as an anti-viral agent
ways for water disinfection are phenomenally effective and encoura- and analysed its efficiency as well as anti-viral capability with aero-
ging for the development of micro- and nano-scale devices [22]. solized bacteriophage MS2 virus in the presence of dust particles as
Therefore, incorporation of silver in materials like ceramic filter, compared with the theoretical model [26]. Herzong et al. demonstrated
cryogels, blotting papers, polyurethane foams and cation exchange the human epithelial airway barrier model at the air-liquid interface
polymer matrices to design nano- or micro-devices have generated new using aerosolized Ag NPs exhibited minimum cytotoxicity [27]. The
avenues for water purification than routine water disinfection methods. utilization of nanotechnology-based products have been increased and
thus the exposures of NPs to the human have also been amplified. These
NPs have exposed to the consumer via inhalation, ingestion, and dermal
2.2. Air disinfection
pathways, but inhalation is the more routine way to introduce NPs into
the human body. Therefore, the releases of airborne particles and silver
In the contemporary era, multiple human activities during the
compounds from nanotechnology-based sprays have studied in the
various development processes lead to have an adverse effect on the air
context of model population exposure and human health effect. Thus
quality. The current confront involve the clean environment free from
air quality has improved by using Ag NPs incorporated in various
toxic gases, particles, volatile organic compounds, airborne pathogenic
supporting materials without affecting the air filtration efficiency
bacteria and viruses. Among the various challenges of air infections, the
[28,29]. Thus air quality has improved by using Ag NPs incorporated in
removal of airborne microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and fungi
various supporting materials without affecting the air filtration effi-
have received great attention as these microbes are responsible for the
ciency. Though various strategies have been employed for the air/water
chronic communicable diseases. It increases vigilance about air pur-
purification using improved devices with NPs exhibiting better perfor-
ification in the health context. The air purification is needed to eradi-
mance; still there is a lot of scope for the optimization based research
cate the generation of airborne particles from the various viruses,
output with long-term impact of NPs on living organism as well as
bacteria, fungi and all of biological living organism. They are majorly
optimum concentration for increasing efficacy without toxic effect.
responsible for the various diseases such as anthrax, SARS (severe acute
respiratory syndrome), asthma etc. These bioaerosols are deposited on
the filter, air conditioning systems in excessive amount and multiply 3. Biomedical sector
due to the higher amount of moisture condition [23]. Therefore, var-
ious engineering solutions are available for the removal of bioaerosols 3.1. Hospital acquired infections (HAIs)
using ultraviolet germicide irradiations, photocatalytic oxidation and
air ozonolysis methods. To control air quality in the engineering na- The current challenges in the biomedical sector are the antibiotic
nomaterials the Ag NPs are used as efficient antimicrobial activity. resistant of the organism, product development protocols and its utility
Silver aerosol nanoparticles are generated from atomizer has been in terms of toxicity, healing time period and a side effect on the human
studied as an antimicrobial agent against B. subtilis bioaerosols under cells. In addition, the detection of infection causing non-bacterial pa-
meticulous conditions. It is observed that Ag NPs are good enough to thogen, monitoring infection control and prevention of nosocomial in-
improve the air quality using air filters [24].Young et al. reported the fections are key confront towards the scientific community [30]. HAIs
simple approach used to fabricate the mono-disperse Ag NPs decorated are well known as nosocomial infections that occurred in the hospital
silica particles for synergic antibacterial activity with gram positive and and health care facility centre. There are many factors responsible for
gram negative bacteria in the air filtration unit. In addition, the solution HAIs, such as decreased immunity of patient, multistep treatment of
of AgNP@SiO2 was stable up to six months and exhibited 99.99% an- patient resulted into increase in infections, spreading of drug resistant
tibacterial efficiencies of the both bacteria. Therefore, such hybrid bacteria and less care is taken for employing bacterial infection pro-
materials are useful as coating for the air purification devices and ap- tocols. Fig. 4 shows the various factors responsible for HAIs. A world-
pliances for prospect green environment applications [25]. Silver wide survey conducted by WHO revealed average 8.7% peoples are
coated silica particles are designed and coated on the air filter for the suffered by nosocomial infection and about 1.4 million people got af-
measurement of filtration efficiency and anti-viral ability in the pre- fected with HAIs. Eastern Mediterranean and south-east Asia regions
sence of aerosolized virus particles. Subsequently, mathematical model are more prone to such infections compared to the western world.
has been used for the determination of anti-viral ability of the air filters. Nosocomial infections include urinary tract infections, surgical wounds
As per calculated data the stable inlet virus concentration 500 PFU/m3; and lower respiratory tract infections [31]. Prevention of nosocomial
three inlet dust concentrations 0, 100, and 200 g/m3; and three outside infections requires integrated and monitoring programme in which
layer areal densities of 9.34 × 108, 2.8 × 109, and 4.7 × 109 particles/ different aspects are essential to be considered. The transfer of micro-
cm2. These measurements show the anti-viral efficiency of the filter organism from patient to care taker has been reduced by personal hy-
increased with coating areal density and diminish with dust loading. giene including hand washing, hand gloves, masks, working clothes,

Fig. 3. Antiviral action of silver nanoparticles with dust particles.

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sulfadiazine was compared with new chitosan-nanocrystalline silver.

Healing rate of chitosan-nanocrystalline silver after 13 days was higher
than control by at 98.98 ± 6.09% which is compared with 1% silver
sulfadiazine at 81.67 ± 6.30%. In addition, the healing period was
13.51 ± 4.56 days and 17.45 ± 6.23 days for chitosan-nanocrystal-
line silver dressing group and 1% silver sulfadiazine group, respec-
tively. It has been found that antibacterial efficacy and wound healing
property is significantly high for the chitosan-nanocrystalline silver
[41]. The chronic infections are mainly related to biofilm formation on
the surface of medical devices in which these bacteria have resistance to
antibiotic agent. Such biofilms are effectively degraded by using Ag
NPs. After isolation of biofilm from wounds its anti-biofilm efficacy of
Ag NPs is examined. The observed lower MIC value range of
11.25–45 μg/mL and anti-biofilm efficiency of Ag NPs is higher at lower
concentration of 50 μg/mL [42]. Ag NPs were incubated into polymer
matrix exhibit hydrophilic properties that reduce surface attachment of
microorganism, biofilm formation and proteins accumulations. Hence,
the regular dispersion of activated Ag NPs on the inner and outer ca-
theters avoids formation of biofilm and showed greater antimicrobial
property into wide range of in vitro studies [43]. In addition, the human
Fig. 4. Various factors responsible for hospital acquired infections. infections occur due to the C. albicans pathogenic microorganisms that
correspond to the commensal fungi which are usually present on skin,
shoes and sterilization of hospital equipment [32]. Moreover, in- oral cavity, vaginal and gastrointestinal tracts. Candida biofilms have
creasing bacterial resistance has a major impact on health and enhan- been mainly studied on abiotic surfaces of medical devices but it is
cing economic burdens. A large number of policies have been applied found that lower dose has limited efficacy. In order to improve its ef-
for campaigning against HAIs. Particularly, the use of Ag NPs is ficacy use of higher dose required that results in damage of various
emerging one to control the HAIs and efficient nano-weapon against organs such as kidney, liver etc. To overcome these problems, the
multidrug resistance bacteria [33]. The metal NPs synthesized by the biogenic Ag NPs are used to control the biofilms formation on the
biological route benefits more than those prepared by the physical and surface of catheters at the lower dose [44]. External ventricular drai-
chemical methods. This is because of a cheaper processing cost and eco- nage catheters impregnated with Ag NPs are new path ways to avoid
friendly nature of the biological method. In the biological protocol, catheter-associated ventriculitis in neurocritical patients. It is validated
biomass has been formed around the metal to neutralize its toxic effect. with recent vitro study on the biomedical devices exhibited the segre-
Biologically prepared Ag NPs using Bacillus marisflavi showed high gation of silver ion in catheter is lower than accepted levels [45]. In
antibacterial activity against bacteria responsible for HAIs [34]. The conclusion, in vitro and animal studies exhibited Ag NPs have sig-
uncontrolled and excessive use of antibiotics and their bacterial re- nificant level of toxicity. In vivo studies showed long term exposure
sistance is a present threat in front of the medical community, which is causes increased argyremia. Subsequently, Ag NPs have been used for
also addressed by synergetic combinations of antibiotics with Ag NPs wound dressing purpose for safe and broad spectrum. So, the Ag NPs or
[35]. its composites are useful materials for the different purposes for the
The allicin and Ag NPs combination have been studied for skin in- control of various infections occurs in the hospitals. In addition, proper
fection occurred due to Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This precautions are needed to be taken to avoid their toxic effects on
study revealed that the Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and human.
Minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) values for this drug combi-
nation are lower and thus useful in skin treatment to avoid skin infec- 3.2. Wound healing
tions. Various medical tools used in hospitals are also potential sources
of infections. These are coated with Ag NPs to avoid bacterial con- Silver has been used as an effective antimicrobial agent from cen-
tamination. Ag NPs are effectively used in catheters for better anti- tury to decrease bio-burden. Worldwide spreading of microbial re-
microbial activity and zero thrombogenicity [36]. The effect of Ag NPs sistance is the alarming concern in the clinical practice. The various
due to higher surface to volume ratio and release of silver ion on the antibiotic agents are effectively used from many years for the treat-
coagulation of contacting blood has been examined. Visible light as- ment, but excessive use resulted in antimicrobial resistance. So, to re-
sisted disinfections by using antimicrobial agent are another path to duce microbial resistance it is needed to design new strategies making
reduce infections. Antimicrobial effect of silver coated titania films was use of nanotechnology. Generally, infections are responsible for the
revealed under indoor light condition for photoinactivation of bacteria. postpone healing of closed wounds, traumatic, burn wounds and
A complete killing of MRSA bacteria due to synergic effect of Ag NPs as chronic skin ulcers. The silver based antimicrobial agent is emerging
a photocatalyst and visible light has been observed [37,38]. The stents disinfectant promoted for the wound healing to combat infections
and catheters used in cardiovascular applications required to be coated without affecting human cells. But, its resistance, toxicity and analysis
with antimicrobial agents like Ag NPs to prevent thrombosis. The Ag of product protocols are main factors of consideration before its use.
NPs have prolonged activity, higher bactericidal and bacteriostatic [46]. Ag NPs (AgNPs)/chitosan composite as wound healing agent are
property, biocompatibility and lower vivo toxicity [39]. A bone cement prepared by simple two step route. The inclusion of Ag NPs into chit-
used in the hip and knee replacement surgery, where infection rate is osan could improve the antibacterial action against drug responsive and
lower with Ag NPs along with poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) in drug-resistant harmful bacteria. The hydrophobic parts of dressing ex-
order to reduce risk of bacterial infections. It does not display any cy- hibit waterproof and anti-adhesion properties to avoid contamination
totoxicity in mouse fibroblasts or human osteoblasts indicating good of the surfaces. On the contrary, hydrophilic surface shows water pe-
biocompatibility [40]. Wound dressing is another area in which nano- netrating ability and diminish bacterial growth [47]. In chronic wound
crystalline silver has been used as commercial product from the decade. care dressing, the hydrogels with wide functions are the new emerging
In clinical trial, the wound healing efficiency of exiting 1% silver technologies to avoid infections. Hydrogels, with a high amount of
moisture and prepared with silver encapsulation exhibited that this low

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S.P. Deshmukh et al. Materials Science & Engineering C 97 (2019) 954–965

concentration (0.1 and 1.0% w/v) have promising potent antibacterial healing property of silver, its production cost, clinical excellence and
performance against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli which are safety as compared with well-known antiseptic agent povidone‑iodine
majorly responsible for development of antibiotic resistance [48]. are also considered. At the end, wound healing using Ag NPs as the
Green methodologies for the synthesis of nanomaterials are point of potent antimicrobial agent is an advanced process with lower toxicity to
focus due to health concern and biocompatibility. Therefore, Ag NPs the human cell line and shorter time period of wound healing. In the
have been synthesized by Lansium domesticum (LD) fruit peel extract for future, the excessive use of Ag NPs based drugs in the biomedical sector
the wound healing purposes. In vivo wound healing analysis demon- may cause of resistance to the organism so that there is scope for de-
strated that it intensify wound closure time and excellent histo- signing, developing and modification of the Ag NPs based drug to avoid
compatibility. Thus, it has good prospectus in the disinfection appli- bacterial resistance.
cations [49]. Typically, inflammatory skin diseases, with atopic
dermatitis, psoriasis, and contact dermatitis are the majorly widespread 4. Industrial sector
skin conditions impact on adults and children. Therefore, im-
munosuppressant drugs have been used for the treatments but they 4.1. Textiles
have lower efficacy and with bad effects. Hence, nanocrystalline silver
cream is used as substitute treatments for inflammatory skin diseases Nowadays, there is growing interest of the use of silver based na-
and it is found that it has efficient anti-inflammatory activity in com- nomaterials as antimicrobial agents in the textile sector as well. Sterile
parison with routine steroids and immune suppressant in presence of fabrics are one of the common goal defined by the scientists so there
pig model of dermatitis diseases. It reduced erythema in 1 day of would be the bacterial free fabrics subject to the various different
treatment at variation in concentration with noteworthy reduction at conditions. The different usage of nanomaterials for textile fabrics has
silver concentrations of 0.5% and 1% (P < 0.05) and this decreases been continuously demanded due to increasing customer costumes for
during the study stage [50]. Direct application of such antimicrobial different purposes. To functionalize fabrics the nano-moieties can play
agents on the human skin may cause toxicity. Toxicity is the major the major role with their specific properties. The various properties of
concern to humans rather than bacteria. Therefore, in vitro study of Ag fabrics such as stimulate stain repellent, wrinkle free, antistatic,
NPs for toxicity assessment exhibited that antimicrobial concentrations strength enhancement; water repellent and antimicrobial are very sig-
(1.56–6.25 g/mL) are safe for its use. Lower concentration of silver nificant to enhance fabric durability, luxuries and flexibility. Textile
selectively attacked on bacterial cell lines without harming host cells industries have changing and adopting new technologies not only in
and therefore useful as well as safe to cure burn wound infections. It fabric processing but also in the use of antimicrobial agent to avoid
established its utility as a good antimicrobial agent due to less cyto- bacterial contamination. Currently, peoples are also aware about bac-
toxicity, oxidative stress and apoptosis of the bacteria [51]. There is a terial infections occurred due to textile products. The spreading of
wide range of typical silver containing antibacterial products, such as microorganisms from fabric surfaces to the human skin is the major
silver nitrate, silver sulphadiazine, silver sulphadiazine/chlorhexidine, health concern. Therefore, fabrics can be treated to avoid bacterial
silver sulphadiazine with cerium nitrate and silver sulphadiazine im- infections [57]. In current scenario, textile fabrics have different
pregnated lipidocolloid wound dressing. On the other hand, newly properties such as antimicrobial activity, UV protection and self-
improved products such as ActicoatTM and Silverlon1 have a more cleaning. The contemporary methods in textiles have adopted nano-
systematic and prolonged release of nanocrystalline silver to the wound technology in order to accomplish antimicrobial property. But, in this
surfaces. The modes of action like liberation of silver have changed the direction selection of proper antimicrobial agent is a challenging task.
path of wound dressing. This is due to the reducing threat of nosocomial The choice of Ag NPs is preferable as compared with traditional anti-
infection, cost of product, and without damaging tissue efficient healing microbial agents such as metal salts, quaternary ammonium compounds
would be takes place [52]. The release of silver ions depends on the size and triclosan. This is superior due to various factors such as bacterial
of the particles. When the size is < 20 nm, it exhibited 100 times more resistance, stability, cheaper and environmental benign [58,59].
release rate than bulk silver particles. It has been revealed from many Therefore it is more useful than the ionic silver as they cannot generate
studies that Ag NPs are efficient bactericidal in vivo conditions as stain on the fabrics, maintaining fabric breathability and handling. The
compared to the bulk silver. The wound dressings are designed in such antimicrobial agent in bare or composite form on the fabric cannot
a way that, they can constantly release silver ion to the wound for the leads to the decolourizations or of destruction of mechanical strength of
period up to seven days for bacterial death [53]. Ag NPs are functio- fibre [60]. Cotton fabric exhibits self-cleaning properties under visible
nalized with bacterial cellulose using green synthetic methods with light by anchoring its surface with Ag@ZnO nanostructured materials.
formation of three dimensional webs like structure through the UV light In addition, the preparation of lightweight and wearable clothes with
irradiation. Bacterial cellulose is used as supporting material for wound antimicrobial activity the polyamine-mediated bioinspired approach is
dressing. A greater porosity of the cellulose is due to the nano-fibrous simple for functionalization of antimicrobial agents on the surfaces.
network which enhances water retention ability. The zone of inhibition Nanostructured materials are formed by using polyamines which is
of silver/bacterial cellulose is observed at 6.5 mm as compared to re- coated on the surface of fabrics for better antimicrobial activity under
ference bacterial cellulose is 10 mm, shows efficient antimicrobial the sunlight. It also exhibited proficient photocatalytic, self-cleaning
substrate against E. coli bacteria for wound healing treatment [54]. To and stain removal property of the fabric [61]. Plasma pre-treated
understand antibacterial action of silver ion on infected wounds in the polyamine coated with Ag NPs are studied for antimicrobial activity
presence of organic materials or inorganic ions like chloride, sulphate and aging effect. The bacterial inhibition is observed after 30 days in
and phosphate ions have major impact on wound healing process. the presence of Ag NPs with size < 100 nm. Furthermore, a longer
Therefore, to recognize the bacterial death mechanism there is major period bacterial inhibition is observed at lower concentration with
causes such as the penetration of silver ions into peptidoglycan cell wall 40–60 nm size Ag NPs [62]. Plasma treated polyester fabric developed
and interaction with plasma membrane, bacterial cytoplasmic DNA and for increasing binding property of Ag NPs and pre-treatment initiated
bacterial proteins [55]. In clinical studies the wider chronic non-healing both ionic and covalent interactions to create oxygen species on the
wounds of 29 patients have been quantitatively studied. The bacterial fibres, resulting deposition of smaller size Ag NPs which promote an-
biopsies depicted same number of bacteria. But, swabs used for healing timicrobial property [63].The functional clothing has good scope in the
showed reduced number of bacteria on the wound surfaces and causing market because it has designed to get better performance to the user in
less pain in wound healing process [56]. In controlled clinical ex- the extreme conditions. The various functional clothing such as pro-
aminations, it is observed that Ag NPs are efficient disinfectant for the tective, medical or sport clothing are available in the market. In func-
wound healing at lower dose. Despite phenomenally efficient wound tional clothing studies have been focused on antimicrobial effects in

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laboratory scale to the real life conditions [64]. Now a day's engineered 4.2. Food packaging
nanoparticles (ENPs) are the new technology, in which functionalized
silver and titania based consumer products are used as antimicrobial Food safety is the major concern in front of the food industry and
and photoactive agents. However, the various external exposure path- government worldwide. A fresh, clean, hygienic and long life food
ways such as the contact between fabric and skin as well as ingestion without chemicals or the chemicals that are less harmful to human
and inhalation transfer to children by oral routes are responsible for being globally. Market trends have also been changing to lower pro-
toxicity to human cell lines. Goetz et al. studied the dermal exposure to cessed, readily prepared and ready-to-eat “fresh” food goods. On the
nano-object and their aggregated and agglomerates of the loaded ENPs other hand, foodborne microbial bursts, worldwide food trade and
on the commercial textile fabrics to artificial sweat using simulated transportation of processed food to consumers are motivating for
wear-and-tear through physical process. These ENPs uptake rates on searching new ways to inhibit microbial contamination of food along
skin have less exposure therefore they are exhibited less toxicity than with key challenges like quality, freshness and safety. The Centre for
oral pathways used in dietary supplements [65]. Silver coating by Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of USA, evaluated that 90% of
various techniques on the textile fibres having longer period of release the infections are occurred due to different types of bacteria. As per
of silver ion and uniform distribution of silver on fabric is important CDC report almost 48 million peoples are infected out of that 128,000
parameter for antimicrobial fabrics. In the realistic approach leaching are hospitalized and 3000 died in United States due to foodborne dis-
of silver from fabrics used for children is studied in the presence of eases. These are not only bacterial infection but also toxins released
different liquids such as water, milk, sweat and urine. Subsequently, from the various microorganisms during metabolic processes [69].
leaching of silver in presence of sweat and urine found to be higher than Therefore, antimicrobial packaging technologies are needed to enhance
the tap water. This study reveals the less connectivity of silver particles shelf life of food, inhibit bacterial contamination and to prevent or
to the fabrics; which would be further optimized for decreasing the delay the spoilage. Ag NPs are promising bactericidal materials in food
leaching rate of Ag NPs from the fabrics so that these particles would packaging against broad range of microorganism such as bacteria,
not be harmful to the human beings [66]. Fig. 5 shows the anti- yeasts, fungi and viruses. Most of the inorganic metals and metal oxides
microbial efficacy of Ag NPs in the textiles. Microbial efficacy of Ag NPs used as antimicrobial agents are more tolerable to the drastic food
was determined on the textile fibres during various life cycle stages. processing conditions as compared to the organic materials having a
Multiple cycles washing exhibited range of silver release but does not less stability. Ag NPs are potent biocides against various pathogens. But,
affect antimicrobial efficacy of Ag NPs [67]. migration of silver from the packaging surfaces to the food stuffs is the
In supposition, the overall antimicrobial efficacy of Ag NPs depends potential health concern risks [70]. The European Food Safety Au-
on its concentration, surface area, size and release rate. The higher thority (EFSA) recommended upper limits of silver migration from
surface area and concentration of silver help to increase bacterial packaging should not go beyond 0.05 mg/L in water and 0.05 mg/kg in
contact by binding with eSH group of a protein. This resulted into food. It exhibits that determination of silver migration framework are
reduction of bacterial functions and ultimately its inhibition. It also essential to ensure potent antimicrobial activity [71]. Food packaging
hamper respiratory system, basal metabolism of electron transfer in the are classified into two categories; firstly improved packaging in which
cell membrane causing bacterial death [68].Nonetheless, because of its nanomaterials are embedded into the polymer to enhance its gas barrier
high antimicrobial activity and stability on the fabrics next generations properties and secondly active packaging in which nanomaterials in-
prefer to use various types of costumes which are free from bacterial teract directly with food and prevent contamination of food from mi-
contamination and having self-cleaning ability of the fabrics. Accord- crobes. In the film formation process Ag NPs were coated, absorbed, or
ingly, the textile industries have been changing from their old fashion directly incorporated by the simple chemical route [72,73]. Active
technology to the new nano-based technology for advanced textile packaging is the emerging technology focused on the protection of food
products. product from microbial contamination and deteriorations. It involves

Fig. 5. Antimicrobial actions of silver nanoparticles in the textiles.

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the three sub-categories, such as absorbing systems, releasing systems disinfectant and therapeutic material in animal husbandry including
and other specific temperature, UV light and microwave based systems poultry, livestock and aquatic industry. The various diseases caused by
[74]. Though the Ag NPs increase shelf life of food, there is need to bacteria, viruses, fungi and other mono-cellular microorganisms were
evaluate hazards and risks of migration from packaging to food for the effectively controlled by using Ag NPs. It inhibits reproduction and
customer safeness. The better food quality and shelf life have been growth of those bacteria and fungi responsible for the infection, bad
achieved by active packaging which leads to the reduction of microbial odor, itchiness and sores. Ag NPs are found to be highly efficient, fast
infection from field, cold storage and consumer places. The low cost and acting, deodorizing, nontoxic, non-stimulating, non-allergic, tolerance
environmental friendly packets embedded with Ag NPs for vegetable free, hydrophilic and thus very effective for bacterial resistance.
storage have been investigated. After periodic determination it was Therefore, Ag NPs are used as a disinfectant in animal husbandry to
observed that shelf life of vegetables increased without reducing nu- disinfect and prevent disease [84]. All the products of poultry farming
tritional values [75]. Cozmuta et al. reported Ag/TiO2 nanocomposites viz eggs, chicken etc. are mainly based on biological material, which is
in high density polyethylene (HDP-P) film in packaging which increases the potential source of infections and thus the poultry diseases. Various
shelf life and microbiological safety of bread in comparison with the microorganisms and their endotoxins are responsible for the infectious
routine packages [76]. Polyethylene based packages with Ag–TiO2–Fe diseases and spread in the environment through bioaerosols called or-
composite kept orange juice with same colour, consistency, flavour and ganic dust. This organic dust is reaching about three kilometers away
taste as like the freshly prepared juice, even after 10 days of storage. It from the place of its formation and causes serious respiratory tract in-
was also found that, silver and iron have a better antimicrobial property fections [85,86]. A lot of efforts have been made to conquer such in-
on the yeast and molds than TiO2 [77]. Food packaging has various fections by eco-friendly ways without having a negative impact on
factors such as size, concentration detection limit, size resolution were human health. Many chemical compounds such as organic acids, hy-
determined for effective packaging. The biokinetic behaviour such as drogen peroxide, sodium bicarbonates, sodium orthophosphate etc.
size, shape, capping agent, charge and solubility and aggregation state have been used for the destruction of microorganisms. But, all those
of the active packaging are have impact on the shelf life of food. In- have one or more limitations like less solubility, a possibility of direct
vestigators were used SP-ICPMS and AF4-ICP-MS techniques for application on the product, high cost, toxicity [86].
studying the properties of NPs for better understanding the effect of NPs One of the significant examples of an organic compound used for
on the active food packaging [78]. Ramos et al. reported the migration the disinfection is formaldehyde due to its low cost and high biocidal
study of Ag NPs, from plastic baby bottle and food container revealed activity. But, it is toxic as well as carcinogenic in nature. Thus, it is
less agglomeration and oxidation of Ag NPs, it is depends on the nature needed to find effective methods for destroying bacteria and fungi
of polymer and its storage conditions. SP-ICPMS techniques were used without being harmful to human health. Literature survey revealed that
for the determination of ionic silver and Ag NPs in extremely diluted the Ag NPs with good biocidal properties, may be an outstanding al-
samples. Hence this method is better for getting precise information of ternative [87,88]. They are effective in abolishing a wide range of
NPs size and concentration in complex extracts at lower quantity with Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria
short duration of time, that avoids agglomeration and oxidation of Ag include the genera Acinetobacter, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Salmonella,
NPs [79]. Silver and copper NPs were impregnated into guar gum na- and Vibrio, while Gram-positive bacteria include genera such as Bacillus,
nocomposites and effect of on thermo-mechanical, optical, spectral, Clostridium, Enterococcus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus
oxygen barrier and antimicrobial properties on film have been studied. [89]. Studies proved that Ag NPs with a diameter of 22.5 nm increase
It exhibited good properties of film for active food packaging applica- the antibacterial activity of some antibiotics, such as penicillin G,
tions. While commercialization of such films require to study the effect amoxicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, and vancomycin [90]. Sun
of NPs on food and its impact on the human health [80]. Commercially et al. observed that Ag NPs are effective against many viruses and it also
available containers are used to determine migration of Ag NPs under inhibit the replication HIV 1 virus. Ag NPs are also found effective for
acetic acid as stimulant at 40 °C under 10 day's observations. Migration the inhibition of a large number of fungi Aspergillum, Candida and
values were found to be higher under heating in the microwave oven Saccharomyces. On the other hand, they are markedly useful against
compared to conventional oven. These values were also depending on yeast isolated from infected cow udders [91]. As a disinfectant, nano-
size and aggregation of Ag NPs [81]. PVC nanocomposite films in- silver plays a very significant role in animal breeding where sanitation
corporated with Ag NPs decrease the thermal with retained mechanical of transport chambers or the space used for the storage of animals are
properties and prolonged the shelf life as well as decrease the lipid important factors. Ag NPs are applied for animal disinfection. In animal
oxidation of packed chicken breast fillets [82]. Thus, active packaging husbandry, strong antibacterial, fungicidal and deodorizing properties
with Ag NPs is breakthrough technology for food safety and its pro- of Ag NPs are noteworthy for the disinfection and the prevention of
cessing. Vast commercialization of this technology offers clean and contamination in animal breeding facilities [92]. Some workers [93]
fresh food in ready to eat format without losing its nutritional qualities. reported that a nanomaterial-supplemented diet reduces the toxic ac-
Fig. 6 shows the correlations between raw materials, food handlers and tivity of aflatoxin-contaminated feeds. Sawosz et al. assessed levels of
biofilms in the food packaging [83]. Thus, the nanoscale silver is one of Ag NPs residues in eggshells and tissues. This study revealed that na-
the best materials for disinfection purpose with its potent antimicrobial nosilver stimulates the oxidative stress condition in chicks hatched from
activity. Presently, it has been profoundly used in daily life, in en- nanosilver disinfected eggs. Disinfection proved to be very effective in
vironment for water and air disinfection, in industries such as textile the development of embryos and makes them sensitive to even very
and animal husbandry, in medicine. With such widespread use of Ag small amounts of toxic substances [94]. The application of Ag NPs is
NPs as disinfectant; it is required to give special emphasis on the risk of investigated as feed additives for encouraging birds and weaned pigs'
its toxicity for the welfare of human health. growth. In the study, it was well established that Ag NPs with size up to
100 nm showed higher antimicrobial activity than the silver salts. This
4.3. Animal husbandry is because; silver salts get deactivated by gastric acids and easily ab-
sorbed into the body through the intestinal mucosa. At the same time,
Animal husbandry is the one sector of agriculture related to animals Ag NPs cannot be digested through intestinal gastric juice and render
as the source of meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other foodstuffs. During the less toxic effect as compared to silver salts [95]. Ag NPs as a potential
routine activity of the animals, there is a possibility of infections due to dietary additive ascertained beneficial for the growth of weaned pig
various pathogenic microorganisms. So there is a need to expand which might be facilitated through its antimicrobial properties by
healthy animals with fresh and better food products. Among the dis- killing bacterial groups or reducing the microbial load of the small in-
infectants, Ag NPs is also used as a surface disinfectant, water testine of pigs [96]. In the future, there is wide scope to build up a new

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Fig. 6. Correlations between raw materials, food handlers and biofilms.

avenue in the industrial sector to avoid bacterial infections on silver Fig. 7 shows the detail mechanism of Ag NPs. This has to be con-
based nanocomposites. In which, the pave the way to reduce cost, sidered together with the high surface to volume ratio typically present
competent and low toxic nanomaterials for ease to use silver based in nanomaterials the smaller the particles, the higher the metallic sur-
fabrics, food packaging and clean, safe and fresh animal food products. face exposed and subsequently higher micro-biocidal effect can be ex-
pected [98,99]. The shape is the other parameters of nanocrystals that
5. Antibacterial mechanism of silver nanoparticles are responsible for the interaction with cell wall of bacteria. Truncated
triangular shaped silver nanoplates exhibited higher antibacterial ac-
The antibacterial mechanisms of silver NPs are reported by the tivity against E. coli bacteria rather than spherical and rod-shaped NPs
various investigators. The bacterial cell membranes contain sulphur [100]. Recently, Ag NPs < 10 nm create pores on cell wall due to these
constituting proteins and sulphur containing amino acids; inside and pores the cytoplasmic amount is discharged into the medium, which
outside the cell membrane silver can interact with them which resulted governs cell death without interacting the intracellular and extra-
in bacterial inactivation. In addition, silver ion released from Ag NPs cellular proteins and nucleic acids of the bacteria. The interaction of Ag
interacts with phosphorus in DNA as well as with sulphur containing NPs with some cells may cause the process of programmed cell death
proteins resulted into inhibition of enzymes activities. Particle size and i.e. apoptosis [101].
shape are also other parameters to determine antimicrobial activity. In In summarize, the Ag NPs as an effective disinfectant in the various
the size dependent study, it can be revealed that if a size of NPs is < commercialized products such as Acticoat™ for wound dressing,
20 nm, it can exhibited greater attachment of sulphur containing pro- Silverline® for polyurethane ventricular catheter, SilvaSorb® as hand
tein of membrane resulted into maximum permeability through mem- gels, wound dressing and cavity fillers, ON-Q SilverSoaker™ as a ca-
brane and finally cell death of bacteria [97]. theter for drug delivery [39]. In addition to that it is used in various

Fig. 7. Antibacterial mechanism of silver nanoparticles.

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fibroblast cells, and glioblastoma cells) [106].Gliga et al. reported the

detail nanotoxicology studies of silver NPs were investigated with
particles agglomeration in cell medium, cellular uptake, intracellular
localization and release of silver; and revealed intracellular release of
silver is accountable for the toxicity to human lung cells [107]. Even
though enriching knowledge about the hazardous effect of silver NPs
some issues needed to be assessed and optimized the toxicity limit, dose
and concentration to the aquatic living organism and human, thereafter
it can be safely and efficiently used in various functions.

7. Conclusions

At present, the use of nanomaterials in a wide range of products

specifically in the medical and daily life sectors have been increased.
Moreover, for the safe, peaceful and paramount life there is need to
avoid various infections associated with water, textile, foods and hos-
pital environment. To avoid microbial infections, the Ag NPs have been
used from last few decades. It is used in various daily life products and
medical devices which give a new approach towards the microbial re-
Fig. 8. Contribution of silver nanoparticles in different sectors. sistance bacteria to avoid bacterial infections. Beside the wide range of
applications of silver and silver based products in various fields as an-
products such as shirt, cloths and medical mask, toothpaste, hand wash, timicrobial agents, the actual impact of its toxicity on a human has to be
shampoo, toys, detergent as well as humidifiers. Nevertheless, the use encountered as the major risk factor. Furthermore, researcher are also
of Ag NPs in a consumer product is safe or not is the current topic of seeking to understand impact of Ag NPs for long term health effect,
debate. generating bacterial resistance that are wider scope for the future study.

Acknowledgements
6. Hazardous effects of Silver nanoparticles
The authors are thankful to University Grants Commission, New
Silver NPs have been used in various sectors due to fabulous and Delhi for financial assistance under FDP scheme [UGC-F. No.–38-11/15
efficient antimicrobial nature; a lot of awareness has arisen among the and UGC-F. No.–36-40/14 (WRO) Pune] which is gratefully acknowl-
researcher and policy makers because of the adverse effects of silver edged.
NPs on the environment as well as on the human health. Therefore it is
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