Ship to ship interaction :- It is clear thus far that

a great deal of caution needs to

be shown when operating an
narrow and shallow waters. It
almost goes without saying that
extreme care is needed. If,
intentionally or otherwise
another ship is brought into
this dangerous scenario, with
involvement in an overtaking or
passing situation, it is essential
to be aware of the forces at
work.
Passing:- In the interests of both
simplicity and clarity the
sequence of events during a
‘meeting end on’ manoeuvre
are illustrated with three
diagrams.
Phase 1:- It is important at this stage,
when meeting another ship, not
to work over to the starboard to
side of the channel too early or
too far. If the ship gets too close
to a shoal or bank it can
experience bank effect and
unexpectedly sheer across the
path of the approaching ship
with appalling consequences.
Phase 2:- With the two ships nearly
abeam of each other, a
combined low pressure, or
suction area exists between

1
 them and, if the vessels are too
close together, there is every
likelihood of them being sucked
together in a collision. Literally!
At this stage the bow of each
ship will also begin to smell the
low-pressure area astern of the
other. It is usual to feel this
‘turning in’ towards the other
ship as you pass and it is
helpful because it is also back
towards the centre of the
channel.
Phase 3:- Having previously turned in
towards the centre of the
channel, the opposite now
occurs. As the two sterns pass
each other, they are drawn
together by the low-pressure
area between them and this has
a tendency to realign the ships
with the channel. These effects
are not always very noticeable,
because the ships often passes
through the pressure zones
fairly quickly, even at relatively
slow speeds. The effects
however should always be
anticipated and used correctly
to advantage, corrective helm
being applied when necessary.
Overtaking:- Similarly for the sake of clarity,
the ‘overtaking’ operation is
also discussed with just three
illustrations.

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Phase 1:- The ship to be overtaken should
not move over to the starboard
side of the channel without first
considering the consequences
the bank effect and the danger
of shearing across the path of
the overtaking vessel. This
particularly applies to smaller
vessels, which will easily be
influenced by a larger ship.
As ship A approaches the stern
of ship B its how pressure zone
will put pressure on the rudder
of ship B causing it to shear
across the path of the
overtaking vessel.
The overtaking ship A will also
feel the low-pressure area
astern of B and exhibit a
tendency to turn in towards the
stern of the other ship.
There can be very powerful
forces, and it may require full
rudder and power to counteract
them.
Phase 2:- With the two ships abeam of
each other, a powerful pressure
zone exists between their bows
and a low pressure area
between their stern. These
combine to produce a strong
turning lever, which is trying to
swing the bows away from each
other. This is a powerful force

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 and vigorous corrective
measures may again be needed.
In addition to the turning
forces, there is also an
underlying suction area
between the two ships which
will, if they are allowed to get
too close, draw even inexorably
alongside of each other. If this
does happen, ship B is
normally dragged along with
ship A and unless they both
slow down together, to relax the
suction area between them, it is
especially difficult to get the two
ships apart again.
At this stage ship B may revert
to its original propeller speed
and appear to slow down in
relation to the other vessel.
Phase 3:- As the overtaking ship passes
the other vessel, ship B, may be
influenced by the effects of two
powerful forces. Firstly on one
side, bank effect and secondly,
on the other side, the low
pressure area of the passing
vessel. This can combine as a
very strong turning force and
require bold corrective action.
The rudder of ship A may be
adversely effected with positive
pressure, as it passes through
the pressure zone around the
bow of the overtaken ship B,

4
 particularly if that ship is large.
This can cause ship A ship to
turn unexpectedly across the
path of the overtaken ship.
As ship B is drawn towards the
suction area of the passing
ship, it may experience a
noticeable increase in speed.
Bank effect:- When a ship is making
headway, a positive pressure
area builds up forward of the
pivot point, whilst aft of the
pivot point the flow of water
down the ships side creates a
low pressure area (See figure
24). This area extends out from
the ship and in deep, open
water, clear of other traffic, is
not a problem.
If however the ship commences
to close a vertical obstruction,
such as a shoal or canal back,
the area experiences some
degree of restriction and the
ship will be influenced by the
resultant forces, which built
up. It is often thought that the
positive pressure at the bow is
the main problem, probably
because of the tendency to
relate most channel work to the
bow and heading. Looking at
figure 25, it can be seen that
whilst the pressure at the bow
is important, it is only working

5
 up a short turning lever forward
of the pivot point. The low
pressure or suction area is, on
the other hand, working well aft
of the pivot point and
consequently is a very strong
force.
As a result of these two forces,
which have developed, the stern
of the ship is likely to be sucked
into the bank. It can be very
difficult to break out of its hold,
the ship requiring constant
corrective rudder and power,
sometimes hard over, in order
to control heading.
Excessive speed must be
avoided as, yet again, it is a
crucial factor is creating a
‘bank effect’ problem, because
the magnitude of the forces
varies with the square of the
ships speed or water flow.
Squat:- So far we have only considered
a vertical obstruction in the
vicinity of the ship. Should is
also be running in shallow
water, with a depth of less than
twice the draft, an additional
obstruction exists which can
seriously compound the
problem. This is illustrated in
figure 26 where the ship is
running on an even keel with a
small under keel clearance.

6
 Therefore water which would
normally pass under the ship is
severely restricted.
This results in tow things.
Firstly, the water being forced
under the bow at a higher
speed than normal creates a
low pressure and loss of
buoyancy (see figure 26a).
Secondly, the building up of
water ahead of the ship
increases

Formulae
Max squat = Cb * S0.81 * V2.08 or Vb * S2 2/3
* V2.08

20 30
Where, S= b* static draft /B* depth of water
S2= S/1-S
In open waters, the width of influences is given by:
B= [7.7 +20 (1 –Cb)2] x b
Approximate formulae
Open water = Cb * V2/100
Shallow water = Cb* V2/50

Squat
The factors that affect the amount of squat are:
 The speed of the vessel
 The block coefficient
 The blockage factor
 The static under keel clearance
 The ‘at rest’ trim of the vessel
 Passing another ship in a river or a canal

7
 The ship close to the bank of the river.

Indication that the ship is in shallow water

include:
 Bow wave increases.
 Manoeuvring becomes sluggish.
 The engine thrust reduces.
 The ships speed over water reduces.
 Stopping distance and time increases.
 The turning circle increases to a great extent.
 Rolling and pitching reduces.
 The ship may start to vibrate.

Note:
1. Shallow water effect depends upon the depth of
influence which is approx = 5X draft/Cb
2. The increase in squat is squat is significant when
the depth of water to depth ratio is less than 2. It
is much more pronounced and of consequence
when this ratio is less then 1.5

Shallow water effect

 Shallow water causes squat. This is a decrease
in ship’s under keel clearance.
 The effect of shallow water is encountered when
water depth is less then approximately 2.5 times
ship’s draft.
The effect is directly proportional to ship’s speed
squared and. In addition, to the ship’s block co-
efficient, the relation between ship’s draft and
water depth (H/T) and the relation between ship’s
midship underwater section and channel cross
section.

8
 Squat can roughly be calculated by following
formula for H/T between 1.1-1.4.
Open waters squat = Cb/100 X V2 (Squat in
metres, V in knots) confined waters, V in knots)
confined waters = 2 X Cb / 100 X V2
 Full form vessels, Cb greater then 0.70, will
squat by the stern. Fine form vessels, cb greater
then 0.70, will squat by the stern. This is when
the ship is at even keel when dead in the water.
When the ship has trim by the head then the
squat will increase the trim by the head. If the
ship has trim by the stern then the squat will
increase the trim by the stern.
 In addition, shallow water:
- Decreases the ship’s speed,
- Increases the stopping distance;
- Increases paddle-wheel effect;
- Decreases rudder effect’
- Increases the turning circle radius (See
fig. 10); the ship handler will bring in
shallow water, because while turning the
ship’s speed will not decrease so fast as
in deepwater;
- Decreases swept path (see fig.1)
- Increases the influence of currents (see
fig. 12)
- Increase ship-ship interaction effects (see
3.3)
- Increase bow cushion and bank suction
effects (see 3.2)
- Decreases effective of tugs.

The effect of shallow water is largely dependent on

ship’s speed. So, to minimize the effects ship’s speed
should be low.

9
Ice glossary
Beset:- A vessel that is hemmed in and surrounded
with ice. The ship cannot be controlled, but is not
necessarily under pressure from the ice.

Concentration:- Measured in eights of sea surface.

1/8 is said to be open. More than 6/8 is closed.

Fast ice:- ice which is attached to the ground.

Floe:- Applies as a general term to all fragments of ice.

Growler:- A small floe calved from a berg.

Nipped:- A ship which is beset and under pressure of

ice.

Pack ice:- Otherwise called sea ice or field ice. A large

area of sea ice driven closely together. When the pack
has no lanes or leads visible then it is called closed
pack. When open, with many lanes visible, it may be
called loose, sailing, or drift ice, and can sometimes be
navigated at full speed.

Navigation in ice
Polar environment
 Directions change fast with movement of the
observer.
 Near the poles, meridians converge and excessive
longitudinal curvature renders the meridians and
parallels impractical for navigation reference.

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 All time zones meet at poles and local time has
little significance.
 Sunrise /sunset and day/night – 6 month cycle.
 Fog and weather

Master’s duty
 Moderate speeds and alter course to avoid the
iceberg.
 Report
- Type of ice
- Position
- UTM and Date

Note – ice reports are available for all areas, relevant

details in ALRS

International ice patrols.

 US coast guard operates ice patrol.
 Prime object to warn ships
 Details in ARLS.

Operation in ice
 Maintain freedom of manoeuvre.
 Keep moving even if slowly.
 Try to work with the ice movement and not against
it.
 Excessive speeds leads to ice damage.
 Identify correctly the type of ice-thickness,
hardness, floe size and concentration. This,
however is difficult to estimate after snowfall.

Ice-breaker assistance
 Skilled masters.

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 Also use air reconnaissance.
 Escort vessel
- Must follow the path
- Have towing gear rigged.
- Acquainted with ice signals.
- Inform ETA. Details in ALRS.

Ice accumulation on ships

Causes
 Fog in freezing conditions.
 Freezing drizzle, rain or wet snow.
 Spray of seawater in air temperature less than –2
degrees Celsius.

Consideration s before entering ice

 Should not be entered if alternate route is available
 Before entering consider
-Type of ice
-Time of the year, weather and temperature.
-Area of operation
-Availability of icebreakers.
-Vessels ice class in relation to the type of ice
expected.
-State of hull, machinery and equipment.
-Draught and the depth of water over the
propeller and rudder.
-Ice experience of the person in-charge on the
bridge.
 Thin first year ice allows passage to be made by
modern steel vessels on original intended routes.
 Thick first year or old ice requires an icebreaker.
 In heavy concentration of ice, anchoring should be
avoided.

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 Ramming and backing- breaking ice with impact
and reversing.

Beset- serous danger for pressure of ice. Greater risk

in concentration higher than 7/10

Signs of ice-bergs
 There are no infallible sings of proximity of an ice-
berg.
 Complete reliance on radar.

Unreliable signs
 Change in sea temperature, cold ice bearing
currents.
 Echoes from stem whistle.
 Sonars

Likely signs
 Blinking
 In case of large Antarctic ice-bergs absence of sea
in a fresh breeze indicates presence of ice to
windward.
 Thunderous roar of breaking ice.
 Observation of growlers or small pieces of break
ice.
 At slow speeds at night sound of breakers may be
heard.

 Standard methods of recovery

 Williamson turn
 Makes good original track line
 Good in reduced visibility
 Simple

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  Takes the ship farther away from the scene
of the incident
 Slow procedure

Williamson turn
Rudder hard over (in an “immediate action” situation,
only t o the side of the casualty).
After deviation from the original course by 600, rudder
hard over t o the opposite side.
When heading 200 short of opposite course, rudder to
midship position and ship to be turned to opposite
course.
 One turn (“single turn, Anderson turn”)
 Fastest recovery method

 Good for ships with tight turning

characteristics
 Used most by ships with considerable power

 Very difficult for a single-screw vessel.

 Difficult because approach to person is not

straight.

Single turn (2700 manoeuvre)

Rudder hard over
(In an “immediate action” situation only to the side of
the casualty).
After deviation from the original course by 250 0,
rudder to midship position and stopping manoeuvre to
be initiated.
 Scharnow turn
 Will take vessel back into her wake
 Less distance is covered, saving time
 Cannot be carried cut of actively unless the time
elapsed between occurrence of the incident and
the commencement of the manoeuvre is known.

14
 Scharnov turn
(Not to be used in an “immediate action” situation)
Rudder hard over
After deviation from the original course 40 0 rudder
hard over to this opposite side.
When heading 200 short of opposite course, rudder
to midship position so that ship will turn to
opposite course.

Wheel house posters

 Ship’s particulars
 Draught
 Steering particulars
 Anchor chain
 Propulsion particulars
 Thruster effect
 Draught increase
Due to squat
Due to heel
 Turning circles
 Stopping characteristics
 Emergency manoeuvre
 Bridge view visibility
 Man overboard rescue manoeuvre

Williamson turn

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