Sensitivity Analysis on Turbine

Blade Temperature Distribution

Using Conjugate Heat Transfer
Mohammad Alizadeh Simulation

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e-mail: [email protected]

Heat transfer parameters are the most critical variables affecting turbine blade life.
Ali Izadi Therefore, accurately predicting heat transfer parameters is essential. In this study, for
e-mail: [email protected]
precise prediction of the blade temperature distribution, a conjugate heat transfer proce-
dure is used. This procedure involves three different physical aspects: flow and heat
School of Mechanical Engineering,
transfer in external domain and internal cooling passages and conduction within metal
College of Engineering,
blade. For the external flow simulation and conduction within metal, three-dimensional
University of Tehran,
solvers are used. However, three-dimensional modeling of blade cooling passages is
Tehran, Iran
time-consuming because of complex cooling passage geometries. Therefore, in the cur-
rent work, a one-dimensional network method is used for the simulation of cooling pas-
sages. For validation of the numerical procedure, simulation results are compared with
Alireza Fathi the available experimental data for a C3X vane. Results show good agreement against
K.N.T. University,
experimental data. The present paper investigates uncertainties of some parameters that
Tehran, Iran
affect turbine blade heat transfer, namely, (1) turbine inlet temperature and pressure, (2)
e-mail: [email protected]
upstream stator coolant mass flow rate and temperature, (3) rotor shroud heat transfer
coefficient and fluid temperature over shroud, (4) rotor coolant inlet pressure and tem-
perature (as a result of secondary air system), (5) blade metal thermal conductivity, and
(6) blade coating thickness and thermal conductivity. Results show that turbine inlet tem-
perature, pressure drop and temperature rise in the secondary air system (SAS) and
coating parameters have significant effect on the blade temperature.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4024637]

Keywords: conjugate heat transfer, sensitivity analysis

Introduction peratures and stresses right, they used combination of through-

flow (BLADE-CT) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD;
Increasing turbine inlet temperature is a means of improving ef-
FLOTRAN) to analyze the external gas flow, the Cooling Passage
ficiency. However, this temperature exceeds allowable tempera-
Flow (CPF) program to perform the cooling flow analysis, and
ture of metal parts. In order to maintain metal temperature of gas
ANSYS program to analyze the heat conduction to calculate distri-
turbine blades within a safe margin, complex internal cooling pas-
bution of temperatures and stress. Facchini et al. [13] presented a
sages are used. Moreover, blade metal temperature distribution
simulation tool to analyze cooling system of gas turbine. This tool
and temperature gradients are the most important parameters for
couples energy, momentum and mass flow conservation equations
blade life assessment. Therefore, an essential step for the blade
together with experimental correlations for heat transfer and pres-
life assessment is accurately predicting blade heat transfer param-
sure losses. They validated this tool with experimental data using
eters. In order to calculate blade temperature precisely, internal
conjugate heat transfer methodology. In addition, they carried out
coolant, external hot gas, and metal conduction should be simu-
sensitivity analysis to boundary conditions variation in order to
lated simultaneously by the conjugate heat transfer method.
show how uncertainty on data can affect metal temperature distri-
There have been increased research efforts in applying the con-
bution. Takahashi et al. [14] performed a 3D steady-state numeri-
jugate heat transfer (CHT) methodology to simulate gas turbine
cal analysis of thermal conjugation for the inside and outside
blade heat transfer. Some of them are on the modeling C3X and
fields of the blade, which consists of convection heat transfer
MarkII vanes in a single solver [1–7]. Although 3D modeling of
around the blade and thermal conduction in the blade material
vanes and blades with complex cooling passages is time-
combined with a one-dimensional thermoflow calculation for in-
consuming, there are some studies [8–11] that used a 3D solver
ternal blade cooling rib-roughened passages. The 1D calculation
and CHT method to calculate the temperature distribution of
utilized correlations of friction and heat transfer in the rib-
vanes and blades with more complex internal cooling passages.
roughened cooling passages derived from large-eddy simulation
In addition, there are some studies [12–16] in which the blade
in ribbed rectangular channels. In this study, the effects of inlet
was simulated by conjugate (or coupled) heat transfer method
temperature profiles, mass flow rate, and temperature of internal
using 1D simulation for internal cooling passages. Short calcula-
cooling air on the blade local temperature are also presented. Fac-
tion time is the most important reason that in these works a 1D
chini et al. [15] used an iterative process involving external fluid
solver is used for the simulation of internal cooling passages.
dynamic simulations (CFD), internal flow network code, and finite
Dewey and Hulshof [12] carried out aerothermal analysis for com-
element conductive model (FEM) to design an advanced double
bustion turbine F-Class life prediction. In order to get both tem-
wall cooling system and validated their results with experimental
data. Amaral et al. [16] applied conjugate heat transfer method
Contributed by International Gas Turbine Institute (IGTI) of ASME for
publication in the JOURNAL OF TURBOMACHINERY. Manuscript received May 8, 2012;
using a 1D aerothermal model based on friction and heat transfer
final manuscript received March 17, 2013; published online September 20, 2013. correlations for lifetime prediction of a high-pressure turbine
Assoc. Editor: Karen A. Thole. blade operating at a very high inlet temperature. Their CHT

Journal of Turbomachinery Copyright V

C 2014 by ASME JANUARY 2014, Vol. 136 / 011001-1
method is validated on two test cases: a gas turbine rotor blade
without cooling and one with five cooling channels evenly distrib-
uted along the camber line.
Some of the abovementioned studies investigate effects of
uncertainties in boundary conditions and material specifications
on metal temperature distribution besides using CHT. In addition,
Haubert et al. [17] evaluated the effects of design parameters on
the predicted blade life. They concluded that the heat transfer pa-
rameters are the most critical variables affecting blade life and the
least critical parameter was the blade geometry. Roos [18] con-
ducted a set of sensitivity analyses of the trailing edge ejection

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slot width on the cooling effectiveness in a cast nozzle guide
vane. For the internal coolant passage, he utilized a pipe network-
based approach. His investigation showed that reducing the slot
size causes a corresponding decrease in the coolant mass flow rate
and, consequently, an increase in the blade temperature. Espinosa
et al. [19] evaluated the effect of reducing the cooling airflow rate
on the temperature distribution on the blade’s surface. The results
show a clear dependence of temperature distribution, related to
the cooling effectiveness, on the coolant flow rate in the cooling
channels.
In the present study, in order to predict blade temperature distri-
bution precisely, a conjugate heat transfer procedure, which uses a
one-dimensional coolant network code for cooling passage simu-
lation has been used. In other words, the coupled technique has
been used for the internal side while for the external side, the con- Fig. 1 Conjugate heat transfer algorithm
jugate procedure has been utilized. This methodology is validated
using available experimental data (NASA C3X by Hylton et al. ature distribution, coolant mass flow rate, and temperature are
[20]). obtained.
There are many uncertainties in the heat transfer simulation of It should be mentioned that in this study, the three-dimensional
turbine blades. Turbine inlet boundary conditions, which are esti- external flow and heat transfer simulation along with the conduc-
mated by cycle calculation; inlet temperature radial profile, which tion analysis in solid domain are carried out simultaneously by
is calculated by the combustion chamber simulation; cooling inlet ANSYS CFX solver. Hence, there is no need to iterate over the
boundary conditions, which are obtained from the SAS analysis; conduction and external flow analysis. These two domains
and material specifications of blade metal and coating, which are (solid domain for the blade and fluid domain for the external flow
specified during the manufacturing process, are some of these field) are meshed and the conjugate procedure was applied by
uncertainties. In this work the uncertainties on these parameters ANSYS CFX solver. Therefore, the simulation has just boundary
and some other ones that affect heat transfer parameters of turbine condition exchange between one-dimensional network code for
blades are investigated. In fact, the most and least critical parame- the internal passages and ANSYS CFX software for conduction and
ters affecting the blade temperature and resultant life are obtained. external flow.
The iteration between the conjugate (3D solver) and the 1D in-
ternal flow network is repeated until the relative difference (rela-
The Conjugate Heat Transfer Procedure tive difference is defined as the absolute value of (New value-Old
value)/Old value) between successively calculated values of
The conjugate heat transfer involves three different physical coolant-side wall temperature in each element is less than
aspects: flow and heat transfer in the external domain and internal 1.0  104. In addition, the quantity of heat absorbed by the cool-
cooling passages, and conduction within blade structure. In the ant is compared to the amount of heat, which passes through the
conjugate procedure, the calculation of external and internal flow internal wall. Nondimensional difference between these two pa-
and heat transfer is coupled together with the blade conduction. rameters should also be less than 1.0  104.
The blade temperature distribution is determined by analyzing
these three sections. Results of the external flow and heat transfer
simulation define external boundary conditions for the metal con- 1D Network Method Explanation. In the gas turbine simula-
duction calculation. Internal boundary conditions for the conduc- tions, the network method is used to solve various problems
tion calculation are defined by the heat and fluid flow simulation including coolant passages and secondary air system (SAS). By
of internal coolant passages. As mentioned in the Introduction, 3D this method, the variation of coolant properties can only be calcu-
simulation of internally cooled blade heat transfer with complex lated along the flow path. In other words, based on the 1D network
cooling passages is time-consuming. Therefore, in this paper a concept, distribution of coolant properties such as pressure, tem-
network method is used for the simulation of flow and heat trans- perature, and Mach number, in any cross section of a passage is
fer in the internal passages. Figure 1 illustrates the conjugate heat neglected. In this paper, this method (based on Meitner [21,22]) is
transfer algorithm. Calculation of the internal and external flow applied to simulate internal coolant passages of a typical turbine
and heat transfer is coupled with the blade conduction in an itera- blade. Cooling channels are considered as a network of different
tive procedure. Using assumed wall temperature, the internal flow elements, which linked to each other by the internal nodes. In
and heat transfer are calculated. The outcome of this computation each element, the simulation is performed by integrating the one-
is the boundary conditions for blade conduction analysis com- dimensional compressible continuity, momentum, and energy
prised of the internal heat transfer coefficient and fluid tempera- equations along a defined flow path. (See Ref. [21] for derivation
ture. The other outcomes of the internal flow and heat transfer of the equations.) The variation of all fluid properties in each cross
calculation are coolant properties such as mass flow rate and tem- section of the flow path has been neglected, and therefore, all fluid
perature at the cooling outlets. The blade conduction calculation properties are considered constant in each cross section of the
also results in internal flow simulation boundary, namely, wall cooling passages. Empirical correlations are used to predict fric-
temperature. Reaching convergence, results of final blade temper- tion factor and heat transfer coefficients for various cooling

011001-2 / Vol. 136, JANUARY 2014 Transactions of the ASME

technologies. In the one-dimensional cooling channels analyses, Table 1 External gas-pass boundary conditions for C3X
transport properties such as gas constant, specific heat capacity, simulation
and Prandtl number change along each element. Moreover, since
the equations are based on compressible flow equations, the den- Pt,in (kPa) Tt,in (K) Ps,out (kPa)
sity changes along the passage.
321.7 783 192.5
The network method utilizes a solution algorithm, which is
shown in Fig. 2. After supposing internal coolant passages of the
turbine blade as a network of elements and nodes, the first step is
to determine boundary conditions (pressure and temperature) at
Table 2 Coolant boundary conditions for C3X simulation
inlets and outlets of channels. The inlet boundary conditions of
cooling passages can be calculated by the SAS simulation. On the

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Ts,in (K)
other hand, outlet boundary conditions depend on the hot external
gas stream in annular cascades. The second step is to guess total Coolant number Based on Refs. [10,24,25] m_ (kg/s)
pressure and temperature at internal nodes. Using these pressures
and inlet temperatures for each element, the element solver 1 387 0.0078
obtains mass flow rates and exhaust temperature of all elements. 2 388 0.0066
Then, using calculated mass flow rate and exit temperature for 3 371 0.0063
each element, the network solver is executed. As a result, updated 4 376 0.0067
pressure and temperature at each internal node will be achieved. 5 355 0.0065
6 412 0.0067
The final step at the main loop is to check convergence criteria,
7 367 0.0063
which means the updated pressure and temperature are within 8 356 0.0023
defined tolerance relative to the previous calculated values. 9 406 0.0014
Reaching convergence, pressure and temperature at each node and 10 420 0.00068
also mass flow rate, the internal temperature and heat transfer
coefficient of each element will be obtained.
As mentioned above, this method includes two major solvers,
the network solver and the element solver; the element solver sol-
ves 1D compressible fluid flow and heat transfer equations inside
an individual element. In other words, the main duty of the ele-
ment solver is to analyze each element separately. It uses experi-
mental correlations for the heat transfer coefficient and friction
factor for each cooling technology. In the network solver, mass
and energy conservation equations are applied at each internal
node. As a result, pressure and temperature at each internal node
will be updated.

Validation of the Method

There are some experimental works that can be used for valida-
tion of the presented method such as the experimental studies of Fig. 3 C3X geometry and the 1D elements of ten coolant
Dees et al. [23] and Hylton et al. [20]. In the present study, the nu- channels
merical model for validation purpose is based on experimental
study of Hylton et al. [20]. There are two different geometries in spanwise direction is 76.2 mm. It also has ten cooling passages
this experiment, namely, C3X and MarkII. In this paper, the ge- with circular cross section. The geometry specification of the C3X
ometry and boundary conditions of the C3X vane have been used. vane and its cooling passages can be found in Ref. [20]. Simula-
The C3X vane has a constant cross section and its height in the tion has been carried out for run number 112 of the experiment.
Imposed boundary conditions for the external gas pass and inter-
nal cooling channels are reported in Tables 1 and 2.

1D Simulation of C3X Cooling Passages. Although cooling

passages of the C3X vane are simple and it is possible to simulate
the whole blade in ANSYS CFX, this vane is used for validation of
the coupled process, which is utilized in this study. Each cooling
channel of the C3X vane is divided into ten equal elements. The
1D coolant network has been applied for each cooling channel.
The geometry of the vane and the elements of the coolant chan-
nels are shown in Fig. 3. The flow is assumed to be fully devel-
oped in the inlet of holes at the hub. The exit pressure of the
cooling channels is 100 kPa. The mass flow rate and inlet tempera-
ture for each cooling passage are listed in Table 2.

Grids and Solution Details for the Metal and External Flow
of the C3X Vane. In order to generate the computational domain,
two separate domains for solid and fluid are meshed using
ANSYS CFX Mesh. A two dimensional grid is first created and
because the airfoil has constant cross section, the grid is stacked
in the spanwise direction to create the full domain. In order to
allow the resolution of thermal boundary layers, stretching is
Fig. 2 Solution algorithm of the 1D network method applied in the spanwise direction away from the hub surface of

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Fig. 5 Predicted and measured pressure distribution on the
midspan plane

Fig. 4 View of numerical mesh on plane of constant spanwise

coordinates

the passage and towards the casing. All wall adjacent grid points
are located at yþ equal to or less than unity to resolve the viscous
sublayer region. A view of the computational mesh on the plane
of constant spanwise coordinate and the statistics information
about the independent grid are shown in Fig. 4.
In the fluid zone, time-averaged Navier–Stokes equations are
solved and a shear stress transport (SST) k-x turbulence model is
used. Air is modeled using perfect gas assumption. The mesh
interface between solid and fluid consists of nonconforming nodes Fig. 6 Nondimensional temperature distribution on the mid-
that require the use of the solid–fluid general grid interface (GGI) span plane
feature from CFX. This approach has previously been validated in
similar CHT analyses [4]. In each iteration, at fluid–solid interfa-
ces, energy balance is satisfied. The temperature of the boundary temperature is 0.14%. Therefore, the results show that the errors
itself is adjusted to meet this condition. Therefore, fluid–solid are within a reasonable range.
interfaces are fully coupled and required no user-specified bound- Figure 7 shows temperature contours on the pressure side and
ary values. the suction side surfaces of the vane. Since coolant temperature
increases from hub to shroud as thermal energy from the main
stream is transferred to the coolant, metal temperature increases
Comparison of Results. In order to validate the simulation with spanwise distance from hub to shroud. As can be noted, the
procedure, results are presented and compared with the experi- maximum temperature occurs at the trailing edge where the blade
mental data of Hylton et al. [20]. Predicted pressure distribution at has the minimum thickness and temperature varies near the trail-
the vane midspan is compared with the experimental data in ing edge where the cooling channels are close to the external
Fig. 5. The prediction exhibits good agreement with the experi- surfaces.
mental results except for 0.7 < X/Ca < 0.9 in which the maximum
relative error is about 8% (without considering the point that is far Conjugate Heat Transfer Simulation of a Typical
from the trend of the experimental data). It should also be noted
that the average relative error is about 2.8%. Predicted distribution Turbine Blade
of nondimensional temperature on the midspan plane of the exter- The present work aims to investigate effects of different param-
nal surface of the vane is compared with the experimental data in eters on the blade temperature distribution in a typical high pres-
Fig. 6. On the pressure side (1 < X/Ca < 0), results show reason- sure, high temperature turbine blade with internal convection
able agreement with the experimental data and there is an under- cooling. The case study for the heat transfer simulations is a first
estimation of wall temperature for 0.2 < X/Ca < 0. On the stage rotor blade, which has complicated internal cooling pas-
suction side, there is an overestimation for 0.1 < X/Ca < 0.5. It sages. In this blade, coolant flow ejects from the trailing edge and
should be noted that the average error for all the data is around the blade tip. Several details are depicted in the computer-aided
1%. The error of the maximum temperature that is located in the design (CAD) model of the blade shown in Fig. 8. As can be
trailing edge region is 0.6% and the error of the average blade noted, the blade is shrouded.

011001-4 / Vol. 136, JANUARY 2014 Transactions of the ASME

 Table 3 Stage operating conditions (the reference case)

Parameter (unit) Value

Tt,in (K) 1484

Pt,in (bar) 13.67
Ps,out (bar) 6.47
Pt,in-c (bar) 14.2
Tt,in-c (K) 696
N (rpm) 9800

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Table 4 Rotor blade metal and coating specifications (the ref-
erence case) [26]

Parameter (unit) Value

qme (kg/m3) 8250

kme (W/mK) 17.7
Cme (J/kgK) 710
qco (kg/m3) 6000
kco (W/mK) 1
Cco (J/kgK) 470
dco (lm) 100

Fig. 7 Temperature contours of the vane on (a) pressure side

(b) suction side

Fig. 9 Schematic view of the rotor blade cooling passages

network

Table 5 Experimental correlations for different cooling

technologies

Cooling technology References

Fig. 8 CAD model of simulated blade and its internal cooling
Smooth and roughened channels [21,27,28,29]
passages Ribbed channels [27,28,29,30,31]
90 and 180 deg bend [32,33]
In order to investigate the effects of stator on the rotor flow and Pin-fin [21,29,34,35]
heat transfer, the whole stage is simulated. It should be noted that Finned passage [21,28,29]
since the main target is only to investigate the rotor heat transfer, Trip-strips [21]
the stator is simulated with adiabatic boundary condition and its Orifice [36]
coolant injects to the main stream from its trailing edge. In this Fins in trailing edge [37]
modeling for stator, whole energy balance is conserved without a
detailed cooling structure. The stage operating conditions and the
coolant inlet and outlet boundary conditions are given in Table 3.
These data are obtained from cycle simulation of the whole gas network of the blade that consists of different elements is shown
turbine and the SAS analysis. In addition, the geometry specifica- in Fig. 9. On the left side of Fig. 9, different kinds of the 1D ele-
tions and the blade metal density, thermal conductivity, and spe- ments for this network along with their definition are shown. The
cific heat are listed in Table 4. blade cooling passage consists of smooth channels, pin-fins, lead-
ing edge ribbed channels, 90 deg bends, inclined ribbed channels,
1D Simulation of the Internal Cooling Passages of the and orifices. All of these cooling technologies and features are
Blade. The CAD model of the blade internal cooling passages is modeled using friction factor and heat transfer correlations exist-
illustrated in Fig. 8. The schematic view of the cooling passage ing in the open literature. In Table 5, references for the utilized

Journal of Turbomachinery JANUARY 2014, Vol. 136 / 011001-5

 and coolant mass flow rate in each element as a boundary condi-
tion for 3D blade conduction simulation.

Grids and Solution Details for the Metal and External Flow
of the Blade. As mentioned earlier, the whole stage external flow
and metal domain for the rotor blade are simulated. Periodicity
conditions to replicate the multiple passages are employed, and
therefore, only one blade is included in the computations. For the
fluid domains, all wall adjacent grid points are located at yþ equal
to or less than unity to resolve the viscous sublayer region. All

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calculations are based on the three-dimensional, compressible
Fig. 10 Boundary connections between 1D code and 3D model fluid flow. The transport properties such as viscosity and thermal
conductivity are functions of temperature. For the spatial discreti-
zation a second-order scheme is used. In the simulation, the SST
experimental correlations for various cooling technologies are
k-x turbulence model is used in the fluid zone. It should also be
summarized. It should be mentioned that the correlations for rota-
noted that the upstream fluid flow in the stator and the stator–rotor
tional effects are obtained from Ref. [28].
interaction affect the final blade temperature. Consequently, it is
As mentioned earlier, the coolant passage analysis is performed
required to set up a hot gas domain including the whole stage. By
with a 1D in-house correlation based code (based on Meitner
this method, the flow direction and radial profile of pressure and
[21,22]). Its results are superimposed on the 3D modeling of the
temperature at the inlet plane of the rotor is perfectly assigned.
blade metal and external flow. In addition to the algorithm shown
The profile of the turbine inlet temperature is based on the com-
in Fig. 1, there are some aerodynamic boundary connections. In
bustion chamber simulations and is applied to the stator inlet as a
each iteration, coolant exit mass flow rate and temperature, which
boundary condition.
are calculated in the 1D code, are imposed to the 3D external fluid
The grid independency study for each computational domain
domain at blade trailing edge. In addition, calculated pressure at
has been performed by using three different sets of grids. Compar-
the trailing edge in the 3D model is imposed as a boundary condi-
ison of results of these three grids shows that grid refinement
tion for the coolant passage 1D network model. The diagram of
causes no major change on the predicted results. Consequently,
the complete coupling procedure between the 1D coolant network
results obtained on the computational domain with total 1,298,213
code and 3D conduction and external fluid flow simulation is illus-
elements can be regarded as a grid independent (Fig. 4).
trated in Fig. 10.
Boundary conditions for the 1D network solver are the cooling
channel total pressure and temperature at the inlet (which is calcu- Results for the Reference Case. Flow and heat transfer within
lated by SAS simulation) as well as the static pressure at the outlet the stage is predicted with conditions given in Table 3. Since the
and internal wall temperatures. Among these boundary conditions, primary target of this study is to investigate effects of different pa-
the inlet ones are constant during the coupling procedure but the rameters on the blade temperature distribution, in this paper only
outlet static pressure and the wall temperature of each element are the blade temperature distribution is reported. Contours of the
calculated in an iterative procedure. Boundary conditions for the blade temperature and the flow field and metal temperature distri-
1D network simulation are listed in Table 3 and the static pressure bution at 70% span are shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively.
at the outlet and internal wall temperature at each element are It can be seen that in the blade root, metal temperature is about
imposed from 3D external flow calculation. The 1D solver coolant temperature and maximum temperature occurs at the lead-
imposes mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations ing edge. Since inclined ribs and pin-fins have been used in the
and it calculates heat transfer coefficients, coolant temperatures, blade trailing edge, it is not a critical region from the heat transfer

Fig. 11 Blade temperature distribution for the reference case

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Fig. 12 Flow field and metal temperature distribution at 70% span

Eleven variables chosen for the temperature sensitivity analysis

Table 6 Variables for sensitivity analysis
are: turbine inlet pressure and temperature; coolant mass flow rate
Variable Unit Range of variation Imposed at boundary (Fig. 14)
and temperature of the upstream vane; heat transfer coefficient
and fluid temperature over the shroud; the blade coolant inlet pres-
TIT K 1450–1510 Inflow sure and temperature (as a result of secondary air system); the
Pin bar 13–14.5 Inflow blade metal conductivity; and the blade coating thickness and
m_ c;vane kg/s 0.1–0.2 Vane, cooling outlet thermal conductivity. The typical range of variations for these var-
Tc,vane K 680–750 Vane, cooling outlet iables is determined from engine running conditions and the
hshroud W/m2K 0–200 Shroud standard deviations in the manufacturing process. These 11 varia-
Tshroud K 640–740 Shroud bles and their variations are listed in Table 6.
Pt,in-c blade % 0–10% (decrease) Blade, cooling inlet Effects of these variables are determined using the conjugate
Tt,in-c blade % 0–5% (increase) Blade, cooling inlet
kme W/mK 16–19 —
heat transfer procedure on four parameters of the blade tempera-
dco lm 10–300 — ture distribution, namely, (1) average blade temperature, (2) maxi-
kco W/mK 1–17.7 — mum blade temperature, (3) average temperature on the pressure
and suction sides, and (4) average shroud temperature. It should
be mentioned that the “Ave. Blade Temp.” is the volume average
temperature, and “Ave. Blade Temp. on PS & SS” and “Ave.
point of view. Because the maximum value of the inlet tempera- Blade Temp on Shroud” are the area average temperatures on the
ture radial profile occurs at 70% span of the leading edge, the pressure and suction sides of the blade and on the blade shroud
maximum blade temperature occurs at this spanwise location. surfaces, respectively. A diagram that highlights the different loca-
tions for averaging is displayed in Fig. 13. The results are compared
to the reference case and shown in the following subsections.
Sensitivity Analysis on the Heat Transfer Parameters In addition to the above-mentioned parameters, cooling
In order to accurately estimate turbine hot components life, pre- effectiveness variation (Eq. (1)) has been reported for three manu-
cise calculation of thermal stress is an important step. The heat facturing parameters, namely, metal and coating thermal conduc-
transfer parameters are the critical variables affecting thermal tivity, and coating thickness.
stress. The accuracy of the heat transfer simulation depends on
some factors such as accurate boundary conditions. In this section, T s;g T me
/¼ (1)
a study of which variables most affect the blade temperature cal- T s;g T s;c;in
culation for a typical high pressure, high temperature turbine
blade with internal convection cooling is conducted. The sensitiv- where T s;g is static temperature of the hot gas at the rotor inlet,
ity analyses are carried out using the above-mentioned approach. T s;c;in is inlet static coolant temperature, and Tme is the volume

Fig. 13 The diagram of different regions of blade. (a) Defined regions for averaging, (b) shroud
surface on which HTC and bulk temperature is applied (light gray).

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Fig. 14 Computational domain and locations of boundary
conditions
Fig. 16 The effects of turbine inlet pressure on the blade
temperature
average blade temperature. Because the dovetail region of the
blade assumed to be adiabatic and this section is not exposed to
the hot gas, the blade temperature (Tme) is based on the average Increasing TIT causes temperature difference between hot and
metal temperature without considering the dovetail region. cold sources to increase. As a result, total heat flux increases.
It should also be noted that the geometry and computational Because the point of maximum blade temperature (see Fig. 11),
domain do not change for the various sensitivity analyses. The pressure side (PS) and suction side (SS) surfaces, and the under-
geometry and computational domain and the location of the neath of the shroud have direct contact with the hot gas, the tem-
imposed boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 14. perature of these regions varies more than the average blade
temperature. In fact, the average blade temperature consists of the
temperature of internal walls and the root of the blade. Since tem-
1 Turbine Inlet Temperature and Pressure. There are peratures of these regions vary less than the external surfaces of
some errors in gas turbine cycle calculations. In addition, in gas the blade, the average blade temperature does not raise as much as
turbine operating conditions, there are some deviations from “Max. Blade Temp.” or “Ave. Blade Temp. on PS and SS.” As it
standard conditions. For instance, in gas turbine real operation, was expected, overall, TIT has significant effect on the blade tem-
turbine inlet temperature (TIT) may exceed design value. These perature. This is the reason why most gas turbines’ controllers
deviations and uncertainties greatly affect blade temperature and limit the maximum value of TIT to design value.
life. The aim of this section is to investigate the effects of devia- The effect of variation of turbine inlet pressure on the blade
tions of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on the blade metal temperature is depicted in Fig. 16. As can be seen, the inlet pres-
temperature. Figure 15 shows the effects of turbine inlet tempera- sure has very minor influence on the blade temperature. A 5%
ture on the blade temperature. This figure shows that a 26 K increase in inlet total pressure leads to just 1 K increase in the
increase in TIT results in a 19 K increase in the maximum blade blade temperature. Indeed, increasing inlet pressure causes turbine
temperature and 7 K growth in the average blade temperature. mass flow rate to rise. Growing mass flow rate results in increas-
ing the external heat transfer coefficient. Consequently, the rate of
heat transfer to the blade rises and the blade temperature
increases. However, the effect is slight.

2 Coolant Mass Flow Rate and Temperature of Upstream

Stator. The trailing edge ejection affects the flow regime down-
stream to the cooled vane. Therefore, the effects of the upstream
stator coolant on the blade temperature distribution should be con-
sidered. Figure 17 shows the temperature of the rotor blade versus
the stator coolant mass flow rate. As it can be seen, when the sta-
tor coolant mass flow rate increases, the blade temperature
decreases. In other words, a 0.1 kg/s rise in coolant mass flow rate
causes the average blade temperature to decrease by 6 K. Obvi-
ously, the temperature of coolant flow exiting from the trailing
edge of the upstream stator is lower than the temperature of hot
gases. Therefore, increasing the coolant mass flow rate of
upstream stator results in the falling temperature of the hot gases
entering to the next row. Since other parameters such as the
blade’s coolant inlet pressure and temperature and thermal con-
ductivities of the metal and its coating are unchanged, the lower
temperature gases cause the blade temperature to decrease.
Figure 18 shows the temperature distribution of the rotor blade
Fig. 15 The effects of turbine inlet temperature on the blade versus the upstream stator coolant temperature. The illustrated
temperature results show that the variation of coolant temperature of the

011001-8 / Vol. 136, JANUARY 2014 Transactions of the ASME

 Fig. 19 The flow from outer casing

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In order to consider heat transfer effects of the fluid at the blade
tip, the fluid temperature and heat transfer coefficient should be
estimated. Since the outlet coolant temperature at the shroud hole
is calculated to be about 740 K by the network code, this constant
fluid temperature is assumed for convective heat transfer across
the entire shroud (see Fig. 13). The blade temperature variation
versus shroud heat transfer coefficient (at the constant fluid tem-
perature of 740 K) is plotted in Fig. 20. It should be mentioned
that shroud heat transfer coefficient is the average heat transfer
coefficient over the shroud.
Fig. 17 Blade temperature distribution versus vane coolant
mass flow rate Since temperature of the flow over the shroud is considered
740 K, which is lower than the blade temperature, increasing the
heat transfer coefficient of the flow over the shroud causes the
upstream stator from 680 to 750 K has a negligible effect, about amount of heat transferred from the blade to rise, especially on
1 K, on the average blade temperature. In fact, rising the coolant the shroud region. Therefore, the blade temperature decreases and
temperature of the upstream vane causes the temperature of the the temperature of the shroud region of the blade decreases more
hot gases entering to the next row to increase. Consequently, the than the other regions. As it was expected, the blade average tem-
higher temperature gases result in increasing the blade tempera- perature is not greatly affected by the shroud heat transfer coeffi-
ture. To sum up, the upstream stator coolant mass flow rate has cient. But it has significant influence on the shroud temperature.
significant influence on the rotor blade temperature while its tem- Therefore, it would affect thermal stress estimation and it is an
perature has minor effect on the rotor blade temperature. important parameter for the life estimation.
As mentioned above, there is another flow in the blade shroud
3 Heat Transfer Coefficient and Temperature of the Flow that mixes with the blade coolant. The temperature of this flow is
Over the Shroud. In the reference case calculations, the blade lower than the one of the blade coolant. Hence, the fluid tempera-
shroud was assumed adiabatic. However, in the real circumstances ture over the shroud is less than 740 K. In Fig. 21, sensitivity anal-
this is not a reasonable boundary condition. There is another flow ysis of the temperature of the fluid over the shroud on the blade
in this region, which mixes with the blade outlet coolant. A sche- temperature is presented. It should be mentioned that since the av-
matic view of the blade shroud is depicted in Fig. 19. This figure erage temperature of the outer casing flow is about 640 K, the
shows that there are two flows in this region, one from the outer investigated range of temperature is 640–740 K. Increasing tem-
casing and the other from the blade tip. The temperature of the perature of the flow over the shroud results in decreasing the
former is less than the one of the latter. amount of heat transferred from the blade, and consequently,
overall blade temperature increases. Since the amount of heat flux

Fig. 18 Blade temperature distribution versus its upstream Fig. 20 Blade temperature variation versus shroud heat trans-
vane coolant temperature fer coefficient

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Fig. 21 Blade temperature variation versus coolant tempera- Fig. 23 Blade temperature variation versus coolant inlet
ture over shroud temperature

is small, the increase in blade temperature is slight. In the shroud

region, however, the rise in temperature is more than the other The blade temperature variation is plotted against the coolant
regions because the heat is extracted from the shroud region. inlet temperature in Fig. 23. As shown in this figure, the blade
temperature varies linearly within the investigated range with the
inlet total temperature, and a 5% increase in the inlet coolant tem-
4 Secondary Air System (SAS). The SAS provides the cool-
perature results in a 23 K rise in the average blade temperature. In
ing air needed to keep metal temperature of components in the hot
fact, the extreme possible value for the minimum blade tempera-
gas section below the maximum allowable. As fluid flow passes
ture is the coolant inlet temperature and the extreme possible
through the SAS, its pressure reduces and its temperature
value for the maximum blade temperature is the hot gas tempera-
increases. In this section the effects of pressure loss and tempera-
ture. Therefore, by increasing coolant inlet temperature or the
ture rise in the SAS on the blade temperature are investigated.
minimum of this range, temperature in the whole blade would be
Figure 22 shows the effect of SAS pressure drop on the blade tem-
increased. In addition, the variation of the blade metal temperature
perature. Reduction of the blade cooling inlet pressure causes the
from the gas-side wall to the coolant-side wall is a function of the
coolant mass flow rate to decrease. Consequently, the amount of
overall heat flux, and the net heat flux is directly linked to the tem-
heat transferred to the coolant decreases and the average blade
perature difference between hot and cold sources.
When the tem-
temperature increases. Based on the illustrated results, it can be
perature of cold source is increased " T t;inc , the temperature
seen that 10% coolant inlet pressure loss can result in 14 K
difference between hot and cold sources decreases and as a result,
increase in maximum blade temperature.
heat flux and temperature slope within the blade metal decrease.
When the temperature slope decreases and its average value
increases, the temperature rise of the coolant-side wall is more
than that of the gas-side wall. In other words, the temperature rise
in the gas-side wall is the minimum in comparison with the other
regions of the blade. Since the maximum blade temperature is
located on the gas-side wall, the variation of the maximum blade
temperature is lower than that of the average blade temperature.
Taking into account all the above-mentioned effects of the
SAS, it has significant influence on the augmentation of the blade
temperature. In order to accurately calculate the blade temperature
and the resultant life, the SAS effects should be estimated pre-
cisely. Comparison of Figs. 22 and 23 reveals that the influence of
the increase in total temperature of cooling inlet on the blade aver-
age temperature is much higher than the effect of decrease in total
pressure. However, in the investigated range, the impact of
decrease in total pressure on the blade maximum temperature is
greater. As stated above, when the coolant inlet temperature
increases, the temperature of the whole blade would increase,
because the blade minimum temperature is directly related to the
coolant inlet temperature. Thus, the coolant inlet temperature
mostly affects the blade average temperature.
When the coolant inlet pressure decreases, it affects velocity of
different passages differently. For instance, in the blade leading
edge cooling passage (see passage 1 in Fig. 8) the velocity would
fall more than the velocity of passage 2 in Fig. 8. Therefore, the
Fig. 22 Blade temperature variation versus pressure drop at heat transfer coefficient of the coolant in the blade leading edge
the coolant inlet would decrease more than the one of passage 2. Since the

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Fig. 24 Blade temperature variation versus blade metal Fig. 26 Blade temperature variation versus coating thermal
thermal conductivity conductivity

maximum blade temperature occurs at the blade leading edge, mum temperature changes, but the blade average temperature
decreasing the coolant inlet pressure has greater effect on the does not change much.
blade maximum temperature.
6 Coating Thickness and Thermal Conductivity. Thermal
barrier coating (TBC) is an essential requirement of a modern gas
5 Blade Thermal Conductivity. In the manufacturing pro- turbine engine to provide thermal insulation to the turbine blades.
cess of vanes and blades, there are some uncontrollable factors, The consequent reduction of the temperature helps in prolonging
which cause metal properties to change. The aim of this section is the life of the metal alloy. Coating thickness and thermal conductiv-
to investigate the effects of thermal conductivity variation on the ity are two main characteristics of the TBC, which considerably
blade temperature. Figure 24 shows that 7% increase in the blade affect the blade temperature. In this section, the effects of these two
thermal conductivity leads to fall in the maximum blade tempera- parameters on the blade temperature distribution are investigated.
ture by 5 K. In the present case, when thermal conductivity The variation of the rotor blade temperature versus coating
increases, coolant can absorb more heat flow and blade tempera- thickness is shown in Fig. 25. The temperature variation with
ture would decrease. In fact, the trend depends on the design of coating thickness within the investigated range is fairly linear. As
blade/vane. A simple calculation shows that the trend is related to can be seen, the coating thickness has significant effect on the
the sign of ððAg hg =Ac hc Þ1Þ. Since in the case study presented in blade temperature especially on the blade external surfaces on the
the paper, ððAg hg =Ac hc Þ1Þ < 0, when thermal conductivity pressure and suction sides. Obviously, addition of TBC results in
increases, the blade metal decreases. reducing the overall heat flux of the hot gas to the coolant. Since
Figure 24 shows that the influence of the blade thermal conduc- TBC has been employed on the gas-side walls, the temperature
tivity on the blade maximum temperature is superior to its effect variation on the gas-side walls is more than the temperature varia-
on the blade average temperature. When the blade thermal con- tion on the coolant-side walls. This leads to reduction in the slope
ductivity decreases, the difference between temperatures of the of temperature within the metal. Therefore, the maximum temper-
hot-gas-side wall and the coolant-side wall increases. Indeed, the ature variation resulted from TBC addition is occurred on the gas-
temperature of the hot-gas-side wall rises and the temperature of side walls or on the “PS and SS” of the blade. Moreover, the
the coolant-side wall falls. This is the reason why the blade maxi- average blade temperature consists of temperatures of dovetail,
shroud, and airfoil, or in other words, the whole blade. Clearly,
addition of TBC has smaller effect on the temperature of the dove-
tail and shroud regions. This is the reason why the impact of coat-
ing thickness on the average blade temperature is lower.
Blade temperature variation versus coating thermal conductiv-
ity is shown in Fig. 26. The TBC porosity plays a critical role in
determining the conductivity of the TBC system [38,39]. Porosity
can change thermal conductivity within a limited range. In this
study, however, a broad range (1–17.7) is considered for thor-
oughly investigating the effects of coating thermal conductivity
on the blade temperature. As it can be noted, when coating ther-
mal conductivity is low, it greatly lowers the blade temperature;
but when coating thermal conductivity approaches to the blade
thermal conductivity (17.7) it has no effect on the blade tempera-
ture because its thermal properties are somehow the same as those
of the blade metal. Therefore, uncertainties on the coating thermal
conductivity especially within the range of 1 to 6 can lead to
major errors in the temperature prediction. In addition, because
coating has been applied on the PS and SS surfaces and end walls
of the blade and these regions have direct contact with the hot gas,
the “Ave. Blade Temp. on PS and SS” varies more than the aver-
Fig. 25 Blade temperature variation versus coating thickness age blade temperature.

Journal of Turbomachinery JANUARY 2014, Vol. 136 / 011001-11

Conclusions co ¼ coating
In this study, a numerical methodology for the conjugate heat g¼ hot gas
transfer simulation is developed and validated against experimen- in ¼ inlet
tal data. The method is developed to improve the fidelity of me ¼ metal
durability analyses for internally cooled airfoils. Since three- out ¼ outlet
dimensional simulation of the blade cooling passages is time- ref ¼ reference
consuming, a one-dimensional network method is used. Pressure s¼ static condition
and temperature distributions are compared and results show rea- t¼ total condition
sonable agreement with the experimental data. Flow and heat w¼ wall
transfer through a typical turbine blade are simulated by the con- Tref ¼ reference temperature used for C3X
validation ¼ 811 K [20]

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jugate heat transfer method and the computational results were
fully analyzed. In order to consider the effects of stator–rotor
interaction, the whole stage is simulated. Results show that the
maximum blade temperature for the reference case is 960  C and References
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Journal of Turbomachinery JANUARY 2014, Vol. 136 / 011001-13