• Fault – Good Action, Wrong Intention • Active – Errors with immediate consequence

• Slip – Wrong Action, Good Intention • Latent – Caused by circumstance or

• Currently 1 accident per million movements • Omission – Forgetting to do something surroundings and not directly obvious
• This makes aviation the safest mode of • Commission – Doing something you
transport shouldn’t
• GPWS has been the biggest contributor to • Substitution – Similar to a slip
safety so far
• Pilot error makes up 70% of accidents Threats → Errors → UAS
through lack of good judgement • Threat – External factor beyond flight crew
• Is a subset of national culture influence
• 1 in 1000 times is a good human error rate
• Just - Genuine mistakes are not punished • Error – Internal factors (action/inaction)
• Reporting – Mistakes are reported • Undesired Aircraft State – Unintended
• Informed – Mistake reports are assessed situation causing reduced safety margins
• Has the correct Knowledge, Skills and • Learning – Action is taken on gathered data
Attitudes (KSA) • Flexible – Must be flexible in implementing
• Everyone is responsible for safety as solutions • Environmental – Weather, ATC…
individuals, not just pilots
• Organizational – Operational Pressures,
Manual Error…
• Open Culture – People can share their
knowledge/thoughts
• Closed Culture – No incentive/fear towards • Communication – Missed ATC call…
sharing • Aircraft Handling – Incorrect Config…
• Procedural – Missed SOP/Wrong Callout…

• Ground Navigation – Wrong Taxiway…

• Software – Non-physical aspects like • Aircraft Handling – Unstable Approach,
checklists/SOPs Outside Limits…
• Hardware – All solid objects around the • Incorrect Config – Flight Controls, Mass and
liveware like the aircraft Balance…
• Environment – The varying factors through
• For an accident to happen, multiple active
which the aircraft is operated
and latent failures must line-up such that
• Liveware – The pilot and other people (x2) • Hard – Already in place
layers of safety barriers (the cheese slices)
are ineffective • Soft – Utilizes the KSA of the flight crew
 • Henrys Law – Quantity of gas dissolved into
• 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% Rare liquid is proportional to the partial pressure 1.Nitrogen absorbed into blood
Gases (0.03% Carbon Dioxide) 2.Pressure reduces
• Proportions constant until 100km 3.Nitrogen bubbles form
• Pain will result from trapped gas – 4.This creates blockages potentially leading to
‘Dysbarism’
tissue death
Key Pressures: • Occurs in the stomach, ears, sinuses and • Caused by Henrys Law
• 760 mmHg at Sea Level teeth
• 380 mmHg at ½ Pressure (18,000ft) • Caused by Boyles Law
• 190 mmHg at ¼ Pressure (34,000ft)
• Joints – “Bends” – Deep pain in large joints
Key Lapse Rates:
▪ This is the primary symptom
• 27ft/hPa up to 18,000ft • Occurs in the stomach
• Skin Capillaries – “Creeps” – Intense itching
• 50ft/hPa above this • Severe pain possible above 25,000ft
• Lungs – “Chokes” – Chest pain
• Relieved by belching, passing flatus
• Brain – “Staggers” – Neurological problems
(farting) and descending
• These symptoms may not be immediate
• 2°C per 1,000ft up to 36,000ft (-56.5°C)
• Isothermal above this
• Occurs in the ear
• Eustachian tube balances pressure • Unlikely below 14,000ft
• MSL-10,000ft – Physiological Zone • Harder to equalise pressure in the descent • Most likely above 18,000ft (unpressurised)
• 10-60,000ft – Physiological Deficient Zone • Relieved by yawning, swallowing, Valsalva • Significant increase in risk above 25,000ft
• 60,000ft+ - Space Equivalent Zone or Frenzel manoeuvre • Scuba diving, obesity and age are risk factors
• Can result in ear drum rupture

• Charles Law – Volume ∝ Temperature • Shallow Dive – 12 Hour Flight Ban

(Constant Pressure) • Can be blocked by infection/cold • >30ft – 24 Hour Flight Ban
• Boyles Law – Pressure ∝ 1/Temperature • Prevents air equalization • Snorkeling presents no problem
(Constant Temperature) • Climbing means the pressure can’t escape • Doing exercise does not prevent DCS
• General Gas Law - PV⁄T = Constant • Descending creates a vacuum
• This cannot be relieved
• Daltons Law – In a mixture, total pressure is
the sum of the partial pressures
• Ficks Law – Rate of diffusion depends on
• Occurs in the teeth
Surface Area, Differential Pressure and
• Trapped gas expands when climbing
Membrane Thickness
• Relieved by descending
 • Blood supply to the brain is cut-off
• Caused by clotted/blocked/ruptured vessels
• Transports O2 • Not to be confused with fainting or a fit • High Blood Pressure (>140/90)
• Removes CO2 • Caused by stress, age, too much salt,
• Fights infection and produces clots hereditary or obesity
• The high pressure causes a tear, fat builds
• Caused by a blood clot in a deep vein
up on the tear and a blood clot forms
• Causes painful aching
• Made up of red/ blood cells, platelets
• Treated with medication, diet and exercise
• Risk factors include old age, inactivity and
and plasmas • Can be disqualifying
obesity
• 55% plasma and 45% cells
• Produced in the bone marrow
• Lifespan of 140 days • Low Blood Pressure
• Red blood cells contain haemoglobin that • Can cause dizziness/fainting
carries oxygen • Can also be disqualifying
• 4 Chambers (2 Atria and 2 Ventricles)
• Insufficient haemoglobin causes anaemia • 4 Valves

• Temporary situation where demand > supply

• Arteries – Away from the heart • Caused by coronary artery narrowing
• Measured by counting the pressure waves
• Veins – Back to the heart • Symptoms are tiredness, breathlessness
• Affected by exercise, body temperature,
• Pulmonary Veins/Arteries – Connects heart and crushing pain
eating, drugs and stress
and lungs • Treated with rest and medication
• Cardiac Output = HR x Stroke Output
▪ Only de-oxygenated artery in the body • 70bpm x 75ml = 5.2 liters/minute (typical)
• Systemic Veins/Arteries – Connects heart
and tissues • Myocardial Infarction
• Caused by a blocked coronary artery
• Force exerted by blood on the artery walls
• Can cause tissue death
• Systolic (Contraction) – Blood leaves ventricle
• Inadequate circulation of blood • Family history is the biggest risk factor
▪ 120 mmHg (typical)
• Leads to tissue death • Most common cause of death for men >40
• Diastolic (Relaxation) – Blood enters atrium
• Caused by mass bleeding, heart problems, ▪ 80 mmHg (typical) • ECGs can detect anomalies in advance
blockage or anaphylactic shock
• Influenced by work, peripheral resistance,
elasticity and blood viscosity
• Measured in the body by pressoreceptors
• Ventricular Fibrillation
• Caused by breakdown in the electrical
stimulus (heart suddenly stops)
• Triggered by a heart attack, electrocution
or trauma

• Energy Production
• Temperature and Chemical Regulation
▪ This is known as homeostasis • Internal – O2 and CO2 exchanged in cells
▪ Body must remain between 7.2-7.6 pH • External – O2 and CO2 exchanged in lungs
• Achieved by breathing 16-18 times per
minute
• Regulated by amount of CO2

• O2 + Food = CO2, Energy + Water

• Respiration allows O2 in and CO2 out

• Tidal Volume (Normal Breath) – 500ml

• Expiratory Reserve (Extra Air Out) – 1,000ml
• Inspiratory Reserve (Extra Air In) – 3,300ml
• Residual – 1,200ml
• Total – 6 litres (male), 4.2 litres (female)
• >10,000ft – Hypoxia (O2 Related) • 200x greater affinity than O2 • Indifferent Stage – 0-10,000ft
• <10,000ft – Hyperventilation (CO2 Related) • Prevents haemoglobin from absorbing O2 ▪ Night Vision affected from 5,000ft
• Hypoxia – Condition of insufficient O2 in the • Colourless, odourless and tasteless gas • Compensatory Stage – 10-15,000ft
blood • Caused by incomplete combustion ▪ Hypoxic effects after 10-15 mins
• Hyperventilation – Excessive rate and • Can take several days to recover from ▪ Short-term memory affected from
depth of respiration 12,000ft
• Disturbance Stage – 15-20,000ft
▪ Body can no longer compensate
• Signs – Perceptible to others
• Critical Stage – 20,000ft+
• Inadequate diffusion of O2 into the blood • Symptoms – Experienced by the individual
• Caused by altitude (Dalton’s Law) • Main Sign – Cyanosis (Blue Skin)
▪ “Henry’s sick (DCS), Dalton’s hypoxic” ▪ Impaired judgement is the most
• <55mmHg partial pressure of O2 there is a dangerous sign • Time from interruption of O2 supply to loss
significant decrease in mental function ▪ Also impaired mental ability, muscle of ability to take corrective action
• This occurs at 10,000ft (normal and healthy in-coordination and hyperventilation Altitude TUC
individuals) • Main Symptom – Euphoria
20,000ft 30 Minutes
• 33,700ft – 100% O2 simulates sea level ▪ Also tingling, reduced visual acuity and
25,000ft 2-3 Minutes
▪ Only effective up to 40,000ft where shortness of breath
30,000ft 1-2 Minutes
positive pressure is required ▪ Joint pain/suffocation feelings are NOT
35,000ft 30-90 Seconds
symptoms
40,000ft 15-20 Seconds
• Times reduced with moderate activity
• Reduced carrying capacity of the blood
• Caused by Anemia, CO Poisoning and • Tobacco
Smoking • Alcohol (1 ounce raises altitude by 2,000ft)
• Temperature • Causes CO2 levels to decrease
• Physical & Mental Activity • Body becomes too alkaline
• O2’s affinity to haemoglobin increases
• Inadequate circulation of blood
• O2 then doesn’t diffuse into cells
• Caused by heart attacks or positive G
• Avoid unpressurised flight >10,000ft
• Never fly >14,000ft without O2
• Avoid risk factors • Symptoms include tingling, poor co-
• Cells can’t use O2 effectively
ordination, shortness of breath and
• Caused by cell poisoning (alcohol or drugs)
deteriorated vision
• Signs are like hypoxia EXCEPT cyanosis
• May be Terrestrial, Artificial or Cosmic • Absolute Humidity – Amount of actual
(including Galactic + Solar) water vapour in the air in g/m3
• Becomes a risk above 49,000ft • Relative Humidity - % of water vapour in
• Risk factors include exposure time, high the air vs maximum (saturated)
altitude and high latitude (in that order) • Kept low on aircraft to avoid corrosion
• Cabin – 10%
• Ideal Minimum – 20%
• Flight crew are within recommended dose of • Optimum – 40-60%
20 millisieverts per year
• Cumulative and total instantaneous dose
must be recorded • Cabin altitude usually 6-8,000ft
• In event of a depressurization, oxygen
mask on FIRST!
• Toxic to humans • Then descend to 10,000ft/MSA
• Radiation causes O2 to form Ozone (O3)
• This creates a UV protective layer in the
atmosphere
• UV-A – Causes tanning (95% that reaches
Earth)
• UV-B – Causes skin cancer (filtered better)
• Negligible <40,000ft
• Peak at 115,000ft
• Reduced >140,000ft
• UV concentration is higher in Winter
• Ozone converters remove it from the cabin
• Antibiotics – Infections • Nicotine – Addictive
• Antihistamines – Allergies • Tar – Carcinogen
• Side effects include drowsiness, dry • 20 per day (1 pack) raises physiological
mouth, headaches and nausea altitude to 4-5,000ft and reduces oxygen
• Analgesics – Pain Killers capacity by 5-8%
• Nose sprays contract blood vessels to ease • This is due to Carbon Monoxide poisoning
congestion but this may destroy mucus
membrane, cause bleeding & drowziness
• Excessive aspirin use can cause gastric • CNS Stimulant and Vasodilator
bleeding • Improves alertness, thought and muscle
• Packaging guidance cannot be relied on for co-ordination
pilots • If symptoms exceed 72 hours, seek help!
• Performance affected >250mg
• Cabins may be sprayed with insecticide 30
• This causes muscle tremors, rapid heart
minutes before landing
rate, excessive urination and irritability
• Local – Wait 12 hours
• General – Wait 48 hours
• Can block the Eustachian tube
• On contact with skin, wash with copious
• See Atmosphere (Otic/Sinus Barotrauma)
amounts of water
• Central Nervous System (CNS) Depressant • Other middle ear problems include pressure
• Should not initially use soap (except fuel)
• Degrades judgement, G tolerance and vertigo, ringing in the ears and temporary
• Mercury is prohibited on aircraft as it is
sleep quality, gives spatial disorientation hearing loss
highly reactive
and blurry vision
• Also intensifies effects of drugs (synergistic)
• 1 unit = 15mg/100ml (½ pint or glass of wine) • Gastrointestinal is the most common cause
• Damaging threshold is 28 units/week (male) • Breakfast provides 25% of daily caloric
• Subtle (Insidious) – Appears OK externally
or 21 units/week (female) intake
▪ Most dangerous type
• 20mg/100ml is the limit for flying but you • Hypoglycemia – Low Blood Sugar
• Obvious – Spotted immediately
should never fly under the influence of ▪ Can cause dizziness/fainting
• A partially incapacitated pilot should not fly
alcohol ▪ Avoided by a balanced diet and small
• If possible, crew should eat different meals
• ‘8 Hours Bottle to Throttle’ snacks between meals
• Body removes 1 unit per hour (0.015%)
• Alcohol Abuse – Excessive alcohol use that
damages physical, mental or social life
• Alcoholism – Dependency on alcohol
 Weight (kg) • Fit – Electrical disturbance in the brain
• BMI = ⁄ 2
Height (m) ▪ a.k.a Seizure
For females, subtract 1 ▪ Usually detected by an EEG
• <18.5 – Underweight • Faint – Reduction in blood sugar to part of
• 18.5-25 – Normal the brain
• 25-30 – Overweight ▪ a.k.a Syncope
• 30+ - Obese
• Caused by high caloric intake
• High fat levels cause poor circulation and
• Tension/Fatigue of Lower Back Muscles
subsequent coronary heart problems,
• Slipped Disc
reduced hypoxia/DCS tolerance, low G
• Different Lengths of Lower Extremities
tolerance and type 2 diabetes
• Lumbar support can prevent back pains by
• Extra weight also causes arthritis
allowing the spine to curve properly
• Prevented by reduced caloric intake
mainly, exercise can also help

• Should double the heartrate for 20

minutes, 3 times a week
• Could cause muscle and abdominal cramps
caused by dehydration in high temps

• Insulin – Hormone that enables cells to

absorb glucose
• Type 1 – “Insulin Dependent”
▪ Not enough insulin is produced
▪ Requires an epi-pen
▪ Disqualifying for pilots
• Type 2 – “Non-Insulin Dependent”
▪ Cells do not respond properly
▪ Obesity is the biggest cause
▪ Causes high blood sugar (hyperglycemia)
▪ Usually disqualifying
• Takes in light rays • Measure of clarity of vision • Eye naturally focuses to 1.5-2m away
• Focus rays on the retina • Best acuity = 2-3° from the fovea • Makes it hard to detect traffic
• Convert light into electrical signals • Reduces rapidly toward the periphery • Try and focus on an objects beyond 6m
• Used for 70-80% of knowledge acquisition • Normal vision = 20/20
• Can discriminate between 2 different points
under an angle of 1 arc minute from 20ft • Cones don’t function when the eye is
• Cornea moving (a saccade)
▪ Protects the eye • When scanning, wait 3-5 seconds to adjust
▪ 70% of the focusing • Pupil widening – controlled by iris
▪ Fixed ▪ Pupil is wide in dark environments
• Lens • Rhodopsin (Visual Purple) aids night vision
• Flash Blindness – From lightning/strobes
▪ 30% of the focusing (16-30 diopters) ▪ Takes 30-45 mins for rods to adapt
• Flicker Vertigo – From propellers/helicopter
▪ Adjustable ▪ light bleaches it
rotors
• Pupil – Controls amount of light entering ▪ Vitamin A produces it
• Iris – Controls the size of the pupil • Hypoxia reduces night vision from 5,000ft
▪ Contained in the uvea ▪ Rods are therefore most susceptible
• Retina – Converts light to electrical signals ▪ Hypaemic hypoxia also causes this as a • Polarized sunglasses not used for flying
▪ Consists of rods and cones result of smoking • Photochromatic sunglasses are useless as
• Optic Nerve – Sends signals to the brain • 10 secs needed to adapt to bright light flight deck windows block the UV they need
• Vitreous Humour – Tissue filling the eyeball

• Lens bending – effected by ciliary muscles • Uses both eyes for distance and depth
• Used for greyscale vision ▪ Lens goes flat for distant objects • Stereoscopic – Images are added together
• Scotopic Vision • Convergence – Eye swivel gives cues
• Provide vision in dim light
• Found round the edges of the eye • May damage the lens or retina
• Higher energy than other light Vision with 1 eye achieved by:
• Size of retinal image – prior experience
• Used for colour vision and visual acuity • Obscuration
• Red, green and blue • Day – No rods/nerves on the optic nerve • Motion parallax – Close objects move faster
• Colour-blindness caused by imperfections ▪ Binocular vision/moving head fixes this • Texture – Close objects have more detail
• Photopic Vision • Night – Inactive fovea due to low light • Atmospheric Perspective - Distant objects
• Provide vision in bright light (daytime) ▪ 5-10° blindspot appear hazy
• Found in the centre of the retina (fovea) ▪ Therefore look to the sides of an object • Linear Perspective – Parallel lines converge
• “Shortsightedness” • Wide Runway = Looks Low • Bright Lights appear Closer = Low Approach
• Can only see close objects ▪ High, Steep Approach • Dim Lights appear Further = High Approach
• Image forms in front of retina ▪ Early Flare
• Corrected with a concave lens • Narrow Runway = Looks High
• Caused by long eyeball/too much bending ▪ Low, Flat Approach • Rain on the windshield causes light to
▪ Late Flare refract making you appear high
• Rain/haze/mist has the same effect and
• “Farsightedness” lights feel dimmer (higher approach)
• Can only see distant objects • Downslope = Looks Low • Shallow fog layers may make you think you
• Image forms beyond retina ▪ Causes an approach that is too high are high as distant lights disappear
• Corrected with a convex lens • Upslope = Looks High
• Caused by short eyeball/not enough bending ▪ Causes an approach that is too shallow
• Static lights appear to move when stared at

• Unequal curvature of the cornea/lens • Upsloping terrain makes you feel high
• Cannot focus on 2 planes at the same time • Causes an approach that is too shallow • Half-Moon – Aid near vision only
• Corrected with a cylindrical lens • Downsloping terrain makes you feel low • Bifocal – Corrects near and far vision
▪ Causes an approach that is too high • Varifocal – Not advised due to peripheral
distortion
• Hardening of the lens with age
• A form of hypermetropia
• Being high up makes you feel slower
• Usually occurs when older than 40
• Other moving aircraft nearby will make
• Pre-existing conditions may delay (myopia)
you feel like you are moving
or accelerate (hypermetropia) onset

• Rise of the internal pressure of the eye • Causes a temptation to fly a low approach
• Causes visual field narrowing, pain &
eventually blindness
• Insidious onset (initially undetected) • Snowy ground & white clouds merge and
the horizon is obscured
• May cause Controlled Flight into Terrain
• Clouding of the lens (CFIT)
• Leads to vision loss unless lens replaced
 • Acoustic Trauma – Sudden exposure to
loud noise (>140 dB) • Acts for more than 1 second
• Gradual NIHL – Repeated exposure • 3.5G – Tunnel Vision/Grey Out
• Hearing range is 20Hz – 20kHz (>90dB) and usually insidious • 4.5G – Black Out
• Intensity measured in decibels (dB) • Presbycusis – Hearing loss with age • Negative G is not well tolerated
• Pain threshold is 140dB ▪ Causes loss of high tones first
• Uses a logarithmic scale ▪ Either conductive or NIHL
• Experience/Training
• Anti-G Suit
• Effects depends on loudness, length of
• Duration of Exposure
exposure and frequency
• General Health
• Steady State – Continuous noise • Linear – In a straight line
• Seating Position (Supine)
• Impulse – Sudden noise ▪ e.g Take Off/Crashes
• Best tolerance when distance between
• Angular – Changes in angular velocity
heart and brain is minimized
▪ e.g Aircraft Spin
• Outer Ear – Auricle (Pinna), Auditory Canal • Radial – Toward the center of a circle
and Ear Drum (Tympanic Membrane) ▪ e.g Loop
• Middle Ear – Ossicles (tiny bones) • 4 Point Harness – Danger of submarining
• Inner Ear – Cochlea and Eustachian Tube • 5 Point Harness – Prevents submarining
and Semi-Circular Canals • +Gz – Positive G (Radial)
▪ e.g Loops/Spiral Dive Recoveries
▪ Most significant for pilots
• Listening Rate – 500 words per minute • -Gz – Negative G (Radial)
• Speaking Rate – 125 words per minute ▪ e.g Pushovers • 3x Semi-circular Canals and 2x Otoliths
• +Gx – Transverse Forwards • Located within the inner ear
▪ e.g Take-Off
• Conductive Hearing Loss – Sound does not • -Gx – Transverse Backwards
reach inner ear ▪ e.g Braking • Senses angular acceleration
• Sensorineural Hearing Loss – Due to • Gy – Lateral (Rare in flight) (pitch/yaw/roll)
cochlea damage (sensory hairs/nerve fibres) • If angular velocity is constant, no
▪ Treat with surgery, hearing aids & meds acceleration is sensed
• Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) results • Acts for less than 1 second
from damage to the cochlea hair cells
• Maximum +25G Vertical (Gz)
▪ No pain occurs
• Maximum ±45G Transverse (Gx)
▪ From high intensity or long duration
• Senses linear acceleration and gravity • 2D Illusions (Take-Off and Landing) • Caused by disagreement between the
• Horizontal Plane – Utricles • Within the otolith organs visual and vestibular system
• Vertical Plane – Saccules • Includes pitch up/down illusion, elevator • Vibration of 1-100Hz can cause resonance
• Chalk like crystals that sit on top of a jelly illusion and inversion illusion in the vestibular system
• Acceleration causes them to move • Pitch up illusion – acceleration feels like a • Symptoms include restlessness, increased
climb saliva, cold sweat, dizziness, nausea and
• Pitch down illusion – deceleration feels headache
• Senses the seat of the pants feeling like a descent • Treated by minimizing head movements
• Subcutaneous receptors sense pressure on • These may also cause an oculogravic and fixing gaze on a stable horizon (or rest
the skin illusion – apparent upward/downward head on back of seat with eyes closed)
• Proprioceptors sense relative motion and movement and displacement of object • Supplemental Oxygen, opening air vents
position of body parts • Elevator illusion is caused by turbulence and loosening clothing also helps
• Only useful flying in VMC when… • Prevented with avoiding medication and
▪ Aircraft goes up – climb is felt alcohol and continued exposure
▪ Aircraft goes down – descent is felt
▪ Temptation is then to overcorrect this
• Inversion illusion – Abrupt change from
climb to straight and level creates the
• 3D Illusions
illusion of tumbling backwards
• Within the semi-circular canals
• Includes the leans, graveyard spin and the
Coriolis illusion (vertigo)
• Leans – Perceiving the aircraft attitude as • Entering turn is sensed as a climb
being different from reality • Exiting a turn is sensed as a descent
▪ Caused by a movement below sensory
threshold
• Graveyard Spin – Spin recovery that results • ALWAYS TRUST YOUR INSTRUMENTS!
in spin in original direction
• Graveyard Spiral – Normal rollout that
results in a tightening turn
• Coriolis (Vertigo) – Head tilted
upwards/downwards (especially whilst
turning) giving a tumbling sensation
 • Divided Attention – Execute several
• We sense stimuli as just raw data activities at the same time • Episodic Memory – Specific Lifetime Events
• Perception involves interpreting raw data • Selective Attention – Focusing on 1 ▪ Easily influenced
to give it meaning stimulus due to limited capacity • Semantic Memory – Facts
• Based on our mental models (past • Blinkered Attention – Concentrating on 1 ▪ Lasts longer than episodic memory
experiences and learning) specific thing • Procedural Memory – Actions/Skills
• Stimuli stored in sensory memory • Can’t do 2 attentional tasks simultaneously ▪ Includes motor programmes
▪ Iconic Memory – Sight – 0.5-1 second
▪ Echoic Memory – Hearing – 2-8 seconds
• Gestalt Laws – govern how objects are • Giving sustained attention to something
• a.k.a “Mental Schemes”
mentally organized/perceived to notice a non-ordinary event
• Stored routines completed automatically
• Affected by task, motivation,
• Learnt by repetition in cognitive,
physiological and environmental factors
associative and automatic phases
• Bottom Up – From sensory information • We naturally divert our attention as relief
• Errors include action slip and
• Top Down – From experience/expectation • Hypovigilance – Reduction in vigilance
environmental capture
• Means perception varies between individuals • Brought about by monotony, lack of
stimulation and fatigue
• Managed by aircraft interactions and in-
flight rest Conscious Processing
• When there is a difference between what is • Working memory used to make decisions
perceived and what is reality • Requires attentional resources
• Individuals and Groups are affected Automatic Processing
• Treated as threats that should be managed • a.k.a “Working Memory”
• Involved in the decision-making process • A motor program from long-term memory
• Finite capacity of 5 items ± 2 • a.k.a “Behavioural Sub-routine”
• Will be forgotten after 10-20 seconds • Does not require attentional resources
• Concentrating on a stimuli/thought
• Wickens’ Theory – Information perceived by • Sensitive to disturbances
multiple senses more likely to get attention • Requires attention
• Improved by chunking/mnemonics • When perception = reality
• Guided by the level of autonomy,
• Levels of awareness include Monitor,
expectations and salience of information
Evaluate, Anticipate
• Infinite capacity and permanent • Used in TEM as countermeasures
• Goal driven – Directed to what we feel is • Does not require attention
most appropriate • Influenced by suggestion/expectation
• Stimulus driven – Physical properties of • Degrades if information not regularly
stimuli attract attention retrieved or few associations
• Personality – Who We Are • Skill Based – Use of motor programmes • The words that are said/written
▪ Stable characteristics ▪ Prone to action slips and • 95% of the communication on the flight deck
▪ Fixed by age 7 environmental capture
• Behaviour – What We Do • Rule Based – Following learnt procedures
▪ Modifiable ▪ Errors may be in the rule itself, the • Body Language – Facial Expressions,
▪ Controllable display of personality application (error in technical Gestures and Posture
▪ More important than personality knowledge) or using the wrong rule • Paralanguage – Pitch, Tone and Pauses
▪ Used if automated behaviour unsuitable
• Knowledge Based – Knowledge and
• Projective tests, handwriting analysis and experience used to determine action
• Explicit – Clear and unambiguous
interviews all accepted methods ▪ Associated with problem solving
• Implicit – Potentially ambiguous
• Best method is personality tests ▪ Used if rule-based behaviour unsuitable
• Metacommunication – Communication
about communication
• Makes up 80% of communication
• Passive – Putting needs of others first
• Introvert or Extrovert • Professional language with precise words
• Assertive – Active listening, assured
• Stable or Unstable (Anxious) and simplified grammar used in aviation
manner
• Average Pilot is stable and extroverted
• Aggressive – Putting own needs first
• Invulnerability – Accidents happen to
others • Intrapersonal – Conflict within one’s self
• Personality + Attitudes = Behaviour • Macho – Trying to prove they’re the best • Interpersonal – Conflict between 2+ people
• Influenced by social norms, faith & culture • Other hazardous attitudes include anti- • Levels of Interpersonal Conflict:
authority, impulsivity and resignation 1. Positive Resolution
2. Difference of Opinion
• “The way we see ourselves” 3. Confrontation
• Ideal Self – how we want to see ourselves • Psychologists measure styles as either task 4. Fight/Flight
• Motivation – From a difference between or relationship oriented 5. Combat
self-concept and ideal self • Ideal leaders are both
• Anxiety – Ideal self seems unattainable • Paternalistic – Acts as a father figure
• Under-confidence leads to • Inquiry, Active Listening, Advocacy and
aggression/assertiveness Metacommunication
• Depends heavily on the sender • Open questions are preferred
• Influenced by workload, noise and voice • Higher level conflict dealt with through
• Ability to control our own behaviour • Feedback – Measured/corrected for meaning negotiation and arbitration
 • External/internal stimulus causing stress • Body’s reaction to specific events
• Dependent on an individual’s subjective • Often trigger fight/flight response
• Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and evaluation of a situation & ability to cope
Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – • Stress arising from company/organization
Connects everything to CNS • Comfortable environment ≈ 20°C • e.g Career Development, Management etc.
• 30°C+ - Uncomfortable
• Adaptation to a hot country takes 14 days
• Neurons – Conducting elements • Noise, low humidity, vibrations and UV • Stress occurs when perceived demand
• Synapse – Connection between neurons radiation are also factors outweighs perceived ability
• Visual Cortex – Where vision information is
processed in the brain
• Cerebellum – Reflex center of co-ordination • Model of the body’s ANS response to stress
• 39°C+ – Impaired mental/physical
• Signals travel electrically (charged molecules) performance
along the axon and chemically across the
• 37°C - Normal core temperature
synaptic gap
• Below this, reasoning problems start
• 35°C - Hypothermia starts
• 32°C - Shivering stops and apathy starts
• Part of the PNS • Apathy is the most dangerous symptom!
• Unconsciously regulates bodily functions
• Homeostasis – Body’s state of equilibrium • Stress has more of a response on physical
• Maintained through the ANS than mental performance
• High Temperatures – Vasodilation and • Adrenaline - Causes glucose to be released
Sweating
• Cortisol - Converts fat to sugar
• Low Temperatures – Vasoconstriction
and Shivering

• Eustress – Good stress giving increased Effects include….

energy and ability to deal with it • Somatic (Physiological) including frequent
• Distress – Bad stress giving a feeling of being • Events in everyday life illness, muscle tension and appetite changes
out of control and unable to cope 1. Death of a Spouse • Psychosomatic – Somatic (physiological) or
• Acute – Short term as a result of a sudden 2. Divorce Psychosomatic (psychological stress)
unexpected event 3. Death of a Close Family Member • Psychological – Depression, anxiety etc.
• Chronic – Long term caused by something • In order of the worst effects • Overcome with counselling, fitness and
continuing for a long period relaxation techniques
• Feeling of unease (from mild to severe) • Group performance is better than the
• May cause stress but is never healthy average individual
• Physiological effects include sweating, dry • Confirmation Bias – Seeking out info that • Benefit from each-others KSA
mouth and fast breathing confirms what we already think • Cooperation – Working together towards a
• Satisficing – Picking the first good enough common goal
option rather than the best • Cohesion – Team bond (team spirit)
• Recency Bias – More weight is given to • Co-action – Motivated by the presence of
• State of being alert/ready for action
recent information others to perform better
• Influenced by fatigue, workload, stress,
• Expectation Bias – Believing that Affected by….
motivation and vigilance
something is happening based on an • Group Think (Members agree with a leader)
Inverted U Curve (Yerkes Dodson)
expectation that it would be • Ability
• Status and Role
• Persuasion and Conformity
• Detect – Recognize change has occurred • Obedience (compliance without question)
▪ Susceptible to confirmation bias • Risky Shift (groups make riskier choices)
• Estimate – Estimating the need to react • Group Norms
• Choose – Choosing a desired outcome
• Identify – Identifying solutions to achieve
the objective
• Assertiveness is considered the most
• Breakpoint – Where further arousal will ▪ Susceptible to satisficing
important attribute
decrease performance • Do – Doing what needs to be done
• Other attributes include explaining
• Optimum Arousal – Ideal level of arousal ▪ Must ensure someone is flying!
decisions, using open questions and
that gives the best performance • Evaluate – See if the decision that was
asking others first
made was correct

• Excessive arousal levels that reduce

performance • Primary Group – Close-knit and intimate
(e.g family)
• Symptoms include increased errors, task
fixation, rushed actions and
• Secondary Group – Impersonal and
temporary (e.g cockpit crew)
communication reduction
• Significant overload symptoms are of
aggression, withdrawal & reversion to
type • Role – Associated functions and behaviours
• Status – Hierarchical position
• Reduces workload • Physiological state of reduced
• Improves minima mental/physical performance • 5 Stages – Stages 1-4 and REM Stage
• Improves accuracy • Caused by sleep loss, physical exercise, • Cycles through all the stages in 90 mins
• Saves fuel duty time, poor health and jet lag • Stages 1-4 – Orthodox (Body Restoration)
• Acute (short-term) or Chronic (long-term) ▪ Stage 2 – 50% of sleep
• Chronic fatigue is the most dangerous ▪ Stage 3-4 – Slow Wave
• Reduced Situational Awareness • Symptoms include mood swings, slow • Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Stage –
• Loss of Basic Flying Skills reactions, more errors, short term memory Paradoxical (Memory Organization)
problems and tunnel vision ▪ Responsible for dreams
• Hard to make Last Minute Changes
• Mode Awareness - Knowing what systems
• Prevented by good quality/quantity of sleep, ▪ Gets longer with each cycle
exercise, balanced diet and stress control ▪ 4-5 REM periods each night
are doing and what they should be doing
▪ Degraded with alcohol

• Passive Monitoring – Watching the • Cycle that regulates physiological

processes (“Body Clock”) • 1hr sleep - +2 points
autopilot but not thinking about it
• Prevented by regarding the autopilot as an • Triggered mainly by daylight/darkness • 1hr awake - -1 point
additional crew member
• The “free-running” rhythm (no triggers) is • Maximum credits = 16
closer to 25 hours
• Also serves to regulate body temperature

• Automation requires an increased amount • Circadian Dysrhythmia/Trans-meridian

of monitoring Desynchronization
• Caused when body clock is out of sync
• Body synchronizes 1-1.5hrs per day
••Excessive
Aural/visual arousal
alertslevels
reducethat reduce
communication • For stopovers <24hrs, stay on home time
•performance
Still just as important! • Eastbound – Harder to adjust
• Symptoms include increased errors, task • Westbound – Easier to adjust
fixation, rushed actions and
• Lowest Body Temp – 5am
communication reduction
• Window of Circadian Low (WOCL) – 2-5am
• Significant overload symptoms are of
aggression, withdrawal & reversion to
type
• No flying within 12hrs of taking melatonin
• Alcohol reduces sleep quality
• Optimum nap length is 20 mins • Operant Conditioning – Connection
• Nap recovery is up to 20 mins between behaviour and the consequence
• Microsleep – Uncontrolled nodding-off • Classical Conditioning – Stimulus triggers a
• Does not increase sleep credit behavioural response
• These are behaviouristic approaches
• Observation/Imitation – Learning
behaviour through watching others
• Narcolepsy – Keep falling asleep
▪ A modelling approach
• Sleep Apnea – Temporarily stop breathing
• Insight – Seeing and understanding
• Insomnia – Difficulty sleeping
▪ A cognitive approach
• Somniloquism – Sleep talking
• Somnabulism – Sleep walking

• Most important factor on ability to learn

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs describes
that to reach full potential basic needs
(safety and security) must first be met
• Herzberg’s Theory says motivation is based
on proper hygiene needs being met and
proper motivators being in place
• Job satisfaction may be achieved by
enlargement (more roles/responsibilities)
or enrichment (involvement in decision
making)

1. Cognitive Phase – Understanding the theory

▪ “Declarative Knowledge"
2. Associative Phase – Practicing the skill
▪ “Knowledge Compilation”
3. Automatic Phase – No conscious thought
▪ “Procedural Knowledge”