Heat Transfer Coefficients for Submerged Coils

Heat transfer coefficients for steam and hot water coils submerged in oil tanks
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The heat transfer from steam coils with medium pressure, or hot water coils or pipes, submerged in oil or fat can be estimated with the values from the
table below.

Heat Transfer Coefficient - natural convection

Type of Coil
(W/m2 oC) (Btu/hr ft2  oF)

Steam to Light Oil 170 30

Steam to Heavy Oil 85 - 115 15 - 20

 Heat Transfer Coefficient - natural convection
Type of Coil
(W/m2 oC) (Btu/hr ft2  oF)

Steam to Fat 30 - 60 5 - 10

Hot Water to Oil 60 10

Heat Emission from Pipes Submerged in Water

Heat transmission from steam or water heating pipes submerged in water - assisted (forced) and
natural circulation
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Heat emission from steam or water pipes submerged in water are indicated in the tables below:

Temperature Difference between the Steam/Water in Heat Transfer Rate to the

the Pipe and the Surrounding Water Surrounding Water

(oF) (oC) (Btu/ft2  h  oF) (W/m2oC)

50 28 100 - 225 570 - 1280

100 56 175 - 300 1000 - 1700

200 111 225 - 475 1300 - 2700

Note that with higher temperature differences there is more vigorous movement on the water side and the heat transfer rate goes up. Forced or
assisted circulation on the water side also results in higher heat transfer rates as indicated below.
For practical applications - the heat transfer rates can roughly be set to:

Heat Transfer Rate to the Surrounding

Water
Type of Application

(Btu/ft2  h  oF) (W/m2oC)

Tank coils with low pressure steam, natural

100 570
circulation in the tank

Tank coils with high pressure steam, natural

200 1100
circulation in the tank

Tank coils with low pressure steam, forced

200 1100
circulation in the tank

Tank coils with high pressure steam, forced

300 1700
circulation in the tank

Example - Steam Coil in Water

A DN25 (1") Std steam coil of one meter is submerged in water with temperature 20  oC. The steam pressure is aprox. 1 bar and the steam
temperature is aprox. 120  oC.

The area of the submerged coil can be calculated:

A = (1 m) 2 π (0.0334 m) / 2

   = 0.10 m2
With low pressure steam and non-assisted circulation we presume the heat transfer rate to be 570 W/m2oC.

The heat transfer from steam to water can then be calculated as:

Q = (570 W/m2oC) (0.10 m2) (120oC - 20oC)

   = 5700 W

   = 5.7 kW
Properties of Saturated Steam - SI Units
A Saturated Steam Table with steam properties as specific volume, density, specific enthalpy and
specific entropy
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The steam table below list the properties of steam at varying pressures and temperatures:

Specific Enthalpy of Specific

Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

0.8 3.8 160 0.00626 15.8 2493 2509 9.058

2.0 17.5 67.0 0.0149 73.5 2460 2534 8.725

5.0 32.9 28.2 0.0354 137.8 2424 2562 8.396

10.0 45.8 14.7 0.0682 191.8 2393 2585 8.151

20.0 60.1 7.65 0.131 251.5 2358 2610 7.909

28 67.5 5.58 0.179 282.7 2340 2623 7.793

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

35 72.7 4.53 0.221 304.3 2327 2632 7.717

45 78.7 3.58 0.279 329.6 2312 2642 7.631

55 83.7 2.96 0.338 350.6 2299 2650 7.562

65 88.0 2.53 0.395 368.6 2288 2657 7.506

75 91.8 2.22 0.450 384.5 2279 2663 7.457

85 95.2 1.97 0.507 398.6 2270 2668 7.415

95 98.2 1.78 0.563 411.5 2262 2673 7.377

100 99.6 1.69 0.590 417.5 2258 2675 7.360

101.331) 100 1.67 0.598 419.1 2257 2676 7.355

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

110 102.3 1.55 0.646 428.8 2251 2680 7.328

130 107.1 1.33 0.755 449.2 2238 2687 7.271

150 111.4 1.16 0.863 467.1 2226 2698 7.223

170 115.2 1.03 0.970 483.2 2216 2699 7.181

190 118.6 0.929 1.08 497.8 2206 2704 7.144

220 123.3 0.810 1.23 517.6 2193 2711 7.095

260 128.7 0.693 1.44 540.9 2177 2718 7.039

280 131.2 0.646 1.55 551.4 2170 2722 7.014

320 135.8 0.570 1.75 570.9 2157 2728 6.969

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

360 139.9 0.510 1.96 588.5 2144 2733 6.930

400 143.1 0.462 2.16 604.7 2133 2738 6.894

440 147.1 0.423 2.36 619.6 2122 2742 6.862

480 150.3 0.389 2.57 633.5 2112 2746 6.833

500 151.8 0.375 2.67 640.1 2107 2748 6.819

550 155.5 0.342 2.92 655.8 2096 2752 6.787

600 158.8 0.315 3.175 670.4 2085 2756 6.758

650 162.0 0.292 3.425 684.1 2075 2759 6.730

700 165.0 0.273 3.66 697.1 2065 2762 6.705

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

750 167.8 0.255 3.915 709.3 2056 2765 6.682

800 170.4 0.240 4.16 720.9 2047 2768 6.660

850 172.9 0.229 4.41 732.0 2038 2770 6.639

900 175.4 0.215 4.65 742.6 2030 2772 6.619

950 177.7 0.204 4.90 752.8 2021 2774 6.601

1000 179.9 0.194 5.15 762.6 2014 2776 6.583

1050 182.0 0.186 5.39 772 2006 2778 6.566

1150 186.0 0.170 5.89 790 1991 2781 6.534

1250 189.8 0.157 6.38 807 1977 2784 6.505

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

1300 191.6 0.151 6.62 815 1971 2785 6.491

1500 198.3 0.132 7.59 845 1945 2790 6.441

1600 201.4 0.124 8.03 859 1933 2792 6.418

1800 207.1 0.110 9.07 885 1910 2795 6.375

2000 212.4 0.0995 10.01 909 1889 2797 6.337

2100 214.9 0.0945 10.54 920 1878 2798 6.319

2300 219.6 0.0868 11.52 942 1858 2800 6.285

2400 221.8 0.0832 12.02 952 1849 2800 6.269

2600 226.0 0.0769 13.01 972 1830 2801 6.239

 Specific Enthalpy of Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume - ρ - Liquid Evaporation Steam of Steam
(oC)
(kPa, kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) - hl - - he - - hs - - s -
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)

2700 228.1 0.0740 13.52 981 1821 2802 6.224

2900 232.0 0.0689 14.52 1000 1803 2802 6.197

3000 233.8 0.0666 15.00 1008 1794 2802 6.184

3200 237.4 0.0624 16.02 1025 1779 2802 6.158

3400 240.9 0.0587 17.04 1042 1760 2802 6.134

3600 244.2 0.0554 18.06 1058 1744 2802 6.112

3800 247.3 0.0524 19.08 1073 1728 2801 6.090

4000 250.3 0.0497 20.09 1087 1713 2800 6.069

1)
 Atmospheric pressure

 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

 Specific enthalpy or Sensible Heat is the quantity of heat in 1 kg of water according to the selected temperature.
Example - Boiling Water at 100  oC and 0 bar
At atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge or absolute 101.33 kN/m2 - water boils at 100  oC. 419 kJ of energy is required to heat 1 kg of water from 0  oC to
the saturation temperature 100  oC.

Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) and 100  oC - the specific enthalpy of water is 419 kJ/kg.

Another 2,257 kJ of energy is required to evaporate the 1 kg of water at 100  oC to steam at 100  oC. Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33
kN/m2) - the specific enthalpy of evaporation is 2,257 kJ/kg.

The total specific enthalpy of the steam (or heat required to evaporate water to steam) at atmospheric pressure and 100  oC can be summarized as:

hs = 419 + 2,257

    = 2,676 kJ/kg

    = 2.676 (kJ/kg) / 3600 (s/h) = 0.74 kWh/kg 

(1 hour = 3600 seconds, 1 kW = 1 kJ/s)

Example - Boiling Water at 170  oC and 7 bar

Steam at atmospheric pressure is of limited practical use. It cannot be conveyed by its own pressure along a steam pipe to the points of consumption.

At 7 bar gauge (absolute 800 kN/m2) - the saturation temperature of water is 170  oC. More heat energy is required to raise the temperature to the
saturation point at 7 bar gauge than needed for water at atmospheric pressure. From the table a value of 720.9 kJ is needed to raise 1 kg of water
from 0oC to the saturation temperature 170  oC.

The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed at 7 bar gauge to evaporate the water to steam is actually less than the heat energy required at
atmospheric pressure. The specific enthalpy of evaporation decrease with steam pressure increase. The evaporation heat is 2,047 kJ/kg according
the table.

Note! Because the specific volume of steam decreases with increasing pressure, the amount of heat energy transferred in the same volume actually
increases with steam pressure. In other words the same pipe may transfer more energy with high pressure steam than with low pressure steam.
Heat Transfer Coefficients 
                 
It is often useful to determine values for overall heat transfer coefficients while performing non-exact activities such as early project cost estimating and basic
heat exchanger performance assessments. 
              
The equation which relates the overall heat transfer coefficient to the heat duty and the heat transfer area is:  
                      
Q= U*A*Tlm  
            
Where:
Q = heat load
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = heat transfer area
Tlm = log mean temperature difference 
             
Overall heat transfer coefficients are dependant on many parameters such as the nature of the fluid, fluid velocities, type of heat exchanger, temperatures and
fouling.  Despite all these determining parameters, typical overall heat transfer coefficients are available for common applications and fluids.   If little
information about the process and the parameters outlined above is available, the following values can be used as a guide for overall heat transfer
coefficients: 
              
Sensible Vapour:                                                    30 Btu/hr-ft2-F
Sensible Heating/Cooling or Condensing:                100 Btu/hr-ft2-F
Boiling:                                                                120 Btu/hr-ft2-F
     
       
When more information about the fluids and process is available, one can use the overall heat transfer coefficient values in the tables below as a guide as to
the order of magnitude.  Actual overall heat transfer coefficients may be smaller or larger than the values listed.    
           
Heaters (no phase change)
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Steam Air 10 – 20
Steam Water 250 – 750
Steam Methanol 200 – 700
Steam Ammonia 200 – 700
Steam Aqueous solutions 100 – 700
 Light hydrocarbons
Steam (viscosity < 0.5 cP) 100 – 200
Medium hydrocarbons
Steam (0.5 cP < viscosity < 1 cP) 50 – 100
Heavy hydrocarbons
Steam (viscosity > 1) 6 – 60
Steam Gases 5 – 50
Dowtherm Gases 4 – 40
Dowtherm Heavy oils 8 – 60
Aromatic hydrocarbon and
Flue gas steam 5 – 10
                  
              
Evaporators
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Steam Water 350 – 750
Steam Organic solvents 100 – 200
Steam Light oils 80 – 180
Steam Heavy oils (vacuum) 25 – 75
Water Refrigerant 75 – 150
Organic solvents Refrigerant 30 – 100
                 
                 
Coolers (no phase change)
Cold Fluid Hot Fluid Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Water Water 150 – 300
Water Organic solvent 50 – 150
Water Gases 3 – 50
Water Light oils 60 – 160
Water Heavy oils 10 – 50
Light oil Organic solvent 20 – 70
Brine Water 100 – 200
Brine Organic solvent 30 – 90
 Brine Gases 3 – 50
Organic solvents Organic solvents 20 – 60
Heavy oils Heavy oils 8 – 50
           
             
Condensers
Cold Fluid Hot Fluid Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Water Steam (pressure) 350 -750
Water Steam (vacuum) 300 – 600
Organic solvent (saturated,
Water or brine atmospheric) 100 – 200
Organic solvent (atmospheric, high
Water or brine non-condensables) 20 – 80
Organic solvent (saturated,
Water or brine vacuum) 50 – 120
Organic solvent (vacuum, high non-
Water or brine condensables) 10 – 50
Aromatic vapours (atmospheric with
Water or brine non-condensables) 5 – 30
Low boiling hydrocarbon
Water (atmospheric) 80 – 200
High boiling hydrocarbon
Water (vacuum) 10 – 30
                       
                
When the process is well defined, one can use film heat transfer coefficients to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient. 
        
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the film coefficients using the equation:
          
 1   =      1   + Rout  +  Rwo   +  Rio   +  1
 U           hout                                      hio 
         
Where:
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
hout = film coefficient on outside surface
Rout = resistance due to fouling on outside surface
Rwo = resistance due to metal wall of heat transfer area (corrected to the outside)
Rio = resistance due to fouling on inside surface (corrected to the outside)
hio = = film coefficient on inside surface (corrected to the outside) 
            
In order to use the equation above, values for the film heat transfer coefficients must be determined.  Film coefficients, just like overall coefficients, are
influenced by many parameters such as nature of the fluid, type of heat exchanger, fluid velocity, transport properties and temperature. The tables below
provide examples of film coefficients values for various applications.  Again, these should be used as a guide as to the order of magnitude and the actual film
coefficients may be smaller or larger than the values listed. 
             
           
no phase change
Fluid Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Water 300 – 2000
Gases 3 – 50
Organic Solvents 60 – 500
Oils 10 – 120
            
           
Condensing
Fluid Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Steam 1000 – 3000
Organic Solvents 150 – 500
Light Oils 200 – 400
Heavy Oils (vacuum) 20 – 50
Ammonia 500 – 1000
            
             
Evaporation
Fluid Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)
Water 800 – 2000
Organic Solvents 100 – 300
Light Oils 150 – 300
Heavy Oils 10 – 50
 Ammonia 200 – 400
        
      
The information is provided for educational use only – use at your own risks

The overall heat transfer coefficient is used to calculate total heat transfer through a wall or heat exchanger construction. The overall heat
transfer coefficient depends on the fluids and their properties on both sides of the wall, the properties of the wall and the transmission surface.

For practically still fluids - average values for the overall heat transmission coefficient through different combinations of fluids on both sides of
the wall and type of wall - are indicated in the table below:

Overall Heat Transmission Coefficient

Material in Transmission
Fluid Fluid -U-
Surface 2 o
(Btu/(ft hr F)) (W/(m2 K))
Water Cast Iron Air or Gas 1.4 7.9
Water Mild Steel Air or Gas 2.0 11.3
Water Copper Air or Gas 2.3 13.1
Water Cast Iron Water 40 - 50 230 - 280
Water Mild Steel Water 60 - 70 340 - 400
Water Copper Water 60 - 80 340 - 455
Air Cast Iron Air 1.0 5.7
Air Mild Steel Air 1.4 7.9
Steam Cast Iron Air 2.0 11.3
Steam Mild Steel Air 2.5 14.2
Steam Copper Air 3.0 17
Steam Cast Iron Water 160 910
Steam Mild Steel Water 185 1050
Steam Copper Water 205 1160
 Overall Heat Transmission Coefficient
Material in Transmission
Fluid Fluid -U-
Surface 2 o
(Btu/(ft hr F)) (W/(m2 K))
Steam Stainless Steel Water 120 680

 1 Btu/ft2 hr oF = 5.678 W/m2 K = 4.882 kcal/h m2 oC - Unit Converter

Note that these coefficients are very rough. They depends on fluid velocities, viscosities, conditions of the heating surfaces, size of the
temperature differences and so on. For exact calculations - always check manufacturing data.

Example - Water to Air Heat Exchanger made in Copper

A roughly estimate of the specific heat transmission in a copper heat exchanger with water (mean temperature 80 oC) on one side and air (mean
temperature 20 oC) on the other side - where the overall heat transfer coefficient U is 13.1 W/(m2 K) - can be calculated as

q = (13.1 W/(m2 K)) ((80 oC) - (20 oC))

  = 786 W/m2

Steam coil sizing

Having determined the energy required (previous Module), and with knowledge of the steam pressure/temperature in the coil, the heat transfer
surface may be determined using Equation 2.5.3:

The heat transfer area calculated is equivalent to the surface area of the coil, and will enable an appropriate size and layout to be specified.

Determining the ‘U’ value

To calculate the heat transfer area, a value for the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, must be chosen. This will vary considerably with the
thermal and transport properties of both fluids and a range of other conditions.
On the product side of the coil a thermal boundary layer will exist in which there is a temperature gradient between the surface and the bulk
fluid. If this temperature difference is relatively large, then the natural convective currents will be significant and the heat transfer coefficient
will be high.

Assisted circulation (such as stirring) that will induce forced convection, will also result in higher coefficients. As convection is partially
dependent on the bulk motion of the fluid, the viscosity (which varies with temperature) also has an important bearing on the thermal
boundary layer.

Additional variations can also occur on the steam side of the coil, especially with long lengths of pipe. The coil inlet may have a high steam
velocity and may be relatively free from water.
However, further along the length of the coil the steam velocity may be lower, and the coil may be running partially full of water. In very long
coils, such as those sometimes found in seagoing tankers or in large bulk storage tanks, a significant pressure drop occurs along the length of the
coil. To achieve the mean coil temperature, an average steam pressure of approximately 75% of the inlet pressure may be used. In extreme cases
the average pressure used may be as low as 40% of the inlet pressure.

The range of figures shown in Table 2.10.1 demonstrates the difficulty in providing definitive ‘U’ values. Customary figures at the higher end of
the scale will apply to installations that are supplied with clean dry steam, small coils and good condensate drainage. The lower end is more
applicable to poor quality steam, long coils and poor condensate drainage.

The recommended overall heat transfer coefficients will apply to typical conditions and installations.
These recommended rates are empirically derived, and will generally ensure that a generous safety margin applies to the coil sizing.
In the case of fluids other than water, the heat transfer coefficient will vary even more widely due to the way in which viscosity varies with
temperature. However, the values shown in Table 2.10.2 will serve as a guide for some commonly encountered substances, while Table 2.10.3
gives typical surface areas of pipes per metre length.

* Certain materials such as tallow and margarine are solid at normal temperatures but have quite low viscosities in the molten state.
** Commercial molasses frequently contains water and the viscosity is much lower.
Introduction to Condensate Recovery

An introduction to the reasons for condensate recovery and return, including energy costs, water charges, effluent restrictions and water
treatment costs. Includes sample calculations for potential savings

Introduction to Condensate Recovery

Steam is usually generated for one of two reasons:

 To produce electrical power, for example in power stations or co-generation plants.

 To supply heat for heating and process systems.

When a kilogram of steam condenses completely, a kilogram of condensate is formed at the same pressure and temperature (Figure 14.1.1). An
efficient steam system will reuse this condensate.

Failure to reclaim and reuse condensate makes no financial, technical or environmental sense.

 
Saturated steam used for heating gives up its latent heat (enthalpy of evaporation), which is a large proportion of the total heat it contains. The
remainder of the heat in the steam is retained in the condensate as sensible heat (enthalpy of water) (Figure 14.1.2).

As well as having heat content, the condensate is basically distilled water, which is ideal for use as boiler feedwater. An efficient steam system
will collect this condensate and either return it to a deaerator, a boiler feedtank, or use it in another process. Only when there is a real risk of
contamination should condensate not be returned to the boiler. Even then, it may be possible to collect the condensate and use it as hot process
water or pass it through a heat exchanger where its heat content can be recovered before discharging the water mass to drain.

Condensate is discharged from steam plant and equipment through steam traps from a higher to a lower pressure. As a result of this drop in
pressure, some of the condensate will re-evaporate into ‘flash steam’. The proportion of steam that will ‘flash off’ in this way is determined by
the amount of heat that can be held in the steam and condensate. A flash steam amount of 10% to 15% by mass is typical (see Module 2.2).
However, the percentage volumetric change can be considerably more. Condensate at 7 bar g will lose about 13% of its mass when flashing to
atmospheric pressure, but the steam produced will require a space some 200 times larger than the condensate from which it was formed. This can
have the effect of choking undersized trap discharge lines, and must be taken into account when sizing these lines.

Example 14.1.1 Calculating the amount of flash steam from condensate

Hot condensate at 7 bar g has a heat content of about 721 kJ/kg. When it is released to atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), each kilogram of water
can only retain about 419 kJ of heat. The excess energy in each kilogram of the condensate is therefore 721 – 419 = 302 kJ. This excess energy is
available to evaporate some of the condensate into steam, the amount evaporated being determined by the proportion of excess heat to the
amount of heat required to evaporate water at the lower pressure, which in this example, is the enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure,
2258 kJ/kg.

The subject of flash steam is examined in greater depth in Module 2.2, ‘What is steam?’ A simple graph (Figure 14.1.3) is used in this Module to
calculate the proportion of flash steam.

Example:

Proportion of flash steam using Figure 14.1.3:

Pressure on the trap = 4 bar g
Flash steam pressure = 0 bar g
% Flash steam = 10%
The amount of flash steam in the pipe is the most important factor when sizing trap discharge lines.
Steam produced in a boiler by the process of adding heat to the water is often referred to as live steam. The terms live steam and flash steam are
only used to differentiate their origin. Whether steam is produced in a boiler or from the natural process of flashing, it has exactly the same
potential for giving up heat, and each is used successfully for this purpose. The flash steam generated from condensate can contain up to half of
the total energy of the condensate. An efficient steam system will recover and use flash steam. Condensate and flash steam discharged to waste
means more make-up water, more fuel, and increased running costs.

This Module will look at two essential areas – condensate management and flash steam recovery. Some of the apparent problem areas will be
outlined and practical solutions proposed.

Note: The term ‘trap’ is used to denote a steam-trapping device, which could be a steam trap, a pump-trap, or a pump and trap combination. The
ability of any trap to pass condensate relies upon the pressure difference across it, whereas a pumping trap or a pump-trap combination will be
able to pass condensate irrespective of operational pressure differences (subject to design pressure ratings).

Condensate return

An effective condensate recovery system, collecting the hot condensate from the steam using equipment and returning it to the boiler feed
system, can pay for itself in a remarkably short period of time.

Figure 14.1.4 shows a simple steam and condensate circuit, with condensate returning to the boiler feedtank.
 

Why return condensate and reuse it?

Financial reasons
Condensate is a valuable resource and even the recovery of small quantities is often economically justifiable. The discharge from a single steam
trap is often worth recovering.

Un-recovered condensate must be replaced in the boiler house by cold make-up water with additional costs of water treatment and fuel to heat
the water from a lower temperature.

Water charges

Any condensate not returned needs to be replaced by make-up water, incurring further water charges from the local water supplier.

Effluent restrictions

In the UK for example, water above 43°C cannot be returned to the public sewer by law, because it is detrimental to the environment and may
damage earthenware pipes. Condensate above thistemperature must be cooled before it is discharged, which may incur extra energy costs.
Similar restrictions apply in most countries, and effluent charges and fines may be imposed by water suppliers for non-compliance.

Maximising boiler output

Colder boiler feedwater will reduce the steaming rate of the boiler. The lower the feedwater temperature, the more heat, and thus fuel needed to
heat the water, thereby leaving less heat to raise steam.

Boiler feedwater quality

Condensate is distilled water, which contains almost no total dissolved solids (TDS). Boilers need to be blown down to reduce their
concentration of dissolved solids in the boiler water. Returning more condensate to the feedtank reduces the need for blowdown and thus reduces
the energy lost from the boiler.

Why return condensate and reuse it?

 Summary of reasons for condensate recovery:

 Water charges are reduced.
 Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
  Fuel costs are reduced.
 More steam can be produced from the boiler.
 Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
 Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.

Figure 14.1.5 compares the amount of energy in a kilogram of steam and condensate at the same pressure. The percentage of energy in
condensate to that in steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the liquid condensate is worth reclaiming.

The following example (Example 14.1.2) demonstrates the financial value of returning condensate.

Example 14.1.2

A boiler produces:
10000 kg/h of steam 24 hours/day, 7 days/week and 50 weeks/year (8400 hours/year).
Raw make-up water is at 10°C. Currently all condensate is discharged to waste at 90°C.
Raw water costs £0.61/m3, and effluent costs are £0.45/m3
The boiler is 85% efficient, and uses gas on an interruptible tariff charged at £0.01/ kWh (£2.77 / GJ).
Steam produced in a boiler by the process of adding heat to the water is often referred to as live steam. The terms live steam and flash steam are
only used to differentiate their origin. Whether steam is produced in a boiler or from the natural process of flashing, it has exactly the same
potential for giving up heat, and each is used successfully for this purpose. The flash steam generated from condensate can contain up to half of
the total energy of the condensate. An efficient steam system will recover and use flash steam. Condensate and flash steam discharged to waste
means more make-up water, more fuel, and increased running costs.

This Module will look at two essential areas – condensate management and flash steam recovery. Some of the apparent problem areas will be
outlined and practical solutions proposed.

Note: The term ‘trap’ is used to denote a steam-trapping device, which could be a steam trap, a pump-trap, or a pump and trap combination. The
ability of any trap to pass condensate relies upon the pressure difference across it, whereas a pumping trap or a pump-trap combination will be
able to pass condensate irrespective of operational pressure differences (subject to design pressure ratings).

Condensate return

An effective condensate recovery system, collecting the hot condensate from the steam using equipment and returning it to the boiler feed
system, can pay for itself in a remarkably short period of time. Figure 14.1.4 shows a simple steam and condensate circuit, with condensate
returning to the boiler feedtank.

Determine the annual value of returning the condensate

Part 1 - Determine the fuel cost

Each kilogram of condensate not returned to the boiler feedtank must be replaced by 1 kg of cold make-up water (10°C) that must be heated to
the condensate temperature of 90°C. (ΔT = 80°C).

Calculate the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of cold make-up water by 80°C, by using Equation 2.1.4.
m is unity; ΔT is the difference between the cold water make-up and the temperature of returned condensate; cp is the specific heat of water at
4.19 kJ/kg °C.
1 kg x 4.19 kJ/kg °C x 80°C = 335 kJ/kg

Basing the calculations on an average evaporation rate of 10000 kg/h, for a plant in operation 8 400 h /year, the energy required to replace the
heat in the make-up water is:
10 000 kg/h x 335 kJ/kg x 8 400 h/year = 28 140 GJ/year

If the average boiler efficiency is 85%, the energy supplied to heat the make-up water is:

With a fuel cost of £2.77/GJ, the value of the energy in the condensate is:
 
Annual fuel cost = 33 106 GJ / year x £2.77/GJ = £917 04

Part 2 - Determine the water cost

Water is sold by volume, and the density of water at normal ambient temperature is about 1000 kg /m3. The total amount of water required in
one year replacing non-returned condensate is therefore:

If water costs are £0.61 per m³, the annual water cost is:
 
Annual water cost = 84000 m3/ year x £0.61/m3 = £51 240
 
Part 3 - Determine the effluent cost

The condensate that was not recovered would have to be discharged to waste, and may also be charged by the water authority.

Total amount of water to waste in one year also equals 84000 m³

If effluent costs are £0.45 per m³, the annual effluent cost is:

Annual effluent cost = 84000 m3/ year x £0.45/m3 = £37 800

Part 4 - Total value of condensate

The total annual value of 10 000 kg/h of condensate lost to waste is shown in Table 14.1.1:
On this basis, it follows that for each 1% of condensate returned per 10 000 kg/h evaporated as in Example 14.1.2, a saving of 1% of each of the
values shown in Table 14.1.1 would be possible.

Example 14.1.3

 If it were decided to invest £50 000 in a project to return 80% of the condensate in a similar
plant to Example 14.1.2, but where the total evaporation rate were only 5 000 kg/h, the savings and simple payback term would be:

This sample calculation does not include a value for savings due to correct TDS control and reduced blowdown, which will further reduce water
losses and boiler chemical costs. These can vary substantially from location to location, but should always be considered in the final analysis.
Clearly, when assessing condensate management for a specific project, such savings must be determined and included.

TDS control and water treatment have already been discussed in Block 3.
The routines outlined in Examples 14.1.2 and 14.1.3 may be developed to form the basis of a forced path calculation to assign a monetary value
to projects intended to improve condensate recovery.

Equation 14.1.1 can be used to calculate the fuel savings per year:

Savings in water costs can be determined using Equation 14.1.2:

Savings in effluent costs can be determined using Equation 14.1.3:

Example 14.1.4

A major condensate management project costing £70 000 expects to recover an additional 35% of the condensate produced at a plant.

The average boiler steaming rate is 15000 kg/h, and the plant operates for 8000 h/year.

The fuel used is gas on a firm tariff of £0.011/ kWh, and the boiler efficiency is estimated as 80%.

Make-up water temperature is 10°C and insulated condensate return lines ensure that condensate will arrive back at the boiler house at 95°C.

Consider the water costs to be £0.70/m3 and the total effluent costs to be £0.45/m3.

Determine the payback period for the project.

Part 1 - Determine the fuel savings

Use Equation 14.1.1:

Part 2 - Determine the water and effluent savings

Use Equation 14.1.2 to calculate the savings in water costs/year:

 
Part 3 - Determine the payback period

Sizing Condensate Return Lines

A guide to sizing condensate lines to and from steam traps, including examples and calculations using the condensate pipe sizing chart.

Sizing Condensate Return Lines

The four main types of condensate line, as mentioned in Module 14.2, are shown in Table 14.3.1:
Sizing of all condensate lines is a function of:

 Pressure - The difference in pressure between one end of the pipe and the other. This pressure difference may either promote flow, or cause some
of the condensate to flash to steam.
 Quantity - The amount of condensate to be handled.
 Condition - Is the condensate predominately liquid or flash steam?

With the exception of pumped return lines which will be discussed in Module 14.4, the other three main types of condensate line and their
sizing, will be covered in this Module.

Sizing drain lines to traps

It should not be assumed that the drain line (and trap) should be the same size as the plant outlet connection. The plant may operate at a number
of different operating pressures and flowrates, especially when it is temperature controlled. However, once the trap has been correctly sized, it is
usually the case that the drain line will be the same size as the trap inlet connection, (see Figure 14.3.1).
Regarding the conditions inside the drain line, as there is no significant pressure drop between the plant and the trap, no flash steam is present in
the pipe, and it can be sized to carry condensate only.

When sizing the drain line, the following will need consideration:

 The condensing rate of the equipment being drained during full-load.

 The condensing rate of the equipment at start-up.

At plant start-up, the condensing rate can be up to three times the running load – this is where the temperature difference between the steam and
colder product is at its maximum.

The drain line, trap, and discharge line also have to carry the air that is displaced by the incoming steam during this time.

The sizing routine for the steam trap will have to consider both of these variables, however, in general:

 For steam mains drainage, the condensate load for each drain trap is typically 1% of the steam capacity of the main based on drain points at 50 m
intervals, and with good insulation.

For most drain points, sizing the trap to pass twice the running load at the working pressure (minus any backpressure) will allow it to cope with
the start-up load.
  On constant steam pressure processes such as presses, ironers, unit heaters, radiant panels and boiling pans, sizing the traps on approximately
twice the running load at the working pressure (less any backpressure) will provide sufficient capacity to cope with the start-up load.
 On temperature controlled applications, the steam pressure, the plant turndown, the set temperature and steam trap location need to be
considered in detail, and the trap needs to be sized to cater for both the full and minimum load conditions. If these conditions are not known it is
recommended that the steam trap be sized on 3 x the running load at the running differential pressure. This should satisfy the start-up condition
and provide proper drainage at minimum loads.

When the trap is sized in this way, it will also cater for the start-up load. Consequently, if the drain line to the trap is sized on the trap size, it will
never be undersized.

For practical purposes, where the drain line is less than 10 m, it can be the same pipe size as the steam trap selected for the application. Drain
lines less than 10 m long can also be checked against Appendix 14.3.1 and a pipe size should be selected which results in a pressure loss at
maximum flowrate of not more than 200 Pa per metre length, and a velocity not greater than 1.5 m/s. Table 14.3.2 is an extract from Appendix
14.3.1.

On longer drain lines (over 10 m), the pressure loss at maximum flowrate should not be more than 100 Pa/m, and a velocity not greater than
1 m/s.
Example 14.3.1
An item of plant, using steam at constant pressure, condenses 470 kg of steam an hour at full-load. The pipework between the plant item and the
steam trap has an equivalent length of 2 m.

Determine the size of pipe to be used.

Revised load allowing for start-up = 470 kg /h x 2 = 940 kg /h.

As the pipe length is less than 10 metres, the maximum allowable pressure drop is 200 Pa/m.

Using Table 14.3.1, by looking across from 200 Pa/m it can be seen that a 25 mm pipe has a capacity of 1 141 kg /h, and would therefore be
suitable for the expected starting load of 940 kg /h.

Checking further up the 25 mm column, it can be seen that a flowrate of 940 kg /h will incur an actual pressure drop of just less than 140 Pa/m
flowing through a 25 mm pipe.

Sizing discharge lines from traps

The section of pipeline downstream of the trap will carry both condensate and flash steam at the same pressure and temperature. This is referred
to as two-phase flow, and the mixture of liquid and vapour will have the characteristics of both steam and water in proportion to how much of
each is present. Consider the following example.

Example 14.3.2

An item of plant uses steam at a constant 4 bar g pressure. A mechanical steam trap is fitted, and condensate at saturation temperature is
discharged into a condensate main working at 0.5 bar g.

Determine the proportions by mass, and by volume, of water and steam in the condensate main.

Part 1 - Determine the proportions by mass

From steam tables:

Clearly, if 7.9% is flashing to steam, the remaining 100 – 7.9 = 92.1% of the initial mass flow will remain as water.

Part 2 - Determine the proportions by volume

Based on an initial mass of 1 kg of condensate discharged at 4 bar g saturation temperature, the mass of flash steam is 0.079 kg and the mass of
condensate is 0.921 kg (established from Part 1).

Water:

The density of saturated water at 0.5 bar g is 950 kg/m3,

From this, it follows that the two-phase fluid in the trap discharge line will have much more in common with steam than water, and it is sensible
to size on reasonable steam velocities rather than use the relatively small volume of condensate as the basis for calculation. If lines are
undersized, the flash steam velocity and backpressure will increase, which can cause waterhammer, reduce the trap capacity, and flood the
process.

Steam lines are sized with attention to maximum velocities. Dry saturated steam should travel no faster than 40 m/s. Wet steam should travel
somewhat slower (15 to 20 m/s) as it carries moisture which can otherwise have an erosive and damaging effect on fittings and valves.

Trap discharge lines can be regarded as steam lines carrying very wet steam, and should be sized on similarly low velocities.

Condensate discharge lines from traps are notoriously more difficult to size than steam lines due to the two-phase flow characteristic. In practice,
it is impossible (and often unnecessary) to determine the exact condition of the fluid inside the pipe.

Although the amount of flash steam produced (see Figure 14.3.2) is related to the pressure difference across the trap, other factors will also have
an effect.
Factors having a bearing on two-phase flow inside a pipe, include:

 If the condensate on the upstream side of the trap is cooler than the saturation temperature (for example: a thermostatic steam trap is used), the
amount of flash steam after the trap is reduced. This can reduce the size of the line required.
 If the line slopes down from the trap to its termination, the slope will have an effect on the flow of condensate, but to what magnitude, and how
can this be quantified?
 On longer lines, radiation losses from the line may condense some of the flash steam, reducing its volume and velocity, and there may be a case for
reducing the line size. But at what point should it be reduced and by how much?
 If the discharge line lifts up to an overhead return line, there will be times when the lifting line will be full of cool condensate, and times when flash
steam from the trap may evaporate some or all of this condensate. Should the rising discharge line be sized on flash steam velocity or the quantity
of condensate?
 Most processes operate some way below their full-load condition for most of their running cycle, which reduces flash steam for most of the time.
The question therefore arises: is there a need for the system to be sized on the full-load condition, if the equipment permanently runs at a lower
running load?
 On temperature controlled plant, the pressure differential across the trap will itself change depending on the heat load. This will affect the amount
of flash steam produced in the line.

Recommendations on trap discharge lines

Because of the number of variables, an exact calculation of line size would be complex and probably inaccurate. Experience has shown that if
trap discharge lines are sized on flash steam velocities of 15 to 20 m/s, and certain recommendations are adhered to, few problems will arise.

Recommendations:

1.  Correctly sized trap discharge lines which slope in the direction of flow and are open-ended or vented at a receiver, will be non-flooded and
allow flash steam to pass unhindered above the condensate (Figure 14.3.3). A minimum slope of 1 in 70 (150 mm drop every 10 m) is
recommended. A simple visual check will usually confirm if the line is sloping - if no slope is apparent it is not sloping enough!
2.  If it is unavoidable, non-pumped rising lines (Figure 14.3.4) should be kept as short as possible and fitted with a non-return valve to stop
condensate falling back down to the trap. Risers should discharge into the top of overhead return lines. This stops condensate draining back into
the riser from the return main after the trap has discharged, to assist the easy passage of flash steam up the riser.
It is sensible to consider using a slightly larger riser, which will produce a lower flash steam velocity.

This will reduce the risk of waterhammer and noise caused by steam trying to force a path through the liquid condensate in the riser.

Important: A rising line should only be used where the process steam pressure is guaranteed to be higher than the condensate backpressure at the
trap outlet. If not, the process will waterlog unless a pumping trap or pump-trap combination is used to provide proper drainage against the
backpressure.
3.  Common return lines should also slope down and be non-flooded (Figure 14.3.4). To avoid flash steam occurring in long return lines, hot
condensate from trap discharge lines should drain into vented receivers (or flash vessels where appropriate), from where it can be pumped on to
its final destination, via a flooded line at a lower temperature.

Condensate pumping is dealt with in more detail in Module 14.4.

The condensate pipe sizing chart

The condensate pipe sizing chart (Figure 14.3.5) can be used to size any type of condensate line, including:

 Drain lines containing no flash steam.

 Lines consisting of two-phase flow, such as trap discharge lines, which are selected according to the pressures either side of the trap.

The chart (Figure 14.3.5):

 Works around acceptable flash steam velocities of 15 - 20 m/s, according to the pipe size and the proportion of flash steam formed.
 Can be used with condensate temperatures lower than the steam saturation temperature, as will be the case when using thermostatic steam traps.
 Is used to size trap discharge lines on full-load conditions. It is not necessary to consider any oversizing factors for start-up load or the removal of
non-condensable gases.
 May also be used to estimate sizes for pumped lines containing condensate below 100°C. This will be discussed in Module 14.4.
Using the condensate pipe sizing chart (Also available in Appendix 14.3.2)

Establish the point where the steam and condensate pressures meet (lower part of the chart,

Figure 14.3.5). From this point, move vertically up to the upper chart to meet the required condensate rate. If the discharge line is falling (non-
flooded) and the selection is on or between lines, choose the lower line size. If the discharge line is rising, and therefore likely to be flooded,
choose the upper line size.

Note: The reasoning employed for the sizing of a steam trap is different to that used for a discharge line, and it is perfectly normal for a trap
discharge line to be sized different to the trap it is serving. However, when the trap is correctly sized, the usual ancillary equipment associated
with a steam trap station, such as isolation valves, strainer, trap testing chamber, and check valve, can be the same size as the trapping device
selected, whatever the discharge line size.
Common return lines - falling lines

It is sometimes necessary to connect several trap discharge lines from separate processes into a common return line. Problems will not occur if
the following considerations are met:

 The common line is not flooded and slopes in the direction of flow to an open end or a vented receiver, or a flash vessel if the conditions allow.
 The common line is sized on the cumulative sizes of the branch lines, and the branch lines are sized from Figure 14.3.5.

Example 14.3.8

Figure 14.3.11 shows three heat exchangers, each separately controlled and operating at the same time. The condensate loads shown are full
loads and occur with 3 bar g in the steam space.

The common line slopes down to the flash vessel at 1.5 bar g, situated in the same plant room. Condensate in the flash vessel falls via a float trap
down to a vented receiver, from where it is pumped directly to the boiler house.

The trap discharge lines are sized on full-load with steam pressure at 3 bar g and condensate pressure of 1.5 bar g, and as each is not flooded, the
lower line sizes are picked from the graph.

Determine the condensate line sizes for the falling discharge lines and common lines.
 

Common return lines - rising lines

It is sometimes unavoidable for condensate discharge and common lines to rise at some point between the trap and the point of final termination.
When this is the case, each discharge line is sized by moving up to the next size on the chart, as previously discussed in this Module.

Example 14.3.9

Figure 14.3.12 shows the same three heat exchangers as in Example 14.3.8.

However, in this instance, the common line rises 15 m and terminates in an overhead non-flooded condensate return main, giving the same
backpressure of 1.5 bar as in Example 14.3.8. Each of the discharge lines is sized as a rising line.

Determine the condensate line sizes for the discharge lines and common lines.
Example 14.3.10 - Falling common line

Calculating the common line sizes for the application shown in Fig. 14.3.12 which falls to a final termination point:
Example 14.3.11 - Rising common line

Calculating the common line sizes for the application shown in Fig. 14.3.14 which rises to a final termination point:

Note that the steam loads are the same as Example 14.3.10, but the discharge lines are one size larger due to the rising common line.
The procedure shown in Examples 14.3.10 and 14.3.11 can be simplified by using Appendix 14.3.3.

For example, where pipes A and B (20 mm and 50 mm) join, the minimum required pipe diameter is shown as 54 mm. Clearly, the user would
fit the next largest size of commercial pipe available, unless the calculated bore is close to a nominal bore size pipe.
The overall heat transfer coefficients for steam coils with medium pressure -  or hot water coils or pipes -  submerged in oil or fat:

Heat transfer through a surface like a wall can be calculated as

q = U A dT                            (1)

where

q = heat transfer (W (J/s), Btu/h)

U = overall heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2K), Btu/(ft2 h oF))

A = wall area (m2, ft2)

dT = (t1 - t2)

      = temperature difference over wall (oC, oF)

Heat Transfer Coefficient

Type of Coil -U-

(W/m2 oC) (Btu/hr ft2 oF)

Steam to Aqueous Solutions, agitated 800 - 1200 140 - 210

Steam to Aqueous Solutions, natural convection 340 - 570 60 - 100

Steam to Light Oil, natural convection 170 30

Steam to Heavy Oil, natural convection 85 - 115 15 - 20

Steam to Heavy Oil, agitated 140 - 310 25 - 55

 Heat Transfer Coefficient
Type of Coil -U-

(W/m2 oC) (Btu/hr ft2 oF)

Steam to Fat, natural convection 30 - 60 5 - 10

Steam to Organics, agitated 510 - 800 90 - 140

Hot Water to Oil, natural convection 34 - 140 6 - 25

Hot Water to Water, natural convection 200 - 370 35 - 65

Hot Water to Water, agitated 480 - 850 90 - 150

Heat transfer oil to Organics, agitated 140 - 280 25 - 50

Salt brine to Water, agitated 280 - 630 50 - 110

Cooling Water to Glycerine, agitated 280 - 430 50 - 75

Example - Heat Transfer from a Steam Coil

A 50 mm steam coil with outside diameter 60.3 mm (0.0603 m) and length 10 m with 1 bar absolute pressure and steam temperature 120 oC is
submerged in an oil bath with temperature 50 oC.

The surface area of the coil can be calculated by multiplying the pipe circumference with pipe length as

A = π (0.0603 m) (10 m)

    = 1.89 m2
From the table above the heat transfer coefficient is 170 W/m2 oC for "Steam to Light Oil, Natural Convection". The heat transfer can be
calculated as

Q = (1.89 m2)((120 oC) - (50 oC))(170 W/m2 oC)

    = 22491 W  

Amount of Heat Required to Rise Temperature

The amount of heat needed to heat a subject from one temperature level to an other can be expressed as:

Q = cp m dT                                                 (2)

where

Q = amount of heat (kJ)

cp = specific heat (kJ/kgK)

m = mass (kg)

dT = temperature difference between hot and cold side (K)

Example Heating Water

Consider the energy required to heat 1.0 kg of water from 0 oC to 100 oC when the specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kgoC:

Q = (4.19 kJ/kgoC) (1.0 kg) ((100 oC) - (0 oC))

     = 419 (kJ)
Time required to heat tank product will be Q= amount of heat over(Joules) q= heat transfer rate per second (Joules per
second)