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Electrodes for Welding 9% Nickel Steel

Article  in  Welding Journal · January 2004

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 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Welding 9% nickel steel for liquefied natural gas

(LNG) applications
Jan Hilkes, BSc, CEng. FWeldI, IWE, is a Registe-
ported and stored around the world. By liquefying gas its volume is
red International Welding Engineer with a de- reduced by about 600 times, which makes it much easier and eco-
gree in metallurgy/metallurgical engineering. As nomical to handle and store in reasonably sized storage facilities
Technical Manager he has presented various on land or on ships. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be obtained
technical papers and conducted numerous wel- by cooling methane gas down to a temperature of at least –163°C.
ding seminars for Lincoln Smitweld and Lincoln
Electric all over the world. Subjects included all
At these extremely low temperatures standard ferritic structur-
materials, arc welding processes and related ap- al steels are not suitable anymore, mainly due to lack of sufficient
plications. He has over twenty years of experi- toughness and the risk of brittle fracture. For this reason the ferrit-
ence in the welding industry. He is currently Commercial Manager at ic steels are not supposed to be used in pressure vessels with ser-
Lincoln Smitweld in the Netherlands. vice temperatures below –101°C. Cryogenic 9% nickel steels
Fred Neessen, BSc, EWE, is a European Welding
have been developed to achieve the mechanical properties re-
Engineer with a degree in mechanical enginee- quired for building storage tanks and spheres that offer a reliable
ring. As Technical Manager Consumables and structural integrity down to –196°C. The pronounced transition
Consultant at Lincoln Smitweld he is conducting temperature as present for ferritic steel fades away when up to
technical training seminars on welding and ap- about 9% nickel is added to the steel. This reduces the risk of brit-
plications in all industries around the world. He
has presented many technical papers on wel-
tle fracture tremendously. The development of 9% nickel steel
ding at International Conferences and is much started already over five decades ago at the International Nickel
appreciated for his clear, practical and explana- Company Laboratories and it became recognised by the ASME
tory speeches on difficult subjects. He has close to 30 years of industri- Code for cryogenic use in 1954. Since then 9% nickel steel has
al experience including about 25 years in welding. been widely used for LNG storage facilities around the world.
However, the development continued as the requirements for the
steel, the welding consumables and the structural integrity have
For more than five decades, storage facilities for liquefied natur- been increased with the years.
al gas (LNG) are being built with 9% nickel steel in order to ob- Nowadays, LNG storage tanks are being constructed accord-
tain sufficient ductility and structural integrity at –163°C and ing to the “double integrity concept”, which means that the tank
below. Although research has been carried out with matching consists of a cryogenic steel inner shell and a concrete outer shell.
welding consumables for the welding of these applications, at The shell insulation in the inter-space between the two shells con-
present still only nickel base consumables have proved to meet sists of a heavy insulation such as perlite and a resilient fibreglass
the requirements such as mechanical properties. This paper will blanket. This type of construction assures that the liquid gas will
briefly describe the history of 9% nickel steel [1]. A more de- be retained within the outer shell just in case anything happens
tailed description will be given of the metallurgy of 9% nickel with the cryogenic inner shell. An example of which is given in
steel, the nickel base welding consumables and the welded Figs. 1 and 2, from the Dabhol LNG Terminal Project in India for
joints in relation to the chemical composition, heat treatments, which Skanska Whessoe designed, constructed and commis-
mechanical properties, physical properties, international speci- sioned three huge full containment storage tanks with 9% Ni steel
fications and project requirements for LNG tanks. For the weld-
ing of 9% nickel steel with SMAW and SAW, some practical
guidelines will be presented and exemplified with recent refer-
ence projects. Lincoln Smitweld has been involved with the de-
velopment of welding consumables for 9% nickel steel, as for ex-
ample the Nyloid 2 covered electrode, for over 30 years.

Jan Hilkes and Fred Neessen, Nijmegen/The Netherlands

1 Introduction
For economical reasons there has been an increasing demand
worldwide for the use of liquefied gases next to oil. First to be less
dependent on unstable prices and risks of supplies of oil and sec-
ond to exploit the gassy side product of oil exploration. A third rea-
son is because gas is also a less polluting fuel with lower CO2 and
sulphur bearing emissions, which would contribute to a better con- Fig. 1. Dabhol LNG terminal India, site overview of one of the three 9% Ni
trol of global pollution. In addition to the existing natural gas wells tanks that have been built by Skanska Whessoe according to the “double
this brings about a vast quantity of gas to be treated, handled, trans- integrity concept” with a capacity of 163,000 m3.

Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2 103

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Fig. 2. Dabhol LNG terminal India, inside view of the construction of the
9% Ni steel inner shell and the concrete outer shell for one of the three
tanks built by Skanska Whessoe according to the “double integrity con-
cept” with a capacity of 163,000 m3.
Fig. 3. The effect of nickel content on low temperature impact toughness
and transition temperature of normalised low carbon steels. (Armstrong
inner shell [13; 14]. These tanks have been built each with a ca-
and Brophy)
pacity of 163,000 m3. This required a tank with an inside diameter
of at least 75 m and a height of minimal 37 m. To provide suffi-
cient strength the wall thickness in this case starts with 27.5 mm
for the first course. More details of this project will be discussed
with the applications further along in this paper.
Mechanical requirements and project specifications for the
parent material, all weld metal and the welded joints may include:
Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, cross tensile strength,
elongation, side bend test, impact toughness (CVN), lateral expan-
sion, shear fraction and CTOD. The last four properties may have
to be determined at –163°C and/or –196°C. The latter is a very
practical testing temperature since liquid nitrogen can be used as
a cooling medium.
In order to present the full picture, the base material, the weld-
ing consumables and the welding of 9% Ni steel will be described
and discussed in detail.

2 Base material Fig. 4. Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram for a 9% Ni steel
with: 0.09% C, 0.22% Si, 0.68% Mn, 9.02% Ni, 0.008% P, 0.009% S and
As mentioned before one of the critical properties for low ser-
0.03% Al (IIS/IIW-844-87).
vice temperature materials is notch toughness (ductility) and re-
duction of the risk on brittle fracture at the respective low service
temperatures. In general the optimum mechanical properties of Influence of nickel in steel
nickel alloyed materials can be achieved and improved by: The main contribution of nickel in steel is the significant im-
첸 having low levels of impurities as for phosphorus and sulphur, provement of toughness and impact strength at cryogenic sub-
첸 having careful control of interstitial alloying elements as car- zero temperatures [7]. Nickel is also very effective in improving
bon and nitrogen, the hardenability of steel because it reduces the critical cooling
첸 applying treatment with aluminium to combine with intersti- rate that is necessary to produce hardening on quenching. This
tial atoms such as oxygen, makes it easy to carry out heat treatments. The combination of
첸 using the optimal combination of other alloying elements as an increased nickel content with the proper heat treatment such
C, Mn and Mo to balance strength, toughness and cost effec- as normalising or quenching and followed by tempering will sig-
tiveness, nificantly increase the impact toughness and substantially lower
첸 applying a heat treatment that generates the optimum fine the transition temperature all the way down to –196°C. Fig. 3
grained structure of tough nickel-ferrite with small amounts of shows the effect of various nickel contents on the low tempera-
stable austenite in 9% Ni steel. ture impact toughness and transition temperature of normalised

104 Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

low Mf temperature unstable austenite will remain after cooling

from austenitising temperature to room temperature. A tempering
treatment in the ␣+␥ region above the lower critical temperature
allows nickel to stabilise the austenite. In the tempered martensitic
matrix small quantities, 5 to 10 volume percent, of high carbon
nickel-austenite are formed which remain stable at cryogenic tem-
peratures as –196°C. In this case the austenite derives its high car-
bon content from the solution of carbides present as a grain
boundary network. As a result, the reduction of an embrittling car-
bide network increases the low temperature toughness. At lower
cooling rates, a mixture of austenite-ferrite and carbides in a
martensitic matrix can be formed. This implies that for 9% Ni steel
the microstructure of a heat affected zone (HAZ) in a welded joint
Fig. 5. Comparison of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of 9% Ni will always be martensitic, even at very low (air-)cooling rates [8].
steel with that of welding consumables Jungo 316L, NiCro 70/15 and Nylo- Obviously developments in the steel-making process such as
id 2. electric arc furnaces with dephosphorisation and ladle refining
with desulphurisation as well as vacuum degassing have made a
low carbon steels. In this figure, steels have been evaluated with great contribution to the quality and constant improvement of the
nickel contents up to 13% at which level the ductile-brittle tran- properties of 9% Ni steels. The high purity and cleanliness assures
sition is not notable anymore at any temperature. However, the excellent low temperature impact toughness and crack arrest
practical and cost effective optimum has been established properties but has also eliminated the risk of temper embrittle-
around 9% nickel which is still the basis for the modern 9% Ni ment. The latter has a very positive effect on the weldability of the
steels of today. 9% Ni steel.

Metallurgy Heat treatment

For low carbon, high purity 9% Ni steels the ferrite-austenite As described before, the heat treatments are the key to suc-
transitions take place at an Ac1 of 602°C, which is a much lower cess, to arrive at the desired microstructure with the correspond-
temperature than the conventional Ac1 temperature of 723°C. In ing mechanical properties that are required.
fact the Ac1 for 9% Ni steel is actually replaced by a two-phase Good strength and low temperature impact toughness are
field of austenite and ferrite, in which equilibrium conditions are present with a microstructure containing nickel-rich ferrite and sta-
only slowly attained. Nickel contributes to this because it sup- ble high carbon austenite. This can be produced by:
presses the formation of ferrite/perlite high-temperature transfor- 첸 double-normalising and tempering (NN+T),
mation product. Hence, a microstructure is produced which is 첸 quenching and tempering (Q+T).
higher in strength and in impact toughness due to the presence of Double-normalising is carried out at about 900 and 800°C to pro-
stable retained austenite and nickel-rich ferrite. duce a homogeneous structure. Water quenching or air cooling
The addition of 9% Ni also lowers the Ms and Mf temperatures from about 800°C provides a structure with low carbon marten-
down to about 325 and 100°C respectively and no perlite will be site and bainite, which rarely has hardness in excess of 400 HV.
observed. This is illustrated in Fig. 4 that shows the continuous Subsequent tempering at about 570°C, which is marginally
cooling transformation diagram of a 9% Ni steel [1]. Due to the above the lower critical Ac1 temperature, produces a structure

Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2 105

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

with high nickel-ferrite, carbides and reformed stable austenite in therefore very important to evaluate the welding processes that
which carbides have been resolved. This structure has a high can be applied as well as the possibilities in type and chemical
strength and a high impact toughness level. Due to the carbon composition of the consumables. The optimum combination
content, the high carbon austenite remains stable to temperatures should provide the best mechanical properties to assure the in-
below –196°C and contributes to the toughness at cryogenic ser- tegrity in combination with a suitable economy. The requirement
vice temperature. For nickel levels of less that 7% there is no for- for 9% Ni steel LNG tanks these days are very strict and have been
mation of stable austenite on tempering which differentiates 9% increased over the years to make optimum use of the strength of
Ni steel from other low temperature martensitic steels. The main this material [5; 6]. Combining all the specifications for projects
effect of the austenite is to remove embrittling carbides from the Lincoln has recently been involved in, would give the following
matrix. When all the carbides have been converted to stable mechanical requirements for the weld metal of the consumables
austenite in this way, the steel offers maximum low temperature to be used for welding 9% Ni steel:
impact toughness. 첸 yield strength: > 430 MPa,
Manufacturers of 9% Ni steel, e.g. Industrieel Arcelor Group 첸 ultimate tensile strength: 690 to 825 MPa,
[3], Creusot-Loire [4] and Bethlehem Lukens Plate [2], have report- 첸 elongation: > 35%,
ed similar data on the heat treatments applied for their cryogenic 첸 impact toughness (CVN): > 70 J at –196°C,
materials: 첸 lateral expansion: > 0.38 mm at –196°C,
첸 NN+T: 900°C air cooled, 790°C air cooled and 570 to 610°C 첸 shear fraction: > 80% at –196°C,
air cooled, 첸 CTOD: > 0.30 mm at –165°C/–196°C.
첸 Q+T: 800 to 820°C water quenched and 570 to 610°C air
cooled. Welding processes for 9% Ni steel
In general, 9% Ni steel that is quenched and tempered will show high- The welding processes suitable for welding 9% Ni steel are
er yield strength and higher CVN impact toughness values at –196°C most of the actual arc welding processes such as with stick elec-
as opposed to the double-normalised and tempered material. trodes (SMAW), with solid wire and gas (GTAW and GMAW) and
For this reason the Q+T steel is often used for the inner shell with submerged arc welding wire and flux (SAW).
of tanks or for the hulls of a vessel. For structural or other parts The gas welding processes are very suitable for shop-welding
that are subject to deformation the NN+T steel is regarded more of piping and thin plate material but are usually not very appropri-
suitable. ate for site welding under severe outdoor conditions that could
jeopardise the gas-protection needed to assure the quality of the
Base material specifications welded joint. Particularly GTAW is also very low in deposition
In order to distinguish between the NN+T and the Q+T steel, rate, which makes it unfavourable for a reasonable economy.
ASTM refers to different specifications: Manual GMAW requires very skilled welders with an endless
첸 ASTM A 353/353M-93 (1999): Standard Specification for concentration ability to keep the proper pace required for suffi-
Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, 9% nickel, double-nor- cient welding progress in the vertical up position. In addition, this
malised and tempered. (NN+T)
첸 ASTM A 553/553M-95 (1999): Standard Table 1. Chemical and mechanical requirements according to ASTM A 353/353M-93 (1999) for
Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Al- double-normalised and tempered 9% Ni steel and according to ASTM A 553/553M-95 (1999) for
loy Steel, quenched and tempered, 8 and quenched and tempered 9% Ni steel.
9% nickel. (Q+T); (Type I = 9% Ni and
Type II = 8% Ni).
The main difference is the minimum yield
strength for the NN+T is 515 MPa and 585
MPa for the Q+T (Type I). A complete
overview of the chemical and mechanical re-
quirements according to the above ASTM
standards is given in Table 1.
The 9% Ni steels are also specified in EN
10028-4 and JIS G 3 127, but in most cases
the ASTM standard is referred to.

3 Welding 9% Ni steel for LNG ap-

plications
The welding of 9% Ni steel for LNG appli-
cations determines for a great deal the struc-
tural integrity of the total construction. It is

106 Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Some literature indicates that matching consumables with

GMAW and GTAW in 20 mm plate only show 17 and 20% elonga-
tion respectively. One of the drawbacks of the matching consum-
able is the low elongation. Because it is similar to that of the base
material, the residual stresses will be highest in the HAZ since on
neither side of the HAZ the material can give in. For this reason
consumables are needed that have a high elongation (>35%).
A further point of interest is thermal expansion, the LNG tank
expansion and contraction while in service. LNG storage tanks,
with all the welded joints, are subject to extreme thermal cycles.
When the difference in coefficients of thermal linear expansion
for the 9% Ni steel and the weld metal is too big, high thermal
stress concentrations may give rise to thermal fatigue and failure
of the tank. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion should
therefore be as low as possible and that of the weld metal should
be as close as possible to that of 9% Ni steel. Obviously matching
consumable would score best but would not be an alternative for
Fig. 6. Schematic cross-section of a full containment LNG tank construction reasons as discussed before.
with 9% Ni steel inner shell and concrete/structural steel outer shell. Fig. 5 shows the coefficient of linear thermal expansion for 9%
Ni steel in comparison with various types of weld metal in func-
process is relatively prone to welding failures such as lack of fu- tion of the temperatures. The consumables included are an E308L
sion, especially in heavy-thickness applications. type of stainless steel with 19 Cr/9 Ni, an ENiCrFe-2 type of nickel
Welding with stick electrodes, however, is still a very flexible alloy with 70 Ni/19 Cr and an ENiCrMo-6 type of nickel alloy with
and viable process for welding under site conditions, all positions 68 Ni/13 Cr/6 Mo. This graph shows that the ENiCrMo-6 type of
and all materials. A respected economy is also offered when using consumable has a coefficient of linear thermal expansion that is
high recovery electrodes that are 450 mm long. closest to that of the 9% Ni base material. This is no coincidence
Whenever feasible submerged arc welding offers the highest because this type of consumable has been designed for welding
productivity due to increased deposition rates, especially when 9% Ni steel.
mechanised as for example with girth welding systems. This
process is suitable for almost all fillet and butt welds in the hori- Welding consumables for 9% Ni steel
zontal welding position. For site welding of 9% Ni steel storage As discussed before the sensible choice of consumable for
tanks the most effective welding processes are SMAW and SAW. welding 9% Ni steel is within the high nickel alloy range. Both for
ductility/elongation and thermal expansion reasons nickel alloy
Welding consumable considerations consumables are the most appropriate. Obviously the cost of con-
Welding consumables for 9% Ni steel have been a subject of sumables is always being evaluated but all the properties, features
discussion as long as the base material is around, which means for and structural integrity that are present when using nickel alloy
over five decades. Consumables have been developed from consumables, still offer the best overall solution. Within the scope
“matching” ferritic types to high nickel alloys as 80 Ni/20 Cr/0.26 of this paper the consumables for the SMAW and SAW processes
C [9]. Obviously, consumables with 80% nickel are extremely ex- will be discussed specifically and in more detail.
pensive and are more suitable for heat resistant applications. The welding consumable options with chemical composi-
“Matching” ferritic consumables with up to about 12% nickel tion and mechanical properties for SMAW covered electrodes
would offer an economic advantage in sheer cost of the product, are listed in Table 2 with the corresponding classification ac-
but are still not accepted as a viable solution for storage tanks in cording to AWS A5.11. Depending on the specific project re-
sizes that are common in today’s industry. Although a matching quirements a selection can be made [14; 15]. Although it seems
ferritic consumable has been successfully applied by mechanised that many options are at hand, only two electrode types meet
GTAW to build a spherical model tank with 2 m diameter under the actual requirements as listed at the beginning of this chapter.
laboratory conditions [10], this process is not widely used on site The typical All-Weld-Metal (AWM) values listed show that the
for welding storage tanks with 27.5 mm thickness and 75 m diam- NiCro 60/20 (ENiCrMo-3) and Nyloid 2 (ENiCrMo-6) provide
eter. sound properties with sufficient cushion in view of the men-
Matching ferritic consumables with submerged arc welding tioned requirements. The Nyloid 2 is the most economical op-
has been used successfully in the production of 9% Ni steel pipe tion of the two, both for cost of the product and for higher econ-
[11]. However, to obtain the required mechanical properties a omy during welding because it is especially designed for weld-
post weld heat treatment had to be applied. This is feasible in a ing 9% Ni steel. It also meets the CTOD, lateral expansion and
pipe factory but utterly difficult and impractical if not impossible shear fraction requirements at –196°C. This electrode has been
on site or under most site conditions. around for over 30 years and has been constantly improved and

Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2 107

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Table 2. SMAW consumables for welding 9% Ni steel. (Covered electrodes: AWS A 5.11) due to the purifying effect on the
weld metal. All position capability
applies to all sizes except 5 mm di-
ameter, which is most suitable for
down-hand welding. A recovery of
150% implies that in addition to
the 100% weld metal derived
from the core wire an extra 50%
of weld metal is produced from
the electrode covering. This in ad-
dition with 450 mm electrode
length gives a high productivity
and high economy.
The electrode is designed with
a nickel core wire to have a low
electrical resistance in order to
prevent overheating and subse-
quent deterioration of the cover-
ing. Weldability on AC is required
since 9% Ni steel is notorious for
having some magnetism that
Table 3. SAW consumables for welding 9% Ni steel. (Solid wires: AWS A 5.14) could give arc blow with possible
subsequent weld-defects. Another
advantage is the Sahara Ready-
Pack which is a vacuum packaging
containing a convenient amount
of electrodes for the welder and
which assures the required quality
and condition of the electrodes
used on site. As far as production
is concerned, the electrodes can
be manufactured according to any
lot classification, e.g. C3 or C5, as
defined in AWS A-5.01-92. It also
makes sense to obtain corre-
sponding test certificates with ac-
tual values for the respective lot of
electrodes.
The welding consumable op-
tions with chemical composition
and mechanical properties for
SAW wires and wire/flux combi-
updated following the higher industrial standards and require- nations are listed in Table 3 with the corresponding classification
ments for LNG storage tanks. In this context it should be noted according to AWS A5.14. As for the electrodes there are various
that Nyloid 2 is also very suitable for economical welding of 3.5 options for welding consumable selection. Apparently the ER Ni-
and 5% Ni steel, as will be mentioned also in the chapter on ap- Mo-8, ER NiMo-9 en ER NiCrMo-8 types of submerged arc weld-
plications. Specific features and benefits of the Nyloid 2 elec- ing wire are more used in Asia than in Europe and the USA.
trode are: More common for this part of the world are ERNiCrMo-3 (LNS
첸 basic coated stick electrode for all welding positions, NiCro 60/20) and ERNiCrMo-4 (LNS NiCroMo 60/16) wires. To-
첸 150% recovery, gether with the appropriate submerged arc welding flux the
첸 weldable on AC as well as DC, wire/flux combination will provide very satisfactory results,
첸 electrode length is 350 mm, except for 5.0 mm with a length meeting the requirements as listed at the beginning of this chap-
of 450 mm, ter. Available fluxes are P7000, P2000, P240 and LW380. P7000
첸 standard vacuum packaging in Sahara ReadyPack (SRP). is designated “SA AB 2 69 AC H5” according to EN 760-96, has
The basic coating provides optimal resistance against hot cracking a basicity of 2.5 and is especially designed for high nickel alloy

108 Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

wires to assure minimal risk of hot cracking. Due to the high ba-
sicity the slag-detachability may not meet expectations. P2000 is
designated “A AF 2 63 DC” according to E 760-92, has a basici-
ty of 1.7 and a nicer weldability, including slag release and is de-
signed for stainless steel and nickel alloys. P240 is actually de-
signed for structural steels in offshore applications but with a ba-
sicity of 2.9 it will provide crack-free weld metal. In the past
P240 with LNS NiCroMo 60/16 has been tested with satisfying
results. LW 380 is a fused flux with the advantage of not being
hygroscopical, so ideal for site conditions. This flux is used in
practice with a LNS NiCroMo 60/16 type of wire. Typical appli-
cation for this wire/flux combination is welding in 2G position,
on both sides simultaneously. Since further information is propri-
Fig. 7. Weld preparation in 9% Ni steel for welding with stick electrodes
etary no more details can be given.
(SMAW) in 3G vertical up position and for submerged arc welding (SAW) in
As shown in Table 3 the wire/flux combinations that meet the 2G horizontal-vertical position.
the requirements as set out in this paper are LNS NiCro 60/20-
P2000 and LNS NiCroMo 60/16-P2000. The All Weld Metal
(AWM) properties for both variations do not differ much. The
main difference is in the sensitivity to hot cracking and in
cost/kg. LNS NiCro 60/20 is lower in cost/kg, for the same diam-
eter, but due to its relatively high Nb-content there is an in-
creased possibility of hot cracking. This can be caused for exam-
ple by formation of Fe3Nb, when the welding parameters are not
carefully controlled. LNS NiCroMo 60/16 is higher in cost/kg
but due to the much lower Nb-content it is less prone to hot
cracking. However, the total welding cost has to be evaluated in
order to make an intelligent welding consumable selection.
In addition to the listed mechanical properties, LNS NiCro
60/20-P2000 also fulfils the previously mentioned requirements
regarding CTOD, lateral expansion and shear fraction at –196°C.
This has been tested as part of welding procedure development
for a recent 9% Ni steel project.
Welding 9% Ni steel LNG tanks with SMAW and SAW Fig. 8. Overview of the construction site of the Dhabol LNG Storage and
re-gasification facility on the West Coast of India. (Courtesy of Skanska
After having discussed the 9% Ni steel base material and the
Whessoe U.K.).
welding consumables it is time to actually start to weld [14; 15].
Fig. 6 shows a schematic cross-section of a full containment tank
as mentioned before in order to explain the various welding oper- to prevent this. It is also suggested to clean also the adjacent base
ations on site. It is clearly shown that the 9% Ni steel inner vessel material on either side of the joint. Subsequent cleaning with for
is constructed out of large plates. The sizes depend on the suppli- example acetone is required to prevent any contamination of the
ers rolling and heat treatment capacity and will therefore vary per weld that could cause defects.
supplier. For our example the sizes are 2.36 m ҂ 3.38 m as used The 16.7 mm annular plates (first bottom) are welded in the
for the Dabhol project. The plate thickness ranges from 27.5 to 10 flat position with SMAW for flexibility and it can be carried out
mm for the 1st to the 11th course. The shell stiffeners are 6 to 14 with more welders at the same time for increased productivity. AC
mm, the first bottom is 16.7 mm and the secondary bottom is 5 is used to prevent any possible arc blow that may be caused by
mm. All horizontal and vertical welds are butt-welded, stiffeners to magnetism in the 9% Ni steel base material. A maximum interpass
shell are fillet welded and the secondary bottom is constructed temperature of 150°C should be respected and a heat input up to
with lap welds due to one side accessibility. about 3 kJ/mm is acceptable. High-speed root runs are made with
Welding joint preparations could be carried out by the suppli- Nyloid 2 in 3.2 mm diameter on ceramic backing. The 5 mm diam-
er of the plates, in order to prevent additional handling and treat- eter and 450 mm long electrode will contribute to productivity for
ment on site. Joint preparations on site can be carried out by filling and capping. SAW can be used in addition after sufficient
means of machining, plasma cutting or flame cutting. For the last weld metal is present to support the SAW without risking burn
two, the weld edges need to be cleaned by grinding to remove the through. The groove preparation is a standard V-70° (V-groove
overheated layer. When machining is used with a lot of deforma- with 70° included angle). The lap welds for the 5 mm bottom-plate
tion of the edges it is possible to end up with magnetism in the were made with the high recovery Nyloid 2 since the edges are
plate. Machining should therefore be carried out carefully in order too thin for SAW (also with a tractor).

Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2 109

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

The first heavy horizontal weld is the first course of the shell to to give a deposition rate of 150 g/min. To obtain the same depo-
the annular plate, 27.5 to 16.7 mm. Weld preparation is a K-45° sition rate with a 2.4 mm wire, the current has to be at least 350
with little spacing. Due to limited accessibility the electrodes have A. This will be in the area where the bead is unacceptable regard-
been used here as well. With a diameter of 75 m the welding ing bead appearance and risk of hot cracking. It would be even
length of the circumference is 235.5 m to go around the tank more difficult to control the welding, i.e. welding pool and slag,
once. when this was to be carried out in the 2G position. This implies
All vertical welds can be produced with stick electrodes out of that in order to have a 10 to 20% higher deposition rate with a
position. Roots are usually made with a 2.5 mm electrode and subse- 2.4 mm as with a 1.6 mm wire, the current has to be close to 400
quent filling and capping with 3.2 and 4 mm. Fig. 7 shows a typical A. This will not produce the desired bead-shapes and welded
joint preparation with weld-bead sequence for stick electrode weld- joint, hence, there is no need for using wires over 1.6 mm. Even
ing in 3G-up position. For the subsequent courses where the thick- when an ENiCrMo-4 type of wire in 2.4 mm diameter was to be
ness is reduced to 10 mm for the last four courses, similar prepara- used with less risk of hot cracking, there would be no advantage
tion has been used with change from X to V for the last four courses. towards the welding economy.
During the procedure development all optimal currents have
been established and documented in Welding Procedure Guidelines for welding 9% Ni steel
Records, Specifications and Qualifications (WPR, WPS and Although general information regarding the welding of 9% Ni
WPQ). The welder qualifications have been carried out in accor- steel has been given in the previous chapters a short summary is
dance with the respective WPQ’s. It has to be noted that the listed below [12]:
welders have to be properly trained and be made aware of the ins 첸 Make sure that magnetism in the 9% Ni steel is not present or
and outs of welding 9% Ni steel with a high nickel alloy consum- as low as possible.
able prior to welding qualifications. 첸 Obtain plate material with the proper joint preparation from
All horizontal welding between the courses can be carried the factory.
out with SAW after a root has been put in with stick electrodes. 첸 Joint preparation on site can be carried out by machining,
For this purpose a girth welding system is used to travel with the plasma cutting and flame cutting.
equipment along the courses during welding. As discussed it is 첸 If thermal cutting processes are used, all oxides and overheat-
possible to use the wire LNS NiCro 60/20 or LNS NiCroMo ed material should by removed by grinding.
60/16 both with flux P2000. The diameter is very important since 첸 The complete weld preparation (cleaning) should be carried
it influences the deposition rate at a given current, hence, also out with acetone or other organic solvent.
the bead shape and the position of the bead in the joint. Opti- 첸 Preheating is not required in general when ambient tempera-
mum results have been obtained with LNS NiCro 60/20 in 1.6 tures are above 15°C.
mm and welding parameters as 220 to 250 A, 30 V and 500 to 첸 Welding processes SMAW and SAW can be used effectively.
620 mm/min. Depending on the position of the bead in the joint, 첸 Nyloid 2 electrodes give high productivity due to 150% recov-
the parameters are adjusted within this range. Fig. 7 shows the ery.
weld-joint preparation and bead sequence for submerged arc 첸 Use AC for stick electrode welding to prevent arc blow.
welding in the 2G position. The first course
Table 4. Deposition rate for submerged arc welding with LNS NiCro 60/20-P2000 in function of wel-
is 27.5 mm and the last four are 10 mm, ding current, wire diameter and polarity.
which can all be welded with SAW. The
last courses in 10 mm will only have a sin-
gle-V preparation. An open root will allow
a nice root run made with stick electrodes.
If for whatever reason the root is closed,
full penetration will not be achieved and
back grinding with subsequent welding
will be necessary. To obtain an optimum
deposition rate DCEN polarity is recom-
mended. In general, the deposition rate is
primarily governed by the current density
in the wire. Obviously the electrical resis-
tance and I2R effect in the wire plays a role
but the main contribution is current densi-
ty. Table 4 shows deposition rates for 1.6
and 2.4 mm nickel alloy wire with P2000
for various currents and polarities in the
flat position. This shows clearly that a 1.6
mm wire can be welded with up to 300 A

110 Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

첸 LNS NiCro 60/20 (1.6 mm)-P2000 provides very good me- In 2002 the Nyloid 2 was used extensively for a LNG terminal
chanical and economical results. project in Portugal.
첸 Heat inputs from 0.5 to 3 kJ/mm can be used for all welding In 2003/2004 the Nyloid 2 was used for a LNG terminal pro-
processes. ject in Norway.
첸 An interpass temperature of maximum 150°C shall be respect- In 2004 the Nyloid 2 was used for a LNG terminal project in
ed. Spain.
첸 Welders shall be properly trained and learn to follow the re- In 2004/2005 the Nyloid 2 was used for a LNG terminal pro-
spective WPQ. ject in Spain.
첸 Intermediate cleaning is recommended, use proper tools such These are just a few of the projects that Lincoln Smitweld and
as stainless steel wire brushes, non-pressed alumina grinding Lincoln Electric have been involved in over the last 30 years.
discs, power tools with tungsten-carbide tool steel.
첸 The welding consumables should be handled and stored as The authors would like to express their gratitude to Brian Taylor of Whessoe
per the supplier’s recommendations. Oil & Gas and to Punj Lloyd, contractor in India, for their co-operation in
the Dhabol Project and their input to this paper.

4 Applications
Over the last three decades Lincoln Smitweld has been in- Literature
volved in many projects where 5 and 9% nickel steel has been [1] The International Institute of Welding, “Guide to the welding and
successfully applied, as for example in LNG storage tanks for on- weldability of cryogenic steels”, Document IIS/IIW-844-87, published
by The Welding Institute, U.K., 1987.
shore facilities as well as for integration into ships. The electrode [2] Bethlehem Lukens Plate, “Low carbon, high strength plate for use at
for SMAW is Nyloid 2, with 150% recovery for welding in a very cryogenic temperatures (9% nickel steel)”; www.bethsteel.com, No-
economical way and in all positions. Over 300,000 kg of Nyloid 2 vember 2001.
has been produced and successfully applied in cryogenic applica-
tions all over the world. For SAW the wire/flux combination LNS
NiCro 60/20 with P2000 has been used extensively. Both welding
consumables meet the actual industrial specifications and me-
chanical properties [16; 17; 18].
One of the most interesting projects in recent years is the
Dabhol LNG Terminal Project-Phase II which includes an LNG
storage and re-gasification facility for the new power station at
Dabhol on the west coast of India. That project has been de-
signed, built and commissioned by Skanska Whessoe. Fig. 8 gives
a nice overview of the Dabhol construction site where the three
9% Ni tanks clearly stand out. Figs. 1 and 2, as already referred to,
show details during the construction phase of the full contain-
ment storage tanks with 9% Ni steel inner shell, a concrete outer
shell with bottom corner thermal protection, insulated base pro-
tected by secondary bottom system. The concrete base is provid-
ed with a base heating system, the bottom insulation is foamglass
and the shell insulation in the inter-space is perlite and a resilient
fibreglass blanket. The suspended deck is insulated by fibreglass.
These tanks have a capacity of 163,000 m3 each. This required a
tank with an inside diameter of 75 m and a height of minimal 37
m. To provide sufficient strength the wall thickness in this case
starts with 27.5 mm for the first of the eleven courses through to
10 mm for the last four courses. The project was successfully com-
missioned in 2001.
In 2000 the Nyloid 2 has been supplied for all the construc-
tions of cryogenic storage tanks in 5% Ni steel that would be
placed in a ship. This was carried out on a shipyard in Shanghai,
China.
In 1999/2000 the Nyloid 2 was supplied in vast quantities to
do repairs in LNG tanks onboard the LNG carrier “Mystic Lady”.
This work was carried out on a shipyard in Singapore.
In 2001 the Nyloid 2 was supplied for a huge LNG tank-farm
project in the Middle East.

Welding and Cutting 6 (2007) No. 2 111

 SPECIALIST ARTICLES

[3] Industrieel Arcelor Group, “Steel for Pressure Equipment designed for [12] Neessen, F., and C. De Roy: Guidelines for welding 9% Ni steel. Lin-
extra low temperature service (Cryelso 9Q)”, 14 February 2003. coln Smitweld Customer Training Program, The Netherlands & India,
[4] Doucet, J. P., et al.: Recent progress in 9% Ni steel for LNG applicati- 1999.
ons, the HTC9 grade steel (Creusot-Loire). Conf. Proc. Transport and [13] Hilkes, J., et al.: Soldadura de Acero al 9% Ni para Aplicaciones GNL.
storage of LPG & LNG, 1984, pp. 21/37. Seminario sobre Soldabilidad de Materiales para Usos Criogénicos
[5] Bekkers, K.: Welding nickel alloyed structural steels for low service (Int. Conf. On the Welding of Cryogenic Materials), CESOL y Feria In-
temperatures. Int. Conf. ADESOL, Madrid, 1992. ternacional de Bilbao, Spain, 25 September 2003.
[6] Bekkers, K., et al.: Welding of steels for use at low temperatures. DVS- [14] Hilkes, J., et al.: Electrodes for Welding 9% nickel steel. Wdg. J., Ja-
Bericht 83, DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1984. nuary 2004, pp. 30/37.
[7] Armstrong, T. N., and G. R. Brophy: Some properties of low carbon [15] Hilkes, J., et al.: Soldadura de acero al 9% Ni para aplicaciones GNL,
8.5 per cent nickel steel. Conf. Proc. Petroleum Mechanical Enginee- Revista de CESOL, Soldadura y Tecnologias de Unión No. 86, AnoXV,
ring, ASME, Houston, Texas, USA, 5-8 October 1947. (A reprint by April/March 2004, pp. 16/25.
The International Nickel Company, Inc., 1947) [16] Hilkes, J., and F. Neessen: Elettrodi per la Saldatura dell’acciaio al 9%
[8] Nippes, E. F., and J. P. Balaguer: A study of the weld heat-affected-zo- nichel. Revista Italiana della Saldatura, N. 5, September/October
ne toughness of 9% nickel steel. Wdg. J., September 1986, pp. 237- 2004, pp. 681/89.
s/43-s. [17] Hilkes, J., and F. Neessen: Use of nickel in the construction of LNG sto-
[9] Machin, R.: Welding aspects of 9% nickel steel. Wdg. and Metal Fabr., rage tanks. ASIA’s Oil and Gas Exploration & Production Business
July 1966, pp. 266/69. Mag. “PetroMin”, Jan/Feb 2005, Vol. 31, No. 01, pp. 38/43.
[10] Koshiga, F., et al.: Matching ferritic consumable welding of 9% nickel [18] Hilkes, J., and F. Neessen: Welding 9% nickel steel for LNG applicati-
steel to enhance safety and economy. Wdg. J., April 1984, pp. 105- ons. LNG Journal, June 2005, pp. 28/30. (Maritime Content Ltd. Lon-
s/15-s. don, U.K.)
[11] Aguza, K., et al.: Production of 9% Ni steel UOE pipe with ferritic filler
submerged arc welding. Transactions ISIJ, Vol. 26, 1986, pp. 359/69.

Job Offer

Petrology Ltd project manages high technology

welding pipeline contracts in the UK and
Internationally
Welding Engineers / Metallurgists
We require professional engineers who have experience of
developing welding proposals to meet technical specifications and
to take responsibility from the procedure qualification through to
project conclusion.

Replies to Emily Carr, Petrology Limited, Erskine Ferry Road, Old

Kilpatrick, Glasgow, G60 5EU or email [email protected]

www.petrology.com

112 Welding and Cutting 5 (2006) No. 3

 JOB OFFERS

TWI WORLD CENTRE

FOR MATERIALS
JOINING TECHNOLOGY

TWI is the world’s foremost research and training organisation for materials joining technology.
Operating globally, its experts perform innovative, quality controlled, impartial projects for industry.
Within a working environment that is challenging, exciting and varied, our projects range from
consultancy support, through failure studies and projects studying the impact of joining on
materials performance, to large-scale multi-disciplinary technology development in all industry areas.

Technology Group Manager - Laser & Sheet Processes (Ref: 213/07)

As part of the Senior Management team, you will be leading one of our core technology groups. Operating from sections in Cambridge
and Yorkshire, the group provides expertise through single client, collaborative and group sponsored projects. This role provides an
opportunity to join a first-class organisation where you will be instrumental in shaping the group’s activities and driving our technological
developments forward.
Key responsibilities will include seeking and developing profitable business opportunities, meeting agreed business targets whilst operating
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business development skills, and advising senior management on operational and policy matters. The role will require travel, both within the
UK and overseas.
As a skilled manager with a proven aptitude for business development and people management, you will have a good technical qualification
to degree level or higher and be an expert in programme delivery and management. Demonstrable competency in strategic planning,
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Closing date: 15 April 2007.

Welding Engineer (Ref: 220/07)

Welding Process Development Engineer (Ref: 186/06)
As part of our highly successful Manufacturing Support Group, opportunities have arisen in our Arc-process, Fabrication and Welding
Engineering (AFWE) section for a Welding Engineer and a Welding Process Development Engineer to apply their expertise in serving the
needs of its member companies.
As a Welding Engineer, you will be working in a team providing accurate and timely advice and project-based support on technically complex
welding/fabrication/manufacturing issues. Typical activities will include telephone support, factory audits, failure analysis, welding process
evaluation and procedure development and, depending on qualifications and expertise, expert witness work. You will also have an
understanding of supply-chains and experience of factory planning.
As a Welding Process Development Engineer, you will be working as part of a team and your primary responsibility will be the management
of R&D and consultancy-based projects, including preparation of proposals through to execution of the work programmes. You will have an
expert knowledge of arc-process technology and equipment including automation and robotics, together with an understanding of material
weldability issues. An innovative approach to problem-solving will be encouraged.
For both positions, you will possess an appropriate degree level engineering qualification, preferably in a welding or related engineering
discipline, combined with relevant industrial experience. You will have, or be working towards, Incorporated or Chartered status linked to
membership of a relevant professional institute. EWE and IWE status would be an advantage. You should also have a working knowledge of
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You will contribute to the development of existing and new business, which will involve working closely with our clients. With excellent project
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project deliverables. Some UK and overseas travel is likely within both posts.
Closing date: 23 April 2007.

For all posts, we offer excellent development prospects at the cutting-edge of materials joining technology, coupled with the salary and
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TWI commits to the continuous professional development of all its staff in becoming leading experts in their fields.
Please apply, preferably by email, stating your current salary, work permit status and enclosing your CV to: [email protected]
or Human Resources, TWI Ltd, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AL.

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