ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

ELECTRONS MOVING WITH A CONSTANT ELECTRONS IN ACCELERATION/DECELERATION

ELECTRONS AT REST
VELOCITY MOTION
(ELECTROSTATIC)
(MAGNETOSTATIC) (ELECTRODYNAMICS)
Cavendish Experiment Invention of battery by Alessandro Volta Inconsistencies in Ampere’s Law
The definitive demonstration of the inverse square law In 1800, Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist, made a
was achieved by henry Cavendish (1731-1810) in 1773. great discovery. He soaked paper in salt water, placed From magnetostatics Ampere’s law is   H  J
He had developed the concept of “degree of zinc and copper on opposite sides of the paper, and
electrification” (now called potential) and had then watched the chemical reaction produce an electric
But, the divergence of the curl of any vector field is
convinced himself that when two charged conductors current. Volta had created the first electric dry cell. By independently zero, that is
are connected by a wire they redistribute charge in order connecting many of these cells together, Volta a     H   0    J
to attain the same potential. battery.
Also, the continuity of current is
Cavendish showed that the charges on similar bodies
at the same potential are in the ration of their linear Observations of Hans Christian Oersted (1777- 
J  v  0
dimensions. 1851):- A definite link between electric and magnetic t
Before Cavendish in 1769, Dr. John Robinson (1739- fields was established by Oersted in 1820. If the The above two equations are incompatible for time-
1805) of Edinburgh undertook the task of determining charges are moving with constant velocity, a static varying conditions. Hence,
the law of force between electric charge by direct magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced
experiment.
 H  J  Jd
Coulomb’s Experiment: Coulomb’s Law Biot and Savart Law Where, Jd is to be determines and defined. Again, the
(Charles Augustin de coulomb (1736-1806), who in (Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862) together with the French divergence of the curl of any vector is zero. Hence
1785, demonstrated the law of electric force) Physicist Felix Savart (1791-1841), discovered that the     H   0    J    J d
magnetic field intensity of a current flowing through a wire
varies inversely with the distance from the wire.) In order for above equation to agree with the equation
On Electrostatic repulsion of continuity,
Idl  a R Idl  R (Third Maxwell’s Equation)
kQ Q dH     D
F  12 2 (N) 4R 2 4R 3   J d    J  v    D    
R t t t
Idl  aR
Where, 12 109 H  D
 0  8.854  10 
36
F /m
L
4R 2 That is, Jd 
t
1 KdS  aR Hence, the modified Ampere’s circuit law for a time-
k  9  10 9 m / F H 
4 0 s 4R 2 varying field is,
D
Jdv  aR  H  J 
H  t
v
4R 2 [D= electric flux density, (C/m2)]

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak

 Gauss’s Law in Electrostatics (First Maxwell’s Ampere’s Law (Third Maxwell’s Equation) Vortex Model of Ether as Proposed by Maxwell to
equation) (Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836), a French physicist,
Explain Displacement Current
(Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), German mathematician and natural philosopher, is best known for
mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, is defining a way to measure the flow of current. He has
considered to be one of the leading mathematicians been called the Newton of electricity.) The ether is a medium characterized in terms of two
of all time because of his wide range of H .dl  I enc basic properties, its density and its elasticity. In
l
contributions.) Maxwell’s model the electric field, in the form of
 H  J
 e  Qenc   D.ds (Note:-   H  J  0 ,i.e. magneto static field is not distorted ether cells, leads to the accumulation of
s
conservative ) particles rather than an accumulation of particles
Qenc    v .dv Equations of Continuity giving rise to the field. Charge and the fields are
ρ v mechanical states in Maxwell’s model. It would be a
Also we may write,   D  v J  
t mistake to think of his idle-wheel particles as
 e is the electric flux (coulombs C) (Note:-Derived from the principle of conservation of anything resembling electrons.
D is electric flux density (C/m2) charge i.e. no accumulation of charge at any point)
 v = volume charge density(coulomb per meter cube [J= current density (amperes per square meter (A/m2)),
(C/m3)  v = volume charge density(coulomb per meter cube
(C/m3))]
Electric Scalar Potential Magnetic Vector Potential Time-Varying Potentials
A
E  V
 m   B.ds E  V 
s t
 2V  v
To obtain the E field apart from using Coulomb’s  B.ds  0 Hence,
s
 2
V  
t 2
 
 Wave Equations
or Gauss’s law. Vector magnetic potential A (Wb/m) is defined as 2
2  A
B   A  A     J
Electrostatics through differential t 2
equationsLaplace/Poisson’s Retarded Potentials
 0 IdI v dv
Poisson’s Equations A
4R V  where[  v ] is determined at t - R/c
2  L 4R
V  v  0 KdS
v
 Where, A   J dv
Laplace Equations  4R A where[J ] is determined at t - R/c
S
4R
 2V  0  0 Jdv
v
Potentials V and A in above equations are, respectively,
A
4R called the retarded electric scalar potential and retarded
v
magnetic vector potential.

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak

 Faraday’s Law Helmholtz’s Equations
(Michael Faraday (1791-1867), an English Chemist
and Physicist, is known for his pioneering (Hermann Von Helmholtz (1821-1894), a German
experiments in electricity and magnetism.) physicist, extended Joule’s results to a general principle
d d and derived the wave equation.)
Vemf volts     N 2 Es   2 Es  0
dt dt
d 2 H s   2 H s  0
Vemf   E .dl   B.dS
L
dt S
Above equations are known as homogeneous vector
B Helmholtz’s equations or simply vector wave equations.
 E  -
t
[B= magnetic flux density (Weber per square [E=Electric field intensity (force per unit charge),
2
meter (Wb/m ) or teslas (T))] measured in newton’s per coulomb or volts per meter
Note:In 1831, about 11 years after Oersted’s discovery, (V/m).
Michael Faraday in London and Joseph Henry in New H= magnetic field intensity(A/m)]
York discovered that a time-varying magnetic field
would produce an electric current.
Electric Material Characteristics Magnetic Material Characteristics Dispersive Material
Electric Polarization P   e  0 E (where B  0 (H  M ) When the permittivity or permeability of a material is
function of frequency, the material is dispersive. In time-
 e known as the electric susceptibility of the material , M  m H harmonic form one can account for the frequency
is more or less a measure of how susceptible (or  B   0 (1   m ) H  H dependence of permittivity and permeability by writing,
sensitive) a given dielectric is to electric fields)
B  0 r H
D   0 (1   e ) E   0  r E
 D     E  
D  E r  1   m 
0 B     H  
Where,    0  r
 (Note:- The quantity    0  r is called the  w 2pe 
 r  1   e  ’  is called the permittivity of the permeability of the material and is measured in henry  w   0 1  
0    je    
per meter;  r is the ratio of the permeability of a given 2
dielectric,  0 is the permittivity of free   me 
material to that of free space and is known as the      0 1  
space 10 36 F m  , and  r is called the relative permeability of the material.  m is a    jm   
9

dielectric constant or relative permittivity. dimensionless quantity called magnetic susceptibility

of the medium.)

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak

 Electric Boundary Conditions Magnetic Boundary Conditions Time Harmonic Boundary Conditions
E1t  E 2t H 1n  H 2 n E1n  E 2 n  ~s
E1n  E 2 n   s H 1t  H 2 t  J s ~
H 1t  H 2 t  J s
Method of Images:- The image theory states that a Ampere’s law is consistent with the definition Radiation Principle
given charge configuration above an infinite grounded of magnetic vector potential. v
perfect conducting plane may be replaced by the charge We can obtain Ampere’s law by invoking the  2 E   2 E  jJ  
configuration itself, its image, and an equipotential concept of vector magnetic potential. 
surface in place of the conducting plane. (Equation of radiation that directly links to the
source with the radiated fields)
(Note: The method of images, introduced by Lord
Kelvin in 1848, is commonly used to determine V, E,
D, and  s due to charges in the presence of conductors.
By this method, we avoid solving Poisson’s or
Laplace’s equation but rather utilize the fact that a
conducting surface is an equipotential.)

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak

 V V
   
Electromagnetic Flow Diagram for Electrostatics
 

E
 D

A J
 1   
Electromagnetic Flow Diagram for Magnetostatics

 
1

B H

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak

    
Electromagnetic Flow Diagram for Electrodynamics
V v

 

E D
 1   
 J  t
A 



 t Jm Ae
m

B
H
1
 


m Vm

   

Authored by: Dr. Manimala Pal and Dr. Rowdra Ghatak