See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/259945020

Burmese python and other giant constrictors

Chapter · January 2011

CITATIONS READS

4 655

2 authors:

Robert N. Reed Gordon Rodda

United States Geological Survey United States Geological Survey
123 PUBLICATIONS   2,016 CITATIONS    98 PUBLICATIONS   2,966 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Effects of large meals on movement and detection of invasive Brown Treesnakes View project

Detectability View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Robert N. Reed on 25 February 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Aside from competition, it is also likely that abundant SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES
alien bryophytes can alter ecosystem functioning occasion- DAISIE Project / Dispersal Ability, Plant / Disturbance / Geographic
ally by stabilizing soils, binding leaf litter, altering decay Origins and Introduction Dynamics / Invasibility, of Communities and
Ecosystems / Nitrogen Enrichment / Weeds
rates, and creating humid microhabitats which affect the
composition of microfaunal communities, but the poten-
FURTHER READING
tial consequences of invasions at this microenvironmental
Australian National Botanic Garden. 2009. Bryogeography: Imports and
level remain almost unexplored.
Exports. www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/bryogeography-imports-exports
.html
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS Essl, F., and P. Lambdon. 2009. The alien bryophytes and lichens of Europe
Deriving feasible management strategies for bryophytes (29–42). In The Handbook of Alien Species in Europe. Berlin: Springer.
Gradstein, S. R., and J. Vánǎ. 1987. On the occurrence of Laurasian liver-
and lichens is very difficult for several reasons. Introduc- worts in the tropics. Memoirs of New York Botanical Garden 45: 388–425.
tion is difficult to control, identification of species needs Hassel, K., and L. Söderström. 2005. The expansion of the alien mosses
expert knowledge, long-distance dispersal and thus reim- Orthodontium lineare and Campylopus introflexus in Britain and conti-
nental Europe. Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 97: 183–193.
migration is likely to be frequent, and most management Hedenäs, L., T. Herben, H. Rydin, and L. Söderström. 1989. Ecology of
measures are difficult and costly to apply because of the the invading moss Orthodontium lineare in Sweden: Spatial distribu-
small size of the invaders. In Europe, the only bryo- tion and population structure. Holarctic Ecology 12: 163–172.
Holyoak, D., and N. Lockhart. 2009. Australasian bryophytes introduced
phyte perceived as a threat to biodiversity is Campylopus
to South Kerry with tree ferns. Field Bryology 98: 3–7.
introflexus. Tested management methods include liming Miller, N. G., and N. Trigoboff. 2001. A European feather moss, Pseudo-
dunes, burning, treating with herbicides, and introducing scleropodium purum, naturalized widely in New York State in cemeter-
grazing animals to trample the mats. These have generally ies. The Bryologist 10: 98–103.
Pfieffer, T., H. J. D. Kruijer, W. Frey, and M. Stech. 2000. Systematics of
met with only limited success. Efforts are also under way the Hypopterygium tamarisci complex (Hypopterygiaceae, Bryopsida):
to eradicate Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus in New Zealand, Implications of molecular and morphological data. Journal of the Hat-
and the invasion of Pseudoscleropodium purum in urban tori Botanical Laboratory 89: 55–70.
Schofield, W. B. 1997. Bryophytes unintentionally introduced to Brit-
lawns in the western United States has led to a thriving ish Columbia. Botanical Electronic News 162. www.ou.edu/cas/botany
“moss killer” industry based on herbicide application. -micro/ben/ben162.html/
Söderström, L. 1992. Invasions and range expansions and contractions of
EXPECTED TRENDS bryophytes (131–158). In J. W. Bates and A. M. Farmer, eds. Bryophytes
and Lichens in a Changing Environment. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Human-made modifications of existing habitats and cre-
ation of new habitats, along with increasing interconti-
nental trade, are the dominant drivers for the spread of
alien bryophytes. Airborne acidification has been strongly
reduced in most regions in the last few decades, so it is likely
that in the future this factor will lose relevance. However,
nitrogen deposition in large parts of Europe exceeds criti-
cal loads and is still increasing. As several alien bryophytes BURMESE PYTHON
can take advantage of airborne nitrogen, it is expected that AND OTHER GIANT
some species will make gains from this trend.
Climate change and increasing temperatures may fos- CONSTRICTORS
ter range expansions of alien bryophytes in the future.
ROBERT N. REED AND GORDON H. RODDA
In Europe, some (sub)tropical bryophyte species formerly
USGS Fort Collins Science Center, Colorado
restricted to glasshouses have started to establish outdoors
in recent years (e.g., Didymodon australasiae), which
might reflect the recent warming trend. The ecology of invasive reptiles has historically received
As intercontinental trade increases further, and espe- little attention compared to that of birds and mammals.
cially with the increasing popularity of exotic ornamental A turning point was the recognition that the disappear-
plants, there is great potential for increased movement of ance of birds from Guam resulted from introduction of
alien bryophyte and lichen species across the world. Thus, the brown treesnake (Boiga irregularis). Having learned
we can probably expect that numbers, abundance, and what damage can be caused by invasive snakes, wildlife
associated impacts of alien bryophytes and lichens will authorities have become very concerned about a recent
increase in the future considerably. irruption of Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus)

BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS 85

From Daniel Simberloff and Marcel Rejmánek, editors, Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions,
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2011.

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 85 9/10/10 4:10:02 PM

 in southern Florida. Florida is also home to at least two (P. m. molurus) in south-central Asia. More recently, some
other introductions of exotic constrictors, one of which authorities have considered Burmese and Indian pythons
has also invaded islands in the Caribbean. This article to be separate species (i.e., P. molurus and P. bivittatus).
focuses primarily on the Burmese python, because more The Burmese python exhibits a darker color pattern and
data are available on the biology and impacts of this an arrowhead-shaped mark on the top of the head that
species. does not fade toward the snout.
The northern African python (Python sebae), also
SPECIES CHARACTERISTICS AND BASIC referred to as the African rock python, also appears to be
BIOLOGY established in southern Florida, but in a smaller area of
Identification central Miami–Dade County. This species is superficially
Several species of giant constrictors are of concern as similar to Burmese pythons, and distinguishing between
established or potential invasive species, but only three are the species usually hinges on a combination of color pattern
known to have established invasive populations. Of these, and scale counts. Burmese and northern African pythons
the best known by far is the Burmese python (Python hybridize readily in captivity, and introduced populations
molurus bivittatus), which is established over thousands of are found in the same area of southern Florida; the fertil-
square kilometers of southern Florida (Fig. 1A). The species ity and fitness of hybrids are largely unknown, as are the
P. molurus, native to Asia, has traditionally included the potential effects of hybridization on invasiveness.
Burmese python in Southeast Asia and the Indian python The boa constrictor (Boa constrictor) has established
several invasive populations in Florida and the Carib-
bean (Fig. 1B). This is a wide-ranging and variable spe-
cies, with at least seven commonly recognized subspecies.
Some authorities consider this taxon to be composed of
several species, but there is as yet little agreement on the
distinctiveness of these subgroups. Boas have no enlarged
scales on the top of the head and no obvious heat-sensing
pits on the labial (lip) scales, allowing them to be easily
distinguished from pythons.
Hundreds of extralimital individuals of these and sev-
eral additional species of giant constrictor snakes have
been found in the United States and other countries, typi-
cally due to escapes or releases from captivity, but thus
far, none of the other species are confirmed to have estab-
lished reproductive populations. Aside from the three
species mentioned above, large snakes including reticu-
lated pythons, green anacondas, and yellow anacondas are
regularly reported as having been introduced.

Body Size and Reproduction

The Burmese python is one of the four “true giants”
among snakes, a group in which individuals can reach
or exceed 6 m in total body length; the other members
of this group are the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus),
northern African python, and reticulated python (Python
[or Broghammerus] reticulatus). In all of these species,
females attain larger body sizes than do males. Fantas-
FIGURE 1 (A) An adult female Burmese python brooding her eggs in tically exaggerated tales of huge body sizes are the rule,
Everglades National Park, Florida. Up to 85 eggs have been recovered
rather than the exception, for these giant snakes, but most
from a single female python in the Everglades. (B) A boa constrictor
from a long-established population in southern Miami, Florida. (Photo-
such tales do not survive careful scrutiny; while there are
graphs courtesy of M. Rochford.) fairly reliable records of free-ranging reticulated pythons

86 BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 86 9/10/10 4:10:02 PM

 over 8 m in length, individuals over 6 m long appear to be pattern and scalation allowed it to be conclusively identi-
rare in any population of giant snakes. Burmese pythons fied as the same individual that had been photographed
over 5 m in length are reported to be scarce in the species’ on the island almost three years prior. The ability of this
native range, but well-fed captives have reached 8 m and snake to attain such a large body size on a small human-
180 kg. Females collected from the introduced population occupied island while evading capture attests to the
in Florida have occasionally exceeded 5.2 m and 75 kg, highly cryptic nature of large snakes. As with anacondas,
and median body size of Florida specimens hovers around and unlike pythons, boas are live bearing, with maximum
3 m and 10–15 kg. Female Burmese pythons can produce litter sizes of about 60.
clutches of up to 107 eggs, although 25–50 is more typi-
cal. Females from the Everglades have contained as many Diet
as 85 shelled eggs in their oviducts. Hatchlings emerge at Almost without exception, the majority of the diet of giant
lengths of 50–75 cm, and growth appears to be rapid. constrictors consists of warm-blooded prey, although rep-
The northern African python is closely related to the tiles including iguanas and crocodilians are also taken. To
Burmese python and exhibits a similar range of body this smorgasbord, anacondas add fish, turtles, and snakes.
and clutch sizes in its African distribution. Of about a A wide range of prey including porcupines, primates,
dozen northern African pythons found in Florida to date leopards, and flying foxes has been recovered from Bur-
(January 2010), adults have typically exhibited superla- mese and Indian pythons in the native range, and other
tive body condition, sometimes with visible rolls of fat giant constrictors appear to consume a similarly broad
along their bodies. One male captured in early 2010 may range of prey.
be larger both in length (4.4 m) and mass (63 kg) than The large number of Burmese pythons collected from
any male ever recorded in the native range (Fig. 2). Such southern Florida has allowed a more thorough dietary
unusually large body sizes may be common among some analysis than is available from the entire vast native
populations of invasive snakes during early stages of inva- range. Nearly three dozen species of native vertebrates
sion, especially when such snakes represent ecologically are known to have been consumed by Burmese pythons
novel predators on naive prey. in Florida, including deer, bobcats, wrens, herons and
Although they are very large and heavy-bodied, boa egrets, alligators, and raccoons. These have included fed-
constrictors do not attain truly giant body sizes. Their erally endangered species such as the wood stork and Key
maximum size is probably a bit over 4 m, but individu- Largo woodrat, as well as species of conservation concern
als larger than 3 m are uncommon in most areas of the such as white ibis, round-tailed muskrats, and limpkins.
native distribution. A very large female boa (about 3.5 m Burmese pythons may already have reduced populations
and 43 kg, close to the maximum known body mass for of mid-size mammals such as raccoons, round-tailed
free-ranging boas) was captured in 2009 on a small island muskrats, and marsh rabbits in Everglades National Park.
in the Florida Keys, and close examination of its color Invasive Burmese pythons appear to readily eat any bird
or mammal of suitable size, along with the occasional
reptile. Some media sources have sensationalized the risk
of attacks on humans by giant constrictors—although
attacks on humans are well documented for some species
in their native ranges (especially reticulated pythons) and
snake keepers are occasionally killed by their pets, there
have been no fatalities from any free-ranging introduced
giant constrictor, and unbiased assessments typically con-
clude that the risk to humans is minuscule.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS
FIGURE 2 Employees of the U.S. National Park Service and South
Florida Water Management District with an extremely large (440 cm, Native Distributions
63 kg) male northern African python captured in January 2010 dur-
The native distribution of the Burmese python includes
ing a multiagency search effort. (Photograph courtesy of N. Yglesias.
Reprinted by permission from the South Florida Water Management much of Southeast Asia including most or all of Vietnam,
District, a public corporation of the State of Florida.) Cambodia, and Thailand, portions of Myanmar,

BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS 87

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 87 9/10/10 4:10:04 PM

 Bangladesh, and Bhutan, and some parts of Indonesia. The origin of the established population of Burmese
Burmese pythons also occur to the west along the border pythons has been hotly debated. Overall, the spatiotem-
of India and Nepal. Indian pythons occupy Sri Lanka and poral distribution of the earliest pythons collected from
the remainder of the subcontinent of India. The range Everglades National Park appears to support the hypoth-
of the Burmese python in China is surprisingly poorly esis that the population originated in the extreme south-
understood, perhaps owing to thousands of years of per- western corner of the park near the end of the main park
secution by humans; the status of current or historical road. This pattern of observations in a remote area at the
populations between Sichuan and more southerly Chi- end of a road suggests that pythons may have been inten-
nese locales is particularly poorly documented. tionally released, perhaps by pet owners wishing to find a
The native distribution of the northern African python “natural” home for an unwanted pet or by python aficio-
includes most of central Africa south of the Sahara, from nados attempting to establish a population. Conversely,
southern Mauritania across to Somalia, with a northerly many pythons were known to have escaped from poorly
extension of the range through central Ethiopia into secured commercial animal-holding facilities along the
Eritrea and northeastern Sudan. In arid regions, pythons eastern margins of the park during Hurricane Andrew
appear to be limited to the vicinity of watercourses. In in 1992. Although it is unlikely that the origin of the
southern areas of the range, the species may be found in population will ever be known with certainty, all parties
close proximity to the closely related southern African appear to agree that the ultimate source of the population
python (Python natalensis). is the pet trade, and in terms of ecological impacts, it is
The native distribution of the boa constrictor spans a immaterial whether pythons were released intentionally
vast range in the New World, from Argentina to northern or unintentionally.
Mexico. The species is distributed more or less continu- Northern African pythons have only recently been
ously at elevations below about 1,500 m through Central confirmed to be established in Florida. The population
America and south through the Amazon basin. The almost certainly has its ultimate origins in the pet trade,
Argentine boa, a subspecies, is found to at least 30 °S lati- but it is unknown whether it resulted from escapes or
tude, inhabiting areas that experience colder winter con- intentional releases. Thus far, the population is known
ditions than more northerly forms of the species. from a small (perhaps 20–40 km2) marshland area west
of Miami. A hatchling was collected in summer 2009,
prompting a shrewd National Park Service biologist to
Introduced Distributions and Establishment solicit additional records from other agencies that occa-
History sionally respond to snake sightings. The results of these
Burmese pythons are now distributed across thousands inquiries yielded five more records of the species from the
of square kilometers of southern Florida. The origin of same small area, suggesting the existence of a population.
their invasive distribution is Everglades National Park, A concerted multiagency and volunteer effort to confirm
and pythons have been collected from every major habi- the presence of a population and delineate its geographic
tat type in the park, including sawgrass prairie, cypress extent occurred in early 2010. The search yielded five more
domes, hardwood hammocks, mangroves, and human- adult northern African pythons, a Burmese python, and
made canals. In the last few years, increasing numbers of a boa constrictor (the last was probably a former captive).
pythons have been collected north of the park; numerous Events associated with the discovery of this population
individuals have been collected, and there is evidence of point to the importance of centralized record-keeping for
reproduction (i.e., recent hatchlings). Multiple Burmese early identification of “hotspots” of observations of inva-
pythons have been observed or collected outside of their sive species, as well as to the potential efficacy of high-
known range in Florida, and it is difficult to delineate intensity searches to identify the boundaries of incipient
clearly the extent of the current population. As an exam- populations. Two additional northern African pythons
ple, several observations of Burmese pythons east of the have been collected in the last few years from a relatively
city of Sarasota could represent independent releases or small area east of Sarasota, Florida.
escapes from captivity, a second incipient population, or The boa constrictor has established more invasive
an extension of the known population. Rumors about a populations than any other large constrictor snake and
second introduced population of Burmese pythons in the is confirmed to be established in southern Florida and
United States territory of Puerto Rico have circulated for on the Caribbean islands of Aruba (Netherland Antil-
several years but have proven difficult to verify. les) and Cozumel (Mexico). Populations on additional

88 BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 88 9/10/10 4:10:06 PM

 islands off the coasts of Mexico and Colombia may also (primarily boa constrictors, with smaller numbers of
be the result of human introductions, and recent evidence Burmese and reticulated pythons and even fewer north-
strongly suggests an established population in western ern African pythons and anacondas) entered the United
Puerto Rico. The population in southern Florida has States. The keeping of hundreds or thousands of imported
been present for several decades and may be confined to individuals of the same species provides the opportunity
the vicinity of a county park in the city of Miami. Boas for multiple escapes after natural disasters or via insecure
are commonly found in outlying areas of Miami, how- housing. Captive propagation, chiefly in the United States
ever, and few attempts have been made to survey outside and northern Europe, adds many thousands of snakes to
the known area of occupancy or to determine whether the overall trade (especially Burmese pythons, reticulated
outliers represent independent introductions from cap- pythons, and boas), although the size and species com-
tivity, dispersing waifs from the known population, or position of the domestic trade in any given country is
members of a geographically expanding population. The unknown.
Miami population appears to consist of boas of southern
Colombian stock, which were popular in the pet trade RISKS AND MANAGEMENT
several decades ago. The origin of the high-density boa Risk Factors
population on Aruba is not known with certainty; most The giant constrictors share a number of ecological traits
authorities consider the pet trade to be the most likely that either increase their probability of establishment or
source, but unintentional introduction from the main- magnify the potential ecological consequences of their
land via horticulture imports or other means is also a pos- establishment. Such traits include large body size, high
sibility. The Cozumel population stands apart as having reproductive output, rapid growth, a broad diet (Fig. 3),
become established under faintly bizarre circumstances. A broad habitat tolerance, and the capability to attain high
small number of boas (reported as two to six individuals) population densities. The primary impact of established
were imported to Cozumel and used during the filming populations is likely to be predation on native species,
of a movie in 1971, after which they were released and with the most severe impacts being likely to fall on prey
became established on the island. species that are already threatened by habitat alteration
or other environmental problems. Secondary impacts are
PATHWAYS AND TRADE
also possible, as these snakes are capable of hosting para-
Extralimital individuals of various giant constrictor spe- sites (especially ticks) that can vector pathogens of eco-
cies have been reported from all over the world for over a nomic, human health, and agricultural importance.
century; for example, a northern African python was col- Non-ecological factors also have a good deal to do with
lected in the state of Pennsylvania in 1901. The pathways the probability of establishment of giant constrictors.
by which these snakes arrive and become introduced are These snakes are widely available, and prices are often
numerous. Some individuals have been unintentionally
transported with cargo or agricultural products (in previ-
ous decades, boa constrictors regularly entered the United
States in banana shipments from Central America),
but advances in shipping and inspection methods have
decreased the frequency of unintentional transport.
Unintentional transport relies on stowaways escaping
detection, an improbable prospect for very large snakes.
In the last few decades, most introductions of giant
snakes have been associated with the international trade
in reptiles as pets. This trade includes wild-caught snakes,
captive-bred or captive-hatched juveniles from areas
within native ranges, and domestically captive-bred ani-
mals. It is no surprise that most of the invasive popu-
lations are in the United States, as by some estimates, FIGURE 3 American alligators and Burmese pythons now represent
the largest predators in the Everglades (both attain larger sizes than
over 80 percent of the global trade in live reptiles passes
the Florida panther). Both species regularly consume the other; in this
through the United States. In an average year over the case, a large alligator has captured a midsized python. (Photograph
last few decades, tens of thousands of large constrictors courtesy of L. Oberhofer.)

BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS 89

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 89 9/10/10 4:10:06 PM

 low (hatchling Burmese pythons sell for as little as $25 Florida, the island territories, the southeastern Coastal
each). While buyers may be attracted by the thought of Plain, and in some cases even larger areas.
an impressively large pet, the costs of feeding and housing A rare cold snap in southern Florida in early 2010
a very large snake are considerable. Pythons are incred- resulted in the deaths of large numbers of Burmese
ibly strong, and they commonly escape from poorly con- pythons and at least some northern African pythons,
structed cages. Moreover, imported wild-caught snakes along with other introduced species such as green iguanas
can be riddled with parasites and are prone to biting, ren- and armored catfish and native species such as manatees
dering them undesirable as pets. Zoos and animal shelters and American crocodiles. It is as yet difficult to assess the
typically refuse offers of large snakes owing to the physi- demographic impact of this event or interpret its ecologi-
cal space and expense associated with their care, so snake cal or evolutionary implications for the northerly spread
owners often find themselves without an obvious outlet of the Florida population. Mortality of pythons may have
for disposing of an unwanted python. All of these factors been due to cold intolerance, inappropriate behavioral
converge to increase the odds of intentional or uninten- responses to sudden and prolonged decreases in tempera-
tional release, as evidenced by hundreds of extralimital ture, or low availability of thermally suitable belowground
observations of giant constrictors around the globe. refugia in Everglades wetlands.

Climate Matching Management Opportunities

Invasion biologists often attempt to use the climate expe- Giant constrictors share a suite of traits that render man-
rienced by a species in its native range to predict where it agement difficult. Their camouflaged patterns, immobil-
might invade. “Climate” is a complicated mix of many ity for long periods of time, and regular use of vegetated or
factors, however, and uncertainties in matching climates aquatic habitats render even the largest snakes extremely
include a number of methodological, philosophical, and cryptic, thus reducing the efficacy of visual searches. As
statistical concerns, including such basic decisions as ambush predators, these snakes may move infrequently
which areas of the native range should be treated as likely between ambush sites; this habit reduces the probability
source areas (Fig. 4). Several climate-matching scenarios that snakes will regularly encounter control tools such as
for Burmese pythons in the United States have been pro- traps. Most pythons in Florida are found by driving roads
posed; most of these predict suitable climates in Hawaii, at night during the warm summer months or by walk-
ing along levees searching for basking sites in the winter.

FIGURE 4 Climate-matching extrapolations to the United States for Boa constrictor, based on mean monthly rainfalls and temperatures from the
native range. (A) is based on localities for the entire species including the cool-climate Argentine subspecies; (B) excludes Argentine localities.
(Reproduced from Reed and Rodda, 2009.)

90 BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 90 9/10/10 4:10:07 PM

 While these methods have yielded over 1,000 individu- SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES
als, roads and levees comprise a minuscule proportion Brown Treesnake / Climate Change / Early Detection and Rapid
of the total occupied area. Traps have proven capable of Response / Pet Trade / Predators / Reptiles and Amphibians
catching pythons, but capture rates are low. Chemical or
FURTHER READING
pheromonal control, biocontrol, and other “high-tech”
Everglades National Park. Burmese python: Species profile. www.nps.gov/
tools have been proposed for investigation, but all either
ever/naturescience/burmesepython.htm
have a very poor track record for control of introduced Harvey, R. G., M. L. Brien, M. S. Cherkiss, M. Dorcas, M. Rochford,
vertebrates or constitute a major risk to nontarget species. R. W. Snow, and F. J. Mazzotti. 2008. Burmese pythons in south
Bounty systems and citizen involvement have been sug- Florida: Scientific support for invasive species management. University
of Florida IFAS publication WEC242. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw286.
gested as possible solutions, but these tend to be subject Kraus, F. 2009. Alien reptiles and amphibians: A scientific compendium and
to the limitations of the existing methods (limited access analysis. New York: Springer.
to occupied habitat and low detection probabilities of Murphy, J. C., and R. W. Henderson. Tales of Giant Snakes: A Historical
Natural History of Anacondas and Pythons. Malabar, FL: Krieger.
the target species). Overall, there appear to be no control O’Shea, M. 2007. Boas and Pythons of the World. Princeton: Princeton
tools currently available that would suffice to eradicate University Press.
a widespread population of giant constrictors. However, Reed, R. N., and G. H. Rodda. 2009. Giant constrictors: Biological and
management profiles and an establishment risk assessment for nine
available tools may allow protection of small areas with
large species of python, anacondas, and the boa constrictor. United
high ecological value (e.g., bird rookeries) and prevention States Geological Survey Open-File Report 2009-1202. Reston, VA:
of spread of existing populations to islands (e.g., preven- U.S. Geological Survey. Available at www.fort.usgs.gov/products/
tion of establishment in the Florida Keys). Developing an publications/pub_abstract.asp?PubID=22691
Snow, R. W., K. L. Krysko, K. M. Enge, L. Oberhofer, A. Warren-Bradley,
effective network of rapid responders might also increase and L. Wilkins. 2007. Introduced populations of Boa constrictor
the odds of eradicating incipient populations of giant (Boidae) and Python molurus bivittatus (Pythonidae) in southern Florida
constrictors. (418–438). In R. W. Henderson and R. Powell, eds. Biology of the Boas
and Pythons. Eagle Mountain, UT: Eagle Mountain Publishing.

BURMESE PYTHON AND OTHER GIANT CONSTRICTORS 91

02_Simberloff10_B_p43-91.indd 91 9/10/10 4:10:08 PM

View publication stats