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1.7 Materials for bearings 29

1.7 Materials for bearings

1.7.1 Steel
Structural steel
Structural steel is used for all parts of bearings which are not under extraordinary
local stress or do not require special properties against corrosion. Structural steel for
bearings can be:
- Non-alloy structural steels according to EN 10025

- Fine-grained structural steels according to EN 10113

- Quenched and tempered steels according to EN I0082

Eurocode 3 may be used for the design of all bearing components made from struc-
tural steel according to EN 10025 and EN 10113 and for all connections (bolts, welds
etc.). Quenched and tempered steels are used mostly for non-welded parts under high
pressure (parts with Hertz compression, bolts of leaf and link bearings). In contact
areas with Hertz compression layers of corrosion-resistant hard steel can be applied
by forging or by welding. In the case of hard-surface welding a tough intermediate
(puffer) layer must be welded between the steel and the hard-surface.

Stainless steel
Stainless steel according to EURONORM 88-2 or I S 0 683 can also be used for bear-
ings. For design one should use EC 3 , part 1-4. Concerning stainless steel for sliding
plates see 1.7.3.

1.7.2 Elastomeric parts

Elastomeric parts of bearings consist normally of natural or artificial (chloropren) rub-
ber (NR or CR, respectively). Artificial rubber has the same good properties as natu-
ral rubber, and in addition it has a higher resistance against ozone, ultraviolet radiation
and ageing and is more rigid. The characteristic mechanical property is the shear modu-
lus G between 0.7 and 1.15 N/mm2 at room temperature, decreasing with increasing
temperature. When undergoing stress changes the volume of rubber is nearly constant.
So we have a Poisson’s ratio v = 0.5 and a Young’s modulus of elasticity E =
2 . ( 1 +v) . G -- 3 . G. The fracture strain of rubber lies between 250 % and 500 %. Rub-
ber creeps under stress by up to 50 % of the elastic strain, but creeping ends within
some days or weeks. Rubber does not break under compression, it can only break
under tensile or shear stresses. Compressing a rubber pad changes its shape. The
changing of the shape depends on the possibility of displacement at the compressed
areas. If the compressed areas are fixed to a rigid surface, the displacement remains
small. Thus we obtain the inequality A, > A , > A3 (fig.1.7.2-1).

Fig.1.7.2-I : Vertical displacements depending on the lateral expansion

30 1. Bearings

Fig. 1.7.2-2: Stress distribution

If the surface of the rubber is fixed to a rigid body shear stresses develop between the
two surfaces under compression (fig. 1.7.2-2). Under compression we obtain a virtual
modulus of elasticity E, Lllmpr which depends not only on the shear modulus G but also
on the thickness of the part between two plates. For rectangular parts a good approxi-
mation for E, co,npr is given by

1' conipr =G (: ) . (1 - 0,6 g) for b 2 a

The maximum stresses under compression between two rigid bodies are

F
with o = -, F: compression force.
ab
For bending, the effective modulus of elasticity E, bcndlng is lower than E, i<,,,,pr because
we obtain a compression in two half waves under a constant rotation angle a.If both
halves develop a constant displacement, the virtual modulus of elasticity would be the
a 1
same as under compression, but with a + we obtain E, hendlng = el Lo,npr. Actually,
~

2 4
1.7 Materials for bearings 31

the maximum is not in the middle of one half but nearer the outer side; thus we
(3
a
finally obtain: a + < , El -
- -1 E l compr. This is described very well by the
2
following approximate formula:

for b 2 a
a= Mi? a'b
Under the rotation a we obtain a curvature p = with I = _____
12
~

and a restraining moment bending ' I

Fig. 1.7.2-3: Rotution - restraining moment

Fig. 1.7.2-4: Displacement - restruining~forces

1.7.3 Sliding elements

For sliding elements in constructional bearings it is normal to use PTFE, also known
by the registered trade names Teflon and Hostaflon. PTFE is a so called thermoplast.
For bearings it is used in the original (virgin) condition, i. e. not sintered and without
fillers. As a counterpart to this rather soft material polished stainless steel plates are
normally used, and sometimes acetal resin plates or hardened chromium-plated steel
plates. Chromium-plated steel plates are not resistant to fluorine ions and are rather
prone to corrosion than stainless steel plates. They are allowed for convex elements
only.
The combination of a soft and a hard part has the advantage that there is no danger of
cold welding which can occur on polished metal or plastic surfaces under high pres-
sure. To minimise the friction silicon grease should be used to provide lubrication. To
keep this grease between the two surfaces the PTFE has lubricant pockets on its sur-
face, so that a permanent lubrication takes place over several years. The PTFE plates
for bearings are normally 5 to 6 mm thick, the depth of lubricant pockets is 2 mm. Un-
32 1. Bearings

der pressure the PTFE yields. To keep the PTFE in the desired shape it is necessary to
keep about half the thickness in a <<chamber>> with sharp edges. Over the sharp edges
we obtain a small bulge. It is also possible to glue PTFE to a steel surface. In this case
the PTFE is about 2.5 mm thick.
The friction coefficient increases with decreasing temperature and with decreasing
compression. The static friction coefficient (first movement) is higher than the dy-
namic coefficient. After movement has taken place the dynamic friction coefficient re-
mains at this value and returns to the static value after a few hours. This might depend
on the orientation of the large polymer molecules; during movement they are orientat-
ed into the direction of motion within a very thin surface layer. When the motion is
stopped, the orientation is lost within a few hours. Fig. 1.7.3-1 shows the design val-
ues of the friction coefficient pLdbetween PTFE and stainless steel, depending on the
compression force (EN 1337-2).

I
I I I I
I I I I
0.00 I I I I I I -
0.0 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 p [kNicm']
Fig. 1.7.3-I : Friction coejficient depending on the compressionforce

The design value of the ultimate compression load is

f , = 6 , 5 (1 - 0,02. [6 - 30'C)) kN/cm2 for 6 2 30'C ,
6 : maximum temperature of the bearing.

The wearing of the PTFE depends on

a) the product of compression and velocity of the displacement
b) the total amount of sliding during the life-time
c) the lubrication of the surface (a loss of lubrication leads to extremely high wearing)
d) the roughness and the hardness of the stainless steel surface
e) the contact pressure near the edge of PTFE (ironing effect)
I .8 Analysis and design of bearings 33

For slow movements caused by thermal actions we obtain long sliding movements but
at a low velocity. Quick movements caused by traffic loads have short sliding move-
ments but they occur at high velocity. Wearing is mostly caused by the second case.

For the stainless steel plate, austenitic steel X6CrNiMo17122 according to EU-
RONORM 88-2, surface n (IIIc), should be used. The stainless steel plate must cover
the PTFE plate completely in all situations. The thickness of the plate should be at
least of 1 .5 mm. The connection to the carrying plate of mild steel can be welded or
glued. For 2.5 mm thick plates the connection can be riveted or bolted.

1.8 Analysis and design of bearings

1.8.1 Hertz compression
For the design of bearings the following problems should be addressed: compression
between two spherical bodies, compression between a spherical and a flat body, com-
pression between two cylindrical bodies, compression between a cylindrical and a flat
body along a generator line. As already mentioned, Heinrich Hertz obtained the solu-
tion under the following assumptions (1881):
1. The two bodies consist of isotropic, homogeneous and infinitely elastic materials.
2. Only normal stresses (no shear stresses) occur at the contact areas.
3. The radius (width) of the contact areas is small compared with the radii of the
involved bodies.
Hertz found the following maximum compression stresses max (T and widths b on the
contact areas:

Spherical body on spherical body

b=
7
1
1
3F(I-v2) .
2E 1
-f-
1
1
= 1,109
73 E -*-
Cylindrical body on cylindrical body
34 1. Bearings

with

+ 1
~-~
1
Fig. I .8. I - I b: Arrangement of the radii
rl r2

F bearing reaction
1 length of the cylinder
r,, r2 radii of the bodies in contact
E Young's modulus Fig. 1.8.1-2: Stress distribution
V Poisson's ratio (v = 0.3 for steel)
max (3 maximum normal stress at the contact area
b half the width of the contact zone

For the usual rocker or roller bearings the max (3 beneath the vertical bearing reaction
greatly exceeds the material yield strength (fig. 1.8.1-2). However, at the contact zone
we have not only vertical but also horizontal compression stresses. According to the
von Mises criterion the comparison stress
I
Ov = d0i2 + O2 2
+ Oj3 - (3~(32 - - O3Oi and yielding begins when reaches
the material yield strength f,. In the present three-dimensional compression regime,
(3" will be less than (3, and yielding will not begin until o1= f,. On the other hand, the
maximum strain does not occur at the surface in the middle of the compression zone,
so that the hardness of the surface is not the only criterion for the assessment of Hertz
compression.

EN 1337-4 - roller bearings - gives for the design line load pd of a roller bearing
f 2
(cylindrical body on flat surface): pd 5 18. R . with
E d

f, tensile strength of the material

R radius of the cylinder
Eddesign value of the modulus of elasticity
1.8 Analysis and design of bearings 35

Compared to Hertz's formula with

maxo, =0.418.
R
we find
.
maxo, 1 0 . 4 1 8 . f i . f " = 1,77.fu=oRd

EN 1337-6 - rocker bearings - gives for the design load Fz,dof a point rocker bearing
(sphere against plane surface) Fz,d5 170. R 2 . f" .
Ed

Compared to Hertz's formula with

we find
m a x o , 10.388..1/170.f, = 2,15f, =oRd.
For cylindrical rocker bearings the same formulae as for roller bearings are used.

1.8.2 Pin and pin plate for leaf and link bearings
A special problem of all leaf and link bearings concerns the design of the pin and the
pin plate. Eurocode 3, part 1- 1, gives simple but satisfactory design rules. The design
values of the shear force and the bending moment for the pin can be found using the
simple model of distributing the force of each pin plate uniformly over the pin.

a c h c , a

In the case of fig. 1.8.2-1 we obtain the shear force and the bending moment according
to fig. 1 3.2-2 and fig. 1.8.2-3.
36 1. Bearings

cw
Fig. 1.8.2-2: Shearforce

Fig. 1.8.2-3: Bending moment

b
For normal bridge bearings we have: c = 0, a = ~ .
2
The design values for the resistances are
d2n
Shear: F,,, = 0.6. A . f u p/YMp = 0.6. ~ .fup/YMp = 0.47 1. d’f,, /YMp
4

The combination of shear and bending has to fulfil the inequality

In this inequality, the central pin plate is controlling.

The bearing resistance of plate (thickness t and yield strength f,) and pin is:
F,,,, = 1.5.t . d . f y/YM,
f,, field strength of the pin
fUptensile strength of the pin
yMp= 1.25 according to EC 3- 1- 1
The bearing capacity of the pin plate at the hole is achieved under one of the following
conditions (EC 3- 1 - 1 gives two possibilities):
1.9 Installation of bearings 37

a) Depending on the pin plate thickness t:

t = min (2a, b),

e >--FSd Y M p d d
' +
e, 2 FSd ' YMp +
= e 2 +-
-7 - 2t ' f y 3 2 t . f, 3 3
b) Depending on the geometry of the pin plate:

1.9 Installation of bearings

Concerning the installation of bearings, the need for a later simple replacement must
be taken into account. So it should be common practice to put every bearing between
a lower and an upper steel cover plate. These cover plates are anchored or connected
both with the substructure and the superstructure. These cover plates are connected to
the bearings during the installation but remain fixed to the structure while the bearings
are replaced (fig. 1.9-1). Thus, the connection between bearing and cover plates should
be constructed in order to allow a simple release. Bolted connections are often used
but after many years often the bolts can hardly be unscrewed. According to the
author's experience, fastening the bearings with small fillet welds that can be ground
off and remade during the replacement process is simpler.

Fig. 1.9-1: Fixing of a bearing

Generally, bearings should not be built directly on the construction beneath. To guar-
antee that the area below a bearing is fully sealed a layer of mortar or of a similar prod-
uct is used. So the height of the bridge at the abutments or piers can be adapted easily
and very exactly. It is useful to fix the bearing to the bridge so that there is no clear-
ance at the upper plate and to adjust the bridge by hydraulic jacks. In this situation the
38 1. Bearings

bearings should be adjusted exactly. Thus, the lower plate will get exactly the desired
inclination (horizontal or parallel to the gradient, see fig. 1.9-1) and all moveable bear-
ings will have the desired pre-adjustment, which depends on the temperature of the
bridge and the expected shrinkage and creep. The installation of the bearings should
be done early in the morning when the bridge has a (nearly) constant temperature. The
designer has to provide a table with the pre-adjustment of every bearing depending on
the measured bridge temperature.
For good functioning, careful handling of the bearings during installation is very im-
portant. The bearings must be kept free of dirt, mortar, water and dust, especially from
all moving parts. Many bearings, such as pot bearings and spherical bearings, are pro-
tected against dust by rubber bulges, but others are not protected at all. These have to
be cleaned to remove mortar and sand after the installation.
The gap between the lower plate of the bearing and the substructure is normally 3 to 5
cm thick and must be completely filled with a mortar bedding. This can be done in dif-
ferent ways:
- by a fresh mortar bedding, chambered in the centre where the bearing is set. The

excess of mortar will come out on all sides and must be removed.
- by a special joint filling mortar which must be mixed in a pan type concrete mixer

with a precise quantity of water. This mortar is liquid at first and should be poured
in a formwork around the bearing only from one side, so that the air can escape on
the other side. The special mortar fills the gap without air bubbles, it sets and hard-
ens very quickly so that after one day the mortar bedding can be fully loaded and
the formwork removed. If the gap is less than 1 cm a two-component epoxy resin
should be used instead of mortar. Initially this resin is a lighter fluid than mortar,
thus completely filling even very small gaps.
- by boxing up earth-damp mortar in the gap with a wooden stick also from one side
to avoid air bubbles. This method will be difficult for the lower plates with a short
side larger than half a metre.
All mortars should be non-shrinking.

1.10 Inspection and maintenance

Visual tests of all bearings should be done by qualified personnel at regular intervals.
The following properties of the bearings have to be checked:
a) sufficient ability to allow movement, taking into account the temperature of the su-
perstructure
b) correct positioning of the bearings themselves and of parts of the bearing relative to
each other
c) uncontrolled movement of the bearing
d) fracture, cracks and deformations of parts of the bearings
e) cracks in the bedding or in adjacent parts of sub- and superstructure
f) condition of the anchorage
g) condition of sliding or rolling surfaces
h) condition of the anticorrosive protection, against dust, and of the sealings.
For the different types of bearings the following checks are of importance:
1.1 1 Replacement of bearings 39

Elastomeric bearings: Displacements and rotations, cracks in the elastomer.

Roller and rocker bearings: Displacements and rotations, adjustment of the
guiding device, no gap in the contact line.
Pot bearings: Sufficient mesh of the lid in the pot, tight sealing of the elastomer
in the pot (if the sealing has a defect, the elastomer comes out like a pancake!)
Sliding devices - PTFE and stainless steel: Thickness of the PTFE, clean surface of
the stainless steel.
The result of an inspection should be recorded in a report. EN 1337-10 gives an ex-
ample for such a report.
For maintenance the bearings should be cleaned, lubricated (if necessary and pos-
sible) and coated with paint. Small defects should be repaired as far as possible.

1.11 Replacement of bearings

The replacement of bearings is a normal maintenance operation for bridges. Thus, a
bridge designer has to provide measures so that a replacement can be carried out
easily. The owner of a bridge has to define in the tender if the replacement of the bear-
ings must be carried out under full traffic, restricted traffic or without traffic, depend-
ing on the importance of the bridge and the possibility of a traffic ban or a traflk
diversion.
In case of a replacement under traffic the jacking equipment should allow the same
movements as the bearing. To allow rotations the jacks around one bearing should be
connected to a single hydraulic circle. That means that the security devices must have
a sufficient clearance. Translations are possible by means of additional sliding con-
structions.

- -

I
-
\
i
_m_

/
reinforcement against splitting tension

Fig. 1.I I - I : Stiffened areasf o r hydraulic jacks

To replace a bearing, the bridge has to be lifted by one or more hydraulic jacks. For hy-
draulic jacks, adequately stiffened areas to transmit the hydraulic jack forces to the
sub- and superstructure are required. Concrete parts must be reinforced against split-
ting tension, steel parts need stiffeners (fig. 1.11-2). Thus, the construction drawings
must show in which areas or at which points hydraulic jacks can be set, what are the
maximum lifting forces and up to which level the bridge may safely be lifted. This
40 1. Bearings

data is of particular importance if the bridge is supported in a statically indeterminate

way at one abutment or pier, in which case the lifting force depends on the height of
lift. High stresses can be induced in the cross girder or diaphragm by the lifting device.
In such cases it may be necessary to lift the whole cross section uniformly with two or
more hydraulic jacks even for exchanging only one bearing. If more than one jack is
used the forces can be controlled by hydraulic connection of some or of all jacks: all
connected jacks have the same pressure. Hydraulic jacks need some clearance for the
installation. For lifting by a few millimetres up to two centimetres flat piston jacks can
be used. The following table gives a guide for the required clearances:

I Force I Required clearance I Required clearance

Normal hydraulicjack Flat piston jack
kN mm mm
500 300 150
1000 360 180
2000 450 200
SO00 600 250

Table 1.11-1: Required clearance for hydraulic jacks

There are flat jacks with a height of 80 mm and a lifting force up to SO00 kN. But their
stroke is only 20 mm and there is no security device. This kind of jack should be ap-
plied for special cases only. New bridges should be constructed for normal hydraulic
jacks.
In all situations, during the replacement of a bearing the hydraulic jack should be se-
cured by a mechanical device such as an adjusting nut for the piston or lining plates to
avoid dropping in case of pipe rupture or rupture of the piston sealing which some-
times can occur (fig.l.11-3 and tig.l.11-2).

I !! I

pipe or
t--------
I I
L ----____ c=

Fig. 1.1 1-2: Hydraulic jack with lining plates

1.12 Codes and standards 41

Fig.1.I 1-3: Hydraulic jack with thread and nu1

If the replacement of a bearing takes a long time so that displacements of moveable

bearings will occur, the hydraulic jacks have to be equipped with a sliding device,
normally PTFE plus a sliding plate of stainless steel.

Particular care is required when replacing bearings which transmit horizontal forces:
if the friction between the jack and the surface of sub- and superstructure is not suffi-
cient it is necessary to restrain the movement of the bridge by appropriate devices. If
the replacement is done under traffic, in most cases, and especially for railway
bridges, these devices have to transmit all horizontal forces due to a possible loss of
friction.

1.12 Codes and standards

The first attempts to standardize bearings in national codes were made decades ago. In
Europe several codes and national standards are available. The best known national
standards in Europe on this topic are
Germany: DIN 4141 Lager im Bauwesen (structural bearings),
Teil 1 bis 14.
United Kingdom: BS 5400 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges.
Section 9.1 Code of Practice for design of bridge bearings
Section 9.2 Specification of materials, manufacturing and installa-
tion of bridge bearings

New European Standards about bearings are the following

EN 1337 “Structural bearings” with the parts
EN 1337- 1 General design rules
EN 1337-2 Sliding elements
EN 1337-3 Elastomeric bearings
EN 1337-4 Roller bearings
42 1. Bearings

EN 1337-5 Pot bearings

EN 1337-6 Rocker bearings
EN 1337-7 Spherical and cylindrical PTFE bearings
EN 1337-8 Guided bearings and Restrained bearings
EN 1337-9 Protection
EN 1337-10 Inspection and maintenance
EN 1337-1 1 Transport, storage and installation

A recommendable American Standards about bearings is the following:

AASHO-LRFD: American Association of State Highway Officials ( I 994).

1.13 References
Books and special chapters about bearings for bridges:
Eggert H., J. Grote, W. Kauschke: Lager im Bauwesen. Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Munchen, Dusseldorf 1974.
Lee D.J.: Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints. Second edition by E & FN Spon,
London, Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras 1994.
Eggert H., W. Kauschke: Lager im Bauwesen. 2. Auflage, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1995.
Rahlwes K., R. Maurer: Lagerung und Lager von Bauwerken in: Beton-Kalender
1995, Teil2, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.

Papers:
Albrecht, R.: Zur Anwendung und Berechnung von Gummilagern. Der Deut-
sche Baumeister 1969, Heft 4, Seite 326, und Heft 6, Seite 563.
Andra, Beyer, Wintergerst: Versuche und Erfahrungen mit neuen Kipp- und
Gleitlagern. Der Bauingenieur 5 (1962).
Andra, W. und Leonhardt, F.: Neue Entwicklungen fur Lager von Bauwerken,
Gummi- und Gummitopflager. Die Bautechnik 39 (1969), Heft 2, Seite 37 bis
50.
Bayer, K.: Auflager und Fahrbahnubergange fur Hoch- und Bruckenbauten aus
Kunststoff. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure VDI im Bildungswerk BV 1956 (Vor-
tragsveroffentlichung).
Beyer, E. und Wintergerst, L.: Neue Briickenlager, neue Pfeilerform. Der Bau-
ingenieur 35 (1960), Heft 6, Seite 227 bis 230.
Eggert, H.: Briickenlager. Die Bautechnik 50 (1973), S. 143/144.
Bub, H.: Das neue Institut fur Bautechnik. Strasse und Autobahn, Band 20
(1 969), Seite 189.
Burkhardt, E.: Gepanzerte Betonwalzgelenke, Pendel- und Rollenlager. Die
Bautechnik 17 (1939), Seite 230.
Cardillo, R. und Kruse, D.: Paper (61/WA-335) ASME (1961).
Cichocki, F.: Bremsableitung bei Briicken. Der Bauingenieur 36 (1961), Seite
304 bis 305.
1.13 References 43

Clark, E. und Moutrop, K.: Load Deformation Characteristics of Elastomer

Bridge Bearing Pads. University of Rhode Island, May 1962.
Desmonsablon, Philippe: Le calcul des piles ddformables avec appuis en
caoutchouc. Annales des Ponts et Chaussdes, Paris 4/1960.
Eggert, H.: Bauwerksicherheit bei Verwendung von Rollen- und Gleitlagern.
Strasse Brucke Tunnel 1971, Heft 3, Seite 71.
Eggert, H.: Die baurechtliche Situation bei Lagern fur Briicken und Hochbau-
ten. Der Stahlbau 39 (1970), Heft 6, Seite 189.
Einsfeld, U.: Erlauterungen zu den Richtlinien von unbewehrten Elastomer-
lagern. Mitteilungen Institut fur Bautechnik 6/1972.
Franz: Gummilager fur Brucken. VDI-Zeitschrift, Bd. 101/1959, Nr. 12, Seite
47 1 bis 478.
Gent, A.: Rubber Bearings for Bridges. Rubber Journal and International Plas-
tics 1959.
Grote, J.: Neoprenelager - einige grundsatzliche Erwagungen. Kunststoffe im
Bau 7/1968.
Grote, J.: Unbewehrte Elastomerlager. Der Bauingenieur 44 (l969), Seite 121.
Grote, J.: Vermeidung von Rissen und Dehnungsschaden durch gummielasti-
sche Lagerungen. Kunststoffe im Bau 11/1968.
Hakenjos, V.: Untersuchungen uber die Rollreibung bei Stahl im elastisch-plas-
tischen Zustand. Technisch-wissenschaftlicheBerichte der Staatlichen Materi-
alpriifungsanstalt an der Technischen Hochschule Stuttgart 1967, Heft 67/05.
Heesen: Gepanzerte Betonwalzgelenke, Pendel- und Rollenlager. Die Bau-
technik, Jahrgang 25 (1 948), Seite 26 1.
Hutten, P.: Beitrag zur Berechnung der Lagerverschiebungen gekrummter,
durchlaufender Spannbeton-Balkenbriicken. Dissertation TH Aachen 1970.
Jorn, R.: Gummi im Bauwesen. Elastische Lagerung einer Pumpenstation. Der
Bauingenieur 36 (1961), Heft 4, Seite 1371138.
Keen: Creep of Neoprene in Shear Under Static Conditions, Ten Years, Trans-
actions of the ASME, Juli 1953.
Leonhardt und Andra: Stutzungsprobleme der Hochstrassenbriicken. Beton-
und Stahlbetonbau 55 (1960), Heft 6.
Leonhardt, F. und Reimann, H.: Betongelenke, Versuchsbericht, Vorschlage
zur Bemessung und konstruktiven Ausbildung. DAfStb, Heft 175. Berlin:
Verlag Ernst & Sohn 1966, und Leonhardt, F. und Reimann, H.: Betongelenke.
Der Bauingenieur 41 (1966), Seite 49.
Leonhardt, F. und Wintergerst, L.: Uber die Brauchbarkeit von Bleigelenken.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 1961, Heft 5, Seite 123 bis 131.
Maguire, C. und Assoc.: Elastomeric Bridge Bearings Pads 1959.
Massonnet: Zuschrift zu B. Topaloff, Gummilager fur Briicken. Der Bauinge-
nieur 39 (1964), Seite 428.
Monnig, E. und Netzel, D.: Zur Bemessung von Betongelenken. Der Bauinge-
nieur 44 (1969), Seite 433 bis 439.
Morton, M.: Rubber Technology. Reinhold Publishing Co. 1959.
Mullins, L.: Softening of Rubber by Deformation. Rubber Chemistry and
Technology (Feb. 1969).
44 1. Bearings

Nordlin, E., Stoker, S. and Trinble, R.: Laboratory and Field Performance of
Elastomeric Bridge Bearing Pads, Highway Research Board (1968).
[351 Pare u. Keiner: Elastomeric Bridge Bearings. Highway Research Board Bull
242, 1960.
[361 Payne u. Scott: Engineering Design with Rubber
[371 Rejcha, C.: Design of Elastomer Bearings. Journal of Prestressed Concrete
Institute Oct. 1964, Vol. 9, Nr. 5.
Resinger, F.: Langszwangungen - eine Ursache von Bruckenlagerschaden. Der
Bauingenieur 46 (1971), Seite 334.
Rieckmann, H.-P.: Einfluss der Lagerkonstruktion auf die Knicklange von
Pfeilern. Strasse Briicke Tunnel 1970, Seite 36 bis 42 und Seite 270 bis 272.
Sasse, H.-R. und Schorn, H.: Bewehrte Elastomerlager - Stand der Entwick-
lung. Plastik-Konstruktion 1971, Heft 5 , Seite 209 bis 227.
Schonhofer: Neugestaltungen auf dem Gebiet des Auflagerbaues und auf ver-
wandten Gebieten. Werner-Verlag, Dusseldorf 1952.
Sedyter: Uber die Wirkungsweise von Bleigelenken. Beton und Eisen 1926,
Seite 29.
[431 Shen, M. K.: Uber die Losung des Balkens mit unverschieblichen Auflagern.
Der Bauingenieur 39 (1964), Seite 100.
[441 Suess, K. und Grote, J.: Einige Versuche an Neoprenelagern. Der Bauingenieur
38 (1963), Heft 4, Seite 152 bis 157.
Thielker, E.: Elastomeric Bearing Pads and Their Application in Structures,
Paper 207 of Leap Conference (1964).
Thul, H.: Bruckenlager. Der Stahlbau 38 (1969), Seite 353.
Topaloff, B.: Gummilager fur Briicken - Berechnung und Anwendung. Der
Bauingenieur 39 (1964), Seite 50 bis 64.
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