Solar Dish Engine
INTRODUCTION
A Solar Dish-Engine System is an electric generator that “burns”
sunlight instead of gas or coal to produce electricity. The major parts of a system are
the solar concentrator and the power conversion unit.
The dish, which is more specifically referred to as a concentrator, is the
primary solar component of the system. It collects the solar energy coming directly
from the sun (the solar energy that causes you to cast a shadow) and concentrates or
focuses it on a small area. The resultant solar beam has all of the power of the sunlight
hitting the dish but is concentrated in a small area so that it can be more efficiently
used. Glass mirrors reflect about 92% of the sunlight that hits them, are relatively
inexpensive, can be cleaned, and last a long time in the outdoor environment, making
them an excellent choice for the reflective surface of a solar concentrator. The dish
structure must track the sun continuously to reflect the beam into the thermal receiver.
The power conversion unit includes the thermal receiver and the
engine/generator. The thermal receiver is the interface between the dish and the
engine/generator. It absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy, converts it to heat,
and transfers the heat to the engine/generator. A thermal receiver can be a bank of
tubes with a cooling fluid, usually hydrogen or helium, which is the heat transfer
medium and also the working fluid for an engine. Alternate thermal receivers are heat
pipes wherein the boiling and condensing of an intermediate fluid is used to transfer
the heat to the engine.
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HISTORY OF TURBINE POWERED CAR
Development of gas turbine technology in vehicles is been carried out
since nearly last thirty-five years
In the late thirties of twentieth century, the gas turbine technology got
its roots. In 1960 the gas turbine promised a simple, lightweight air cooled car engine,
which was smooth running, and free from vibration with a torque characteristics
sufficient to eliminate the gearbox of clutch.
The world's first gas turbine car designed by Rover company of Britain
which gave a mileage of 1.41km/l and a speed record of 243km/hr.there after in 1982
gas turbine car fitted with heat exchanger gave an efficiency of 4.95km/l and a speed
of 163km/hr. Then again 1985 with ceramic regenerator discs, a Rover bpm car gave a
peak fuel consumption of 11km/l. The fuel consumption improved but cost was very
high
Thereafter continuous investigations were on in same field and certain
improvement in SI engine have yet decreased the development of gas turbine
automation.
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SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Dish/engine systems convert the thermal energy in solar radiation to
mechanical energy and then to electrical energy in much the same way that
conventional power plants convert thermal energy from combustion of a fossil fuel to
electricity. As indicated in Figure 1, dish/engine systems use a mirror array to reflect
and concentrate incoming direct normal isolation to a receiver, in order to achieve the
temperatures required to efficiently convert heat to work. This requires that the dish
track the sun in two axes. The concentrated solar radiation is absorbed by the receiver
and transferred to an engine.
Dish/engine systems are characterized by high efficiency, modularity,
autonomous operation, and an inherent hybrid capability (the ability to operate on
either solar energy or a fossil fuel, or both). Of all solar technologies, dish/engine
systems have demonstrated the highest solar-to-electric conversion efficiency
(29.4%), and therefore have the potential to become one of the least expensive sources
of renewable energy. The modularity of dish/engine systems allows them to be
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deployed individually for remote applications, or grouped together for small-grid
(village power) or end- of-line utility applications. Dish/engine systems can also be
hybridized with a fossil fuel to provide dispatchable power. This technology is in the
engineering development stage and technical challenges remain concerning the solar
components and the commercial availability solarizable engine.
The Following Describes the Components of
Dish/Engine System
CONCENTRATORS
Dish/engine systems utilize concentrating solar collectors that track the
sun in two axes. A reflective surface, metalized glass or plastic, reflects incident solar
radiation to a small region called the focus. The size of the solar concentrator for
dish/engine systems is determined by the engine. At a nominal maximum direct
normal solar isolation of 1000 W/m2, a 25-Kw dish/Sterling system’s concentrator has
a diameter of approximately 10 meters. The most durable reflective surfaces have
been silver/glass mirrors, similar to decorative mirrors used in the home. Attempts to
develop low-cost reflective polymer films have had limited success. Because dish
concentrators have short focal lengths, relatively thin glass mirrors (thickness of
approximately 1 mm) are required to accommodate the required curvatures. In
addition, glass with low-iron content is desirable to improve reflectance. Depending
on the thickness and iron content, silvered
Solar mirrors have solar reflectance values in the range of 90 to 94%.
The ideal concentrator shape is a paraboloid of revolution. Some solar concentrators
approximate this shape with multiple, spherically shaped mirrors supported with a
truss structure (Figure 1). An innovation in solar concentrator design is the use of
stretched-membranes in which a thin reflective membrane is stretched across a rim or
hoop. A second membrane is used to close off the space behind. A partial vacuum is
drawn in this space, bringing the reflective membrane into an approximately spherical
shape. Figure 2 is a schematic of a dish/Stirling system that utilizes this concept. The
concentrator’s optical design and accuracy determine the concentration ratio.
Concentration ratio, defined as the average solar flux through the receiver aperture
divided by the ambient direct normal solar isolation, is typically over 2000. Intercept
fractions, defined as the fraction of the reflected solar flux that passes through the
receiver aperture, are usually Over 95%.
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Tracking in two axes is accomplished in one of two ways, (1) azimuth-
elevation tracking and (2) polar tracking. In azimuth-elevation tracking, the dish
rotates in a plane parallel to the earth (azimuth) and in another plane perpendicular to
it (elevation). This gives the collector left/right and up/down rotations. Rotational
rates vary throughout the day but can be easily calculated. Most of the larger
dish/engine systems use this method of tracking. In the polar tracking method, the
collector rotates about an axis parallel to the earth’s axis of rotation. The collector
rotates at a constant rate of 15º/hr to match the rotational speed of the earth. The other
axis of rotation, the declination axis, is perpendicular to the polar axis. Movement
about this axis occurs slowly and varies by +/- 23½º over a year. Most of the smaller
dish/engine systems have used this method of tracking.
RECEIVERS
The receiver absorbs energy reflected by the concentrator and transfers it to the
engine’s working fluid. The absorbing surface is usually placed behind the focus of
the concentrator to reduce the flux intensity incident on it. An aperture is placed at the
focus to reduce radiation and convection heat losses. Each engine has its own interface
issues. Stirling engine receivers must efficiently transfer concentrated solar energy to
a high- pressure oscillating gas, usually helium or hydrogen. In Brayton receivers the
flow is steady, but at relatively low pressures. There are two general types of Stirling
receivers, direct-illumination receivers (DIR) and indirect receivers which use an
intermediate heat-transfer fluid. Directly-illuminated Stirling receivers adapt the
heater tubes of the Stirling engine to absorb the concentrated solar flux. Because of
the high heat transfer capability of high-velocity, high-pressure helium or hydrogen;
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direct-illumination receivers are capable of absorbing high levels of solar flux
(approximately 75 W/cm). However, balancing the temperatures and heat addition
between the cylinders of a multiple cylinder Stirling engine is an integration issue.
Liquid-metal, heat-pipe solar receivers help solve this issue. In a heat-pipe receiver,
liquid sodium metal is vaporized on the absorber surface of the receiver and
condensed on the Stirling engine’s heater tubes (Figure 3). This results in a uniform
temperature on the heater tubes, thereby enabling a higher engine working
temperature for a given material, and therefore higher engine efficiency. Longer-life
receivers and engine heater heads are also theoretically possible by the use of a heat-
pipe. The heat-pipe receiver isothermally transfers heat by evaporation of sodium on
the receiver/absorber and condensing it on the heater tubes of the engine. The sodium
is passively returned to the absorber by gravity and distributed over the absorber by
capillary forces. Stirling receivers are typically about 90% efficient in transferring
energy delivered by the concentrator to the engine.
ENGINES
The engine in a dish/engine system converts heat to mechanical power in a manner
similar to conventional engines, that is by compressing a working fluid when it is
cold, heating the compressed working fluid, and then expanding it through a turbine
or with a piston to produce work. The mechanical power is converted to electrical
power by an electric generator or alternator. A number of thermodynamic cycles and
working fluids have been considered for dish/engine systems. These include Rankine
cycles, using water or an organic working fluid; Brayton, both open and closed cycles;
and Stirling cycles. Other, more exotic thermodynamic cycles and variations on the
above cycles have also been considered. The heat engines that are generally favored
use the Stirling and open Brayton (gas turbine) cycles. The use of conventional
automotive Otto and Diesel engine cycles is not feasible because of the difficulties in
integrating them with concentrated solar energy. Heat can also be supplied by a
supplemental gas burner to allow operation during cloudy weather and at night.
Electrical output in the current dish/engine prototypes is about 25 kWe for
dish/Stirling systems and about 30 kW for the Brayton systems under consideration.
Smaller 5 to 10KW dish/Stirling systems have also been demonstrate
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Stirling Cycle
Stirling cycle engines used in solar dish/Stirling systems are high-
temperature, high-pressure externally heated engines that use a hydrogen or helium
working gas. Working gas temperatures of over 700oC (1292ºF) and as high as 20
MPa are used in modern high-performance Stirling engines. In the Stirling cycle, the
working gas is alternately heated and cooled by constant-temperature and Constant
volume process.
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Thermal-to-electric conversion efficiencies of about 40%. Stirling engines are a
leading candidate for dish/engine systems because their external heating makes them
adaptable to concentrated solar flux and because of their high efficiency. All of the
kinematic Stirling engines under consideration for solar applications are being built
for other applications. Successful commercialization of any of these engines will
eliminate a major barrier to the introduction of dish/engine technology.
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton engine, also called the jet engine, combustion turbine, or
gas turbine, is an internal Combustion engine which produces power by the controlled
burning of fuel. In the Brayton engine, like in Otto and Diesel cycle engines, air is
compressed, fuel is added, and the mixture is burned. In a dish/Brayton system, solar
heat is used to replace (or supplement) the fuel. The resulting hot gas expands rapidly
and is used to produce power. In the gas turbine, the continuous and the expanding gas
is used to turn a turbine and alternator.
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As in the Sterling engine, recuperation of waste heat is a key to
achieving high efficiency. Therefore, waste heat exhausted from the turbine is used to
preheat air from the compressor. A schematic of a single-shaft, solarized, recuperated
Brayton engine is shown in Figure 5. The recuperated gas turbine engines that are
candidates for solarization have pressure ratios of approximately 2.5, and turbine inlet
temperatures of about 850oC (1,562ºF). Predicted thermal-to-electric efficiencies of
Brayton engines for dish/Brayton applications are over 30%. The commercialization
of similar turbo-machinery for various applications by Allied Signal, Williams
International, Capstone Turbines Corp., Northern Research and Engineering Company
(NREC), and others may create an opportunity for dish/Brayton system developers.
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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
ALTERNATOR:
The mechanical-to-electrical conversion device used in dish/engine
systems depends on the engine and application. Induction generators are used on
kinematic Stirling engines tied to an electric-utility grid. Induction generators
synchronize with the grid and can provide single or three-phase power of either 230 or
460 volts. Induction generators are off-the-shelf items and convert mechanical power
to electricity with an efficiency of about 94%.
Alternators in which the output is conditioned by rectification
(conversion to DC) and then inverted to produce AC power are sometimes employed
to handle mismatches in speed between the engine output and the electrical grid. The
high-speed output of a gas turbine, for example, is converted to very high frequency
AC in a high-speed alternator, converted to DC by a rectifier, and then converted to
60 hertz single or three-phase power by an inverter. This approach can also have
performance advantages for operation of the engine.
3.2 COOLING SYSTEM:
Heat engines need to transfer waste heat to the environment. Stirling
engines use a radiator to exchange waste heat from the engine to the atmosphere. In
open-cycle Brayton engines, most of the waste heat is rejected in the exhaust. Parasitic
power required for operation of a Stirling cooling system fan and pump, concentrator
drives, and controls is typically about 1 kW.
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3.3 CONTROLS:
Autonomous operation is achieved by the use of microcomputer-based
controls located on the dish to control dish tracking and engine operation. Some
systems use a separate engine controller. For large installations, a central System
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) computer is used to provide supervisory
control, monitoring, and data acquisition.
CURRENT ACTIVITIES
Thermal Motors (STM) to develop a dish/Stirling system for utility-
scale applications. The SAIC/STM team successfully demonstrated a 20-kW unit in
Golden, Colorado, in Phase 1. In December 1996, Arizona Public Service.
Company (APS) partnered with SAIC and STM to build and
demonstrate the next five prototype dish/engine systems.
The overall objective is to reduce costs while maintaining demonstrated
performance levels. The economic potential of dish/engine systems continues to
interest developers and investors Next-generation hybrid receiver technology based on
sodium heat pipes is being developed by Sun Lab in collaboration with industrial
partners. Although, heat-pipe receiver technology is promising and significant
progress has been made, cost-effective designs capable of demonstrating the durability
required of a commercial system still need to be proven. Sun Lab is also developing
other solar specific technology in conjunction with industry.
5. SYSTEM APPLICATION, BENEFITS, AND IMPACTS
Dish/engine systems have the attributes of high efficiency, versatility,
and hybrid operation. High efficiency contributes to high power densities and low
cost, compared to other solar technologies. Depending on the system and the site,
dish/engine systems require approximately 1.2 to 1.6 ha of land per MW. System
installed costs, although currently e over $12,000/kW for solar-only prototypes could
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approach $1,400/kW for hybrid systems in mass production. This relatively low-cost
potential is, to a large extent, a result of dish/engine system’s inherent high efficiency.
5.1 UTILITY APPLICATION
Because of their versatility and hybrid capability, dish/engine systems
have a wide range of potential applications. In principle, dish/engine systems are
capable of providing power ranging from kilowatts to gigawatts. However, it is
expected that dish/engine systems will have their greatest impact in grid-connected
applications in the 1 to 50 MW power range. The largest potential market for
dish/engine systems is large-scale power plants connected to the utility grid. Their
ability to be quickly installed, their inherent modularity, and their minimal
environmental impact make them a good candidate for new peaking power
installations. The output from many modules can be ganged together to form a
dish/engine farm and produce a collective output of virtually any desired amount. In
addition, systems can be added as needed to respond to demand increases. Hours of
peak output are often coincident with peak demand. Although dish/engine systems do
not currently have a cost-effective energy storage system, their ability to operate with
fossil or bio-derived fuels makes them, in principal, fully dispatchable. This capability
in conjunction with their modularity and relatively benign environmental impacts
suggests that grid support benefits could be a major advantage of these systems.
5.2 REMOTE APPLICATION
Dish/engine systems can also be used individually as stand-alone
systems for applications such as water pumping. While the power rating and
modularity of dish/engine systems seem ideal for stand-alone applications, there are
challenges related to installation and maintenance of these systems in a remote
environment. Dish/engine systems need to stow when wind speeds exceed a specific
condition, usually at about 16 m/s. Reliable sun and wind sensors are therefore
required to determine if conditions warrant operation. Intermediate-scale applications
such as small grids (village power) appear to be well suited to dish/engine systems.
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The economies of scale of utilizing multiple units to support a small utility, the ability
to add modules as needed, and a hybrid capability make the dish/engine systems ideal
for small grids.
6. HYBRIDIZATION
Because dish/engine systems use heat engines, they have an
inherent ability to operate on fossil fuels. The use of the same power
conversion equipment, including the engine, generator, wiring, and switch
gear, etc., means that only the addition of a fossil fuel combustor is required
to enable a hybrid capability. For dish/Brayton systems, addition of a hybrid
capability is straightforward. A fossil-fuel combustor capable of providing
continuous full-power operation can be provided with minimal expense or
complication. The hybrid combustor is downstream of the solar receiver, and
has virtually no adverse impact on performance. In fact, because the gas
turbine engine can operate continuously at its design point, where efficiency is
optimum, overall system efficiency is enhanced. System efficiency, based on
the higher heating value, is expected to be about 30% for a dish/Brayton
system operating in the hybrid mode. For dish/Stirling systems, on the other
hand, addition of a hybrid capability is a challenge. The external, high
temperature, isothermal heat addition required for Stirling engines is in many
ways easier to integrate with solar heat than it is with the heat of combustion.
Although, the cost of these systems is expected to be much less than a
continuously variable hybrid receiver, their operational flexibility will be
substantially reduced. System efficiency, based on higher heating value, is
expected to be about 33% for a Dish/Stirling system operating in the hybrid
mode.
7. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The environmental impacts of dish/engine systems are minimal.
Stirling engines are known for being quiet, relative to internal combustion gasoline
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and diesel engines, and even the highly recuperated Brayton engines are reported to be
relatively quiet. The biggest source of noise from a dish/Stirling system is the cooling
fan for the radiator. There has not been enough deployment of dish/engine systems to
realistically assess visual impact. The systems can be high profile, extending as much
as 15 meters above the ground. However, aesthetically speaking they should not be
considered detrimental. Dish/engine systems resemble satellite dishes which are
generally accepted by the public.
Emissions from dish/engine systems are also quite low. Other than the
potential for spilling small amounts of engine oil or coolant or gearbox grease, these
systems produce no effluent when operating with solar energy. Even when operating
with a fossil fuel, the steady flow combustion systems used in both Stirling and
Brayton systems result in extremely low emission levels. This is, in fact, a
requirement for the hybrid vehicle and cogeneration applications for which these
engines are primarily being developed.
8. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
The introduction of a commercial solar engine is the primary research
and development (R&D) need for dish/engine technology. Secondary R&D needs
include a commercially viable heat-pipe solar receiver for dish/Stirling, a
hybridreceiver design for dish/Stirling, and a proven receiver for dish/Brayton. All
three of these issues are currently being addressed by Sun Lab and its partners, as part
of the DOE Solar Thermal Electric Program. In addition, improvement in dish
concentrator components, specifically drives, optical elements, and structures, are still
needed and are also being addressed, albeit at a low level of effort. The solar
components are the high cost elements of a dish engine system, and improved designs,
materials, characterization, and manufacturing techniques are key to improving
competitiveness. Systems integration and product development are issues for any new
product. For example, even though MDA successfully resolved many issues for their
system, their methods may not apply or may not be available to other designs. Issues
such as installation logistics, control algorithms, facet manufacturing, mirror
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characterization, and alignment methods, although relatively pedestrian, still need
resolution for any design. Furthermore, if not addressed correctly, they can adversely
affect cost. An important function of the Joint Ventures between Sun Lab and industry
is to address these issues.
9. EVOLUTION OVERVIEW
Over the next 5 to 10 years, only evolutionary advances are expected.
The economic viability of dish/engine technology will be greatly enhanced if an
engine capable of being “solarized” (i.e., integrated with solar energy) is introduced
for another application. The best candidates are the STM 4-120 and the Kockums 4-95
kinematic Stirling engines for hybrid vehicles and industrial generators, and the
industrial gas turbine/generators. Assuming one of these engines becomes
commercial, then commercialization of dish/engine systems at some level becomes
likely. With the costs and risks of the critical power conversion unit significantly
reduced, only the concentrator, receiver, and controls would remain as issues. The
modularity of dish/engine systems will help facilitate their introduction. Developers
can evaluate prototype systems without the risks associated with multi-megawatt
installations.
The commercialization of power towers would essentially guarantee a
sizable and robust dish/engine industry. The added manufacturing volumes provided
by such a scenario for the related concentrator drives, mirror, structural, and control
components would significantly reduce costs and provide an attractive low-cost solar
product that will compete in the 25 kW to 50 MW power market.
10. PERFORMANCE AND COST DISCUSSION
From the above discussion, one of three basic scenarios will happen:
(1) no solarizable engine will be commercialized and, therefore, significant
commercialization is unlikely, (2) a solarizable engine will be introduced. And (3) a
solarizable engine will be introduced and power tower projects will be initiated. Under
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this scenario, a large and robust solar dish/engine industry will transpire. Of course,
numerous variations on the above scenarios are possible but are impossible to predict,
much less consider. For the purpose of this analysis, the second scenario is assumed.
The cost and performance data in the table reflect this scenario. A STM 4-120 or
Kockums 4-95 is assumed to become commercial by 2000, with a dish/engine
industry benefiting from mass production.
Although a Brayton engine for industrial generator sets is also a
potential positive development. A capacity factor of 50% is assumed. This
corresponds to a solar fraction of 50%. System and component costs are from industry
sources and independent Sun Lab analyses. The installed costs include the cost of
manufacturing the concentrator and power conversion unit (PCU), shipment to the
site, site preparation, installation of the concentrator and PCU, balance of plant
(connection to utility grid). The component costs include a 30% profit. These costs are
similar to those projected by SAIC at the same production rates. Because of the
proprietary nature of cost information, detailed breakdowns of cost estimates are not
available in the public domain. Costs are also extremely sensitive to production rates.
The installed costs are, therefore, extremely dependent on the market penetration
actually achieved. Component costs are a strong function of production rates. The
economic life of a dish/engine power plant is 30 years. The construction period is
much less than one year.
11. ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
1. Solar dish-engine systems are being developed for use in emerging global
markets for distributed generation, green power, remote power, and grid-
connected applications.
2. High efficiency, versatility and “conventional” construction.
3. Individual units, ranging in size from 9 to 25 kilowatts.
4. Can operate independent of power grids in remote water or to provide
electricity for people living in remote areas sunny locations to pump.
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5. Land requirements for dish/engine systems are approximately 1.2-1.6 ha/MW.
6. No water is required for engine cooling. In some locations, a minimal amount
of water is required for mirror washing.
DISADVANTAGES
1. High Initial costs.
2. Sun intensity decrease due to variance in sunlight such as seasonal
changes, cloud, fog, and pollution.
12. CONCLUSIONS
Because of their versatility and hybrid capability, dish/engine systems
have a wide range of potential applications. In principle, dish/engine systems are
capable of providing power ranging from kilowatts to gigawatts. However, it is
expected that dish/engine systems will have their greatest impact in grid-connected
applications in the 1 to 50 MW power range. The largest potential market for
dish/engine systems is large scale power plants connected to the utility grid. Their
ability to be quickly installed, their inherent modularity, and their minimal
environmental impact make them a good candidate for new peaking power
installations. The output from many modules can be ganged together to form a
dish/engine farm and produce a collective output of virtually any desired amount. In
addition, systems can be added as needed to respond to demand increases. Hours of
peak output are often coincident with peak demand. Although dish/engine systems do
not currently have a cost-effective energy storage system, their ability to operate with
Fossil or bio-derived fuels makes them, in principal, fully dispatch able. This
capability in conjunction with their modularity and relatively benign environmental
impacts suggests that grid support benefits could be a major advantage of these
systems.
This project can provide us as a better alternative in order to cope up with the
increasing demand of power as a cheaper and renewable source over the fossil fuels
which are on the verge of extinction
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REFERENCES
1. Washom, B., “Parabolic Dish Stirling Module Development and Test Results,”
Paper No. 849516, Proceedings of the IECEC, San Francisco, CA (1984).
2. Andraka, C.E., etal., “Solar Heat Pipe Testing of the Stirling Thermal Motors
4-120 Stirling Engine,” Paper No. 96306, Proceedings of the IECEC,
Washington, D.C. (1996).
3. Buck, R., P. Heller, and H. Koch, “Receiver Development for a Dish-Brayton
System,” Proceedings of the 1996 ASME International Solar Energy
Conference, San Antonio, TX (1996).
4. Stine, W.B. and R.P. Diver, A Compendium of Solar Dish/Stirling
Technology, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM: 1994. Report
SAND93-7026 UC-236.
www.wikipedia.com
www.solardishengine.com
www.howstuffwork.com
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MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
Maintenance requirements for automotive gas turbines are expected to
be considerably lower than for a comparable auto engine because of reduced number
of parts (approximately80%lower) in manufacturing gas turbines. It is anticipated that
no regular oil filter or oil change is required. Periodic maintenance schedule is
expected to follow the following routine.
1) Replace air cleaner.
2) Inspect regenerators core and seal.
3) Change fuel filter.
4) Check/adjust air fuel control system
5) Check/adjust power control system
6) Replace igniters.
7) Clean atomizer nozzle.
Long Period Maintenance Items Include the Following :-
1) Replace regenerator's seals.
2) Replace fuel pump.
3) Repair/replace power control components.
4) Replace temperature sens
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CONCLUSION
contents
1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
2. HISTORY OF TURBINE POWERED CAR.....................................................3
3. CONSTRUCTION OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE............................................4
4. WORKING OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE...............................................9
5. PERFORMANCE RATING.............................................................................11
6. VARIABLE NOZZLE SYSTEM.....................................................................13
7. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS......................................................................15
8. MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY.........................................................16
9. EXPECTED EQUIPMENT LIFE....................................................................17
10. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES........................................................18
11. DIFFERENCE.................................................................................................20
12. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS..........................................................................21
13. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................22
14. REFERENCES.................................................................................................23
