Feedback

PID Control
 PID Controls

• Most common controller in the CPI.

• Came into use in 1930’s with the
introduction of pneumatic controllers.
• Extremely flexible and powerful control
algorithm when applied properly.
 Control Diagram of a Typical
Control Loop
Actuator
System
F1 F2

T1 T2

Sensor
System
Controller TC T
F
TT
 Logic Flow Diagram for a
Feedback Control Loop
Disturbance

Setpoint e c u
+- Controller Actuator Process CV

Sensor
 PID Control Algorithm

 1
t
de(t ) 
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t ) +  e(t )dt +  D 
 I 0 dt 
where e(t ) = ysp − ys (t )
 General Feedback Control Loop
D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s) E(s) C(s) U(s) + Y(s)

+- Gc(s) Ga(s) Gp(s) +

Ys(s)
Gs(s)
Industrial Process Control
PID
 Characteristic Equation Example
• Kc= proportional constant
• Kc= 100%/PB ; proportional band (PB)

 I= Integral time constant

 D=derivative time constant

• Operator :
• Kc= 1-100 / (PB = ……..)
• I= 0-3600 s
• D= 0-3600 s
Closed Loop Transfer Functions
• From the general feedback control loop and using
the properties of transfer functions, the following
expressions can be derived:

Y ( s) G p ( s) Ga ( s) Gc ( s)
=
Ysp ( s) G p ( s) Ga ( s) Gc ( s) Gs ( s) + 1

Y ( s) Gd ( s)
=
D( s) G p ( s) Ga ( s) Gc ( s) Gs ( s) + 1
 Characteristic Equation
• Since setpoint tracking and disturbance rejection
have the same denominator for their closed loop
transfer functions, this indicates that both setpoint
tracking and disturbance rejection have the same
general dynamic behavior.
• The roots of the denominator determine the
dynamic characteristics of the closed loop process.
• The characteristic equation is given by:

Gp (s) Ga (s) Gc (s) Gs (s) + 1 = 0

 In-Class Exercise

• Determine the dynamic behavior of a P-

only controller with Kc equal to 1 applied to
a first-order process in which the process
gain is equal to 2 and the time constant is
equal to 22. Assume that Gs(s) is equal to
one and Ga(s) behaves as a first-order
process with a time constant of 5.
 PID Control Algorithm

 1
t
de(t ) 
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t ) +  e(t )dt +  D 
 I 0 dt 
where e(t ) = ysp − ys (t )
 Definition of Terms
• e(t)- the error from setpoint [e(t)=ysp-ys].
• Kc- the controller gain is a tuning parameter
and largely determines the controller
aggressiveness.
• I- the reset time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of integral action.
• D- the derivative time is a tuning
parameter and determines the amount of
derivative action.
 Transfer Function for a PID
Controller

C (s)  1 
Gc ( s ) = = K c 1 + +  D s
E (s)  Is 
 Example for a First Order
Process with a PI Controller
Kc = 2  I = 10 Kp =1 p =5
Characteristic Equation :
 1  2 
 5s + 1 2 + 10 s  + 1 = 0
  
Rearrangin g
25 s + 15 s + 1 = 0
2


p =5  = 1.5
Example of a PI Controller Applied
to a Second Order Process
K c = 1;  I = 1; K p = 1;  p = 5;  = 2
Characteristic Equation :
 1  1
 25 s 2 + 20 s + 1 1 +  + 1 = 0
  s
Rearrangin g
25 s + 20 s + 2s + 1 = 0
3 2

p1 = − 0.764 and a second order

response with  p = 4.37 and  = 0.08
 Properties of Proportional Action
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t )
Gc ( s ) = K c
Kc K p • Closed loop transfer function
Kc K p + 1 base on a P-only controller
Y ( s)
= applied to a first order
Ysp ( s ) p
s +1 process.
Kc K p + 1 • Properties of P control
– Does not change order of
process
– Closed loop time constant is
smaller than open loop p
– Does not eliminate offset.
Offset Resulting from P-only
Control

Setpoint Offset
1.0

1
0
Time
Proportional Action for the
Response of a PI Controller
ysp

ys

cprop

Time
 Proportional Action

• The primary benefit of proportional action

is that it speedup the response of the
process.
 Properties of Integral Action
Kc t
c(t ) = c0 +
I 
0
e(t ) dt
• Based on applying an I-
Y ( s) 1 only controller to a first
=
Ysp ( s)  I p 2 I order process
s + s + 1
Kc K p Kc K p • Properties of I control
 I p – Offset is eliminated
 p = – Increases the order by 1
Kc K p
– As integral action is
1 I increased, the process
 =
2  p Kc K p becomes faster, but at
the expense of more
sustained oscillations
Integral Action for the Response
of a PI Controller
ysp

ys

cint

Time
 Integral Action

• The primary benefit of integral action is that

it removes offset from setpoint.
• In addition, for a PI controller all the
steady-state change in the controller output
results from integral action.
 Properties of Derivative Action
de(t )
c(t ) = c0 + K c D
dt
Y (s) K c K p D s
= 2 2
Ysp ( s )  p s + (2 p + K c K p D )s + 1

• Closed loop transfer function for derivative-only

control applied to a second order process.
• Properties of derivative control:
– Does not change the order of the process
– Does not eliminate offset
– Reduces the oscillatory nature of the
feedback response
 Derivative Action for the
Response of a PID Controller

ysp

ys

cder

Time
 Derivative Action

• The primary benefit of derivative action is

that it reduces the oscillatory nature of the
closed-loop response.
 Position Form of the PID
Algorithm

 1 d e(t ) 

t
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t ) + e(t )dt +  D 
 I 0 dt 
 Proportional Band
100 %
PB =
Kc
• Another way to express the controller gain.
• Kc in this formula is dimensionless. That is, the
controller output is scaled 0-100% and the error
from setpoint is scaled 0-100%.
• In more frequent use 10-15 years ago, but it still
appears as an option on DCS’s.
 Conversion from PB to Kc

• Proportional band is equal to 200%.

• The range of the error from setpoint is 200 psi.
• The controller output range is 0 to 100%.

100% 100%
K =
D
c = = 0.5
PB 200%
 100% 
K c = 0.5  = 0.25 % / psi
 200 psi 
 Conversion from Kc to PB

• Controller gain is equal to 15 %/ºF

• The range of the error from setpoint is 25 ºF.
• The controller output range is 0 to 100%.

 15%  25º F 
K =
D
c   = 3.75
 º F  100% 
100% 
PB =   = 26.7%
 3.75 
 Digital Equivalent of PID
Controller

 n


0
e(t ) dt   e(i t ) t
i =1
• The trapezoidal
approximation of the
integral.

d e(t ) e(t ) − e(t − t ) • Backward difference


dt t approximation of the
first derivative
 Digital Version of PID Control
Algorithm

 t n e(t ) − e(t − t ) 
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t ) +  e(i t ) +  D 
  I i =1 t 

t
n=
t
 Derivation of the Velocity Form
of the PID Control Algorithm
 t n
e(t ) − e(t − t ) 
c(t ) = c0 + K c e(t ) +
I
 e(i t ) +  D
t

 i =1 

 t n −1 e(t − t ) − e(t − 2t ) 

c(t − t ) = c0 + K c e(t − t ) +  e(i t ) +  D 
  I i =1  t 
________________________________________________________
 t e(t )  e(t ) − 2e(t − t ) + e(t − 2t ) 
c(t ) = K c e(t ) − e(t − t ) + + D  
 I  t 
 Velocity Form of PID Controller

 t e(t )  e(t ) − 2e(t − t ) + e(t − 2t )  

c(t ) = K c e(t ) − e(t − t ) + + D  
  I  t 

c(t ) = c(t − t ) + c(t )

• Note the difference in proportional, integral, and

derivative terms from the position form.
• Velocity form is the form implemented on DCSs.
 Correction for Derivative Kick
• Derivative kick occurs when a setpoint change is
applied that causes a spike in the derivative of the
error from setpoint.
• Derivative kick can be eliminated by replacing the
approximation of the derivative based on the error
from setpoint with the negative of the approximation
of the derivative based on the measured value of the
controlled variable, i.e.,

ys (t ) − 2 ys (t − t ) + ys (t − 2 t )
− D
t
 Correction for Aggressive
Setpoint Tracking
• For certain process, tuning the controller for good
disturbance rejection performance results in
excessively aggressive action for setpoint changes.
• This problem can be corrected by removing the
setpoint from the proportional term. Then setpoint
tracking is accomplished by integral action only.

K c e(t ) − e(t − t ) substituted for by K c  ys (t − t ) − ys (t )

 The Three Versions of the PID
Algorithm Offered on DCS’s
• (1) The original form in which the
proportional, integral, and derivative terms
are based on the error from setpoint

 t e(t )  e(t ) − 2e(t − t ) + e(t − 2t ) 

c(t ) = K c e(t ) − e(t − t ) + + D  
 I  t 
 The Three Versions of the PID
Algorithm Offered on DCSs
• (2) The form in which the proportional and
integral terms are based on the error from
setpoint while the derivative-on-
measurement is used for the derivative term.

 t e(t )  ys (t ) − 2 ys (t − t ) + ys (t − 2t ) 
c(t ) = K c e(t ) − e(t − t ) + − D  
 I  t 
 The Three Versions of the PID
Algorithm Offered on DCS’s
• (3) The form in which the proportional and
derivative terms are based on the process
measurement and the integral is based on
the error from setpoint.

 t e(t )  y (t ) − 2 ys (t − t ) + ys (t − 2t ) 
c(t ) = K c  ys (t − t ) − ys (t ) + − D  s 
 I  t 
 Guidelines for Selecting Direct
and Reverse Acting PID’s
• Consider a direct acting final control element to be
positive and reverse to be negative.
• If the sign of the product of the final control
element and the process gain is positive, use the
reverse acting PID algorithm.
• If the sign of the product is negative, use the direct
acting PID algorithm
• If control signal goes to a control valve with a valve
positioner, the actuator is considered direct acting.
 Level Control Example
• Process gain is positive
because when flow in is
increased, the level
Fin
LT LC
increases.
• If the final control
L
Fout element is direct acting,
use reverse acting PID.
• For reverse acting final
control element, use
direct acting PID.
 Level Control Example
• Process gain is negative
because when flow out
Fin is increased, the level
LT LC decreases.
L • If the final control
Fout element is direct acting,
use direct acting PID.
• For reverse acting final
control element, use
reverse acting PID.
 In-Class Exercise
• Write the position form of the PID
algorithm for Example 3.4, and assume that
the control valve on the feed line to the
mixer has an air-to-close actuator. Use the
form that is not susceptible to derivative
kick. Specify whether the controller is a
direct-acting or reverse-acting controller.
 In-Class Exercise
• Write the velocity form of the PID
algorithm for Example 3.1, and assume that
the control valve on the feed line to the
mixer has an air-to-open actuator. Use the
form that is not susceptible to derivative
kick or proportional kick. Specify whether
the controller is a direct-acting or reverse-
acting controller.
 Filtering the Process
Measurement
y f (t ) = f ys (t ) + (1 − f ) y f (t − t )

• Filtering reduces the effect of sensor noise

by approximating a running average.
• Filtering adds lag when the filtered
measurement is used for control.
• Normally, use the minimum amount of
filtering necessary.
• f- filter factor (0-1)
 Feedback Loop with Sensor
Filtering
D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s) E(s) C(s) U(s) Y(s)

+- Gc(s) Ga(s) Gp(s) ++

Yf(s) Ys(s)
Gf(s) Gs(s)
Effect of Filtering on Closed
Loop Dynamics
Characteristic equation for P − only controller
on first order process with sensor filtering :
 Kp   1 
Kc    +1= 0
 p s + 1  f s + 1
  p f
p =
Kc K p + 1
p + f
 =
2  p  f ( K c K p + 1)
 Analysis of Example
• f is equal to t (1/f-1) as f becomes
small, f becomes large.
• As f is increased, p’ will increase.
• Critical issue is relative magnitude of f
compare to p.
Effect of the Amount of Filtering
on the Open Loop Response
Filtered Temperature

f=0.3

f=0.1
f=0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (seconds)
 Effect of a Noisy Sensor on
Controlled Variable without Filtering

Product Temperature

Manipulated Variable

Time
 Effect of a Noisy Sensor on
Controlled Variable with Filtering

Product Temperature

Manipulated Variable

Time
 An Example of Too Much and
Too Little Filtering
Temperature (ºC)

104

102 f=0.01
f=0.2
f=0.5
100
0 50 100 150 200
Time (seconds)
Relationship between Filter Factor
(f), the Resulting Repeatability
Reduction Ratio (R) and the Filter
Time Constant (f)

2 2− f
f = 2 or R =
R +1 f
1 
 f = t f  − 1
f 
 Key Issues for Sensor Filtering

• To reduce the effect of noise (i.e., R is

increased), f must be reduced, which
increases the value of f. Filtering slows the
closed-loop response significantly as f
becomes larger than 10% of p.
• The effect of filtering on the closed-loop
response can be reduced by increasing the
frequency with which the filter is applied,
i.e., reducing f.
 PID Controller Design Issues
• Over 90% of control loops use PI controller.
• P-only: used for fast responding processes
that do not require offset free operation
(e.g., certain level and pressure controllers)
• PI: used for fast responding processes that
require offset free operation (e.g., certain
flow, level, pressure, temperature, and
composition controllers)
 Integrating Processes

• For integrating processes, P-only control

provides offset-free operation. In fact, if as
integral action is added to such a case, the
control performance degrades.
• Therefore, for integrating processes, P-only
control is all that is usually required.
 PID Controller Design Issues
• PID: use for sluggish processes (i.e., a process
with large deadtime to time constant ratios) or
processes that exhibit severe ringing for PI
controllers. PID controllers are applied to
certain temperature and composition control
loops. Use derivative action when:

p
1
p
Comparison between PI and PID
for a Low p/p Ratio

PI

PID
Time
Comparison between PI and PID
for a High p/p Ratio

PI

PID

Time
Analysis of Several Commonly
Encountered Control Loops
• Flow control loops
• Level control loops
• Pressure control loops
• Temperature control loops
• Composition control loops
• DO control loop
• Biomass controller
 Flow Control Loop
FC Flow
Setpoint

FT

• Since the flow sensor and the process (changes in

flow rate for a change in the valve position) are so
fast, the dynamics of the flow control loop is
controlled by the dynamics of the control valve.
• Almost always use PI controller.
 Deadband of a Control Valve
Stem Position

Air Pressure

Time

• Deadband of industrial valves is between ±10%-

±25%.
• As a result, small changes in the air pressure
applied to the valve do not change the flow rate.
Deadband of Flow Control Loop

Flow Rate

0 20 40 60
Time (seconds)
• A control valve (deadband of ±10-25%) in a flow
control loop or with a positioner typically has a
deadband for the average flow rate of less than
±0.5% due to the high frequency opening and
closing of the valve around the specified flow rate.
 Level Control Loop

• Dynamics of the sensor

Fin
Lsp and actuator are fast
Fout
LC LT
compared to the
FT process.
FC
• Use P-only controller if
RSP
it is an integrating
process.
 Pressure Control Process
Psp PC

Vent
PT C.W.

• The sensor is generally faster than the actuator,

which is faster than the process.
• Use P-only controller if it is an integrating process
otherwise use a PI controller.
 Temperature Control Loop
• The dynamics of the
process and sensor are
usually slower than
TT TC Tsp the actuator.
RSP • Use a PI controller
Process
FC
unless the process is
Stream
FT sufficiently sluggish to
Gas warrant a PID
controller.
Analysis of PI Controller Applied
to Typical Temperature Loop

 I = 30;  p = 60;  s = 20
 1   Kp   1 
Kc 1 +      + 1 = 0
30s   60s + 1   20 s + 1 

Kc Kp p1 τp ζ
0.02 0.057 325 1.48
0.10 0.056 140 0.74
0.80 0.051 48 0.37
1.50 0.057 28 0.14
 Further Analysis of Dynamic of a
Typical Temperature Control Loop

• Note that as the controller gain is increased,

i.e., KcKp increase, the closed loop time
constant becomes smaller.
• Also, note that as the controller gain is
increased, the value of  decreases.
Composition Control Loop
• The process is usually
C.W.
the slowest element
followed by the sensor
with the actuator being
the fastest.
FT AT
• Use a PI controller
FC
unless the process is
AC
sufficiently sluggish to
RSP
warrant a PID
controller.
 DO Control Loop

• The process and the

sensor have
approximately the same
AC AT
dynamic response.
• This is a fast responding
Air process for which offset-
free operation is desired.
Variable Speed
Air Compressor Therefore, PI controller
should be used.
 Biomass Controller

• The process for this

AC
system is the slowest
element.
Glucose
Feed • Because the process is
Variable
a high-order sluggish
E-1 AT
Speed process, a PID
Pump
controller is required.
 Overview
• The characteristic equation determines the
dynamic behavior of a closed loop system
• Proportional, integral, and derivative action each
have unique characteristics.
• There are a number of different ways to apply a
PID controller.
• Use a PI controller unless offset is not important
or if the process is sluggish.
• When analyzing the dynamics of a loop, consider
the dynamics of the actuator, the process, and the
sensor separately.