Geography 411 - Field Techniques
Topographic Surveying
Topographic Surveying
determining the relative locations of points (places) on the earth's surface by
measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation and directions
topos (Gr.): place; topographic maps give the locations of places (observable
features); they serve as base maps
Use of topographic surveying in geography:
producing topographic maps
constructing topographic (cross-sectional) profiles
establishing vertical and horizontal control for accurately defining locations
General Principles
1. select a scale in advance; this determines the plotable error
2. work from the most accurate to the least accurate methods
3. orient each survey, preferably with respect to true north
4. the first stage of surveying is always
establishing horizontal and vertical control: the distance, direction and
difference in elevation between key fixed points
5. establish a survey plan that includes checks on accuracy, e.g. redundant points,
pacing of measured distances, surveying between fixed positions, etc.
Methods
1. horizontal distance
o tachymetry: a rapid optical means of measuring distance using a
telescope with cross hairs and a stadia rod (one stadium = about 607
feet)
o measuring slopes distance with a tape and reducing it to horizontal
distance using the cosine of the slope gradient
2. difference in elevation
o leveling with a level telescope and a stadia rod, or
o measuring a vertical angles and a slope distance (height is the product of
the distance and sine of the angle)
Leveling is more accurate since elevation differences are measured not
calculated. Two readings are taken at each position of the automatic level:
a backsight towards a station located before the level on the traverse and
a foresight to the next station on the traverse. Thus the stadia rod occupies two
stations, before and after the level on the survey. The difference in elevation
between successive stations if the difference between the backsight and the
foresight read from the stadia rod. For each position of the level, the lengths of
the foresights and backsights should be approximately the same since accuracy
is a function of the distance of a sighting. The level operator should anticipate
the distance to the next station and set up the level midway along this distance
(note: the distance that can be sighted decreases with increase in slope, since
the stadia rod will disappear above or below the level line of sight). The
lengths of backsight and foresight can be paced by the rod person or measured
by the interval between the upper and lower cross hairs (tachymetry).
3. direction
horizontal angle measured with a compass
precise measuring devices use vernier scales
direction is expressed relative to a reference line or meridian
true meridian: a north-south line
magnetic meridian: a line parallel with the earth's magnetic lines
of force
assumed meridian: an arbitrary line
Types of horizontal angles
1. bearing: angles expressed relative to a meridian using the quadrant and an acute
angle, e.g. N37oE, S62oE, N20oW
2. azimuth: the clockwise angle from the north branch of a meridian, e.g.
45o (northeast), 180o (south)
3. deflection angle: the angle between a line and the prolongation of a preceding
line; it is a right or left angle depending on whether the new line is right
(clockwise) or left (counterclockwise) of the preceding line
4. interior angle: an angle inside a closed polygon
Types of Traverses
1. azimuth: along a single direction (azimuth); common for slope profile surveys
where the profile is always perpendicular to contours (i.e. maximum slope
angle)
2. closed traverse: begins and ends at fixed control points of known location;
permits calculation and adjustment for closure error
3. closed-loop traverse: begins and ends at the same station; permits calculation
and adjustment for closure error and use of interior and deflection angles
4. open traverse: surveying from a known position to a point of unknown position;
does not enable computational checks for error, rather all measurements must
be repeated to check for error
Shape Of The Earth And Error: The two basic problems in topographic surveying
The shape of the earth (the geoid) is a consideration only in geodetic surveying, where
over long distances flat surfaces are not level, plumb lines are not parallel and the sum
of the angles in a triangle is greater than 180 o; thus precise surveys over large areas
employ the principles of geodesy (the mathematical properties of an ellipsoid that
emulates the earth); however with most surveys, including virtually all topographic
surveying in geography, the departure of horizontal lines from level and plane angles
from spherical angles are negligible and can be ignored
plane surveying: where the earth's surface is regarded as a plane; level lines are
considered straight, angles are considered to be plane angles and plumb lines are
considered to be parallel within the survey
with these assumptions, the relative locations of points can be calculated using the
principles of plane trigonometry:
a. for right angles: sinA = a/c, sinB = b/c, and c 2 = (a2 + b2), where A & B are the
acute angles, C is the right angle and a, b & c are the sides opposite the angles
designated with the same letter; thus the sides and angles can be calculated with
a knowledge of 1 side and 1 angle or 2 sides
b. for oblique triangles: a/sinA = b/sinB = c/sinC; thus given 2 angles and one
side or 2 sides and 1 angle are the other sides and angles can be calculated
Error
Distances and angles can never be determined exactly; measurements are subject to
error. Error can be controlled through procedure and instrumentation. Surveys are
conducted according to standard levels of accuracy (first order, second order, etc.).
The desired level of accuracy depends on the intended us of the survey data (e.g.
locating permanent stations or surveying bridges and dams versus surveying for
terrain analysis or orienteering).
For topographic mapping, the desired level accuracy is the plottable error, the shortest
distance that can be depicted on a map at a given scale. The drafting of lines generally
is accurate to within 0.25 mm. At 1:1000, 0.25 = 250 mm or 0.25 m on the ground.
Optical measuring devices will provide this level of accuracy. At 1:25,000, 0.25 mm =
6.25 m on the ground. Pacing of distance will provide this level of accuracy, although
in practise accuracy is greater than the plottable error by as much as one-third (e.g. 80
mm rather than 250 mm at a scale of 1:250,000) so that plotting and surveying errors
are not compounded.
Adjusting For Closure Error
Horizontal angles
In a closed polygon, the sum of the interior angles = 180 o (n-2), where n is the
number of sides in the polygon, thus the sum of the horizontal angles in a
triangle (n = 3) is 180o; an equal angle is subtracted or added to each
measurement to satisfy the equation for interior angles; if the closure error is
not equally divisible by n, make the largest adjustments to the largest angles.
The sum of deflection angles for any closed polygon is always 360 o; this
provides for another means of determining and adjusting for closure error.
Difference in elevation
Closure error can be determined for closed and closed-loop traverses. The closure
error can be divided by the number of stations on the traverse or the correction at each
station can be calculated according to the distance from the origin of the survey:
Ci = di/L * Ec, where
Ci = the correction applied to station I
di = the distance to station i from the origin of the
traverse
L = the total length of the traverse
Ec = the closure error
This method accounts for the propagation of error with distance.
Horizontal distances
As with leveling, closure error can be determined for closed and closed-loop traverses,
where the coordinates of the end points are identical or known. Location in the
horizontal plane are given by x and y coordinates (e.g. northing and easting). Using
the measured horizontal distances and adjusted angles, calculate the coordinates of
each station. The difference between the calculated and known coordinates of the end
control point is dx and dy, the closure error in x and y. As with leveling, the
adjustment is a function of the distance traversed (Li) relative to the total length of the
traverse (L):
Cdxi = dx * Li/L Cdyi = dy * Lii/L, where Cdxi and Cdyi are the adjustments in x and
y coordinates at station i
The relative accuracy of distance measurements can be expressed as ((dx 2 + dy2)1/2)/L.
An angular error of one minute is equivalent to a distance measurement error of 3 cm
over a distance of 100 m, since the sine of 1/60 o is .00029.
