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International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2002; 12: 359 –372

UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry*

Blackwell Science, Ltd

Introduction
The twelfth National Clinical Guideline in Paediatric Dentistry is published here. The process of guideline
production began in 1994, resulting in first publication in 1997. Each guideline has a nominated main author
but the content is not a personal view; it represents rather a consensus of opinion of current best clinical
practice. Each guideline has been circulated to all consultants in paediatric dentistry in the UK, to the Council
of the BSPD, and to people of related specialities recognized to have expertise in the subject. The final version
of the guideline is produced from a combination of this input and thorough review of published literature.
The intention is to encourage improvement in clinical practice and to stimulate research and clinical audit
in areas where scientific evidence is inadequate. Evidence underlying recommendations is scored according
to the SIGN classification and guidelines should be read in this context. For those wishing further detail,
the process of guideline production in the UK is described in International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry
1997; 7: 267–268.

Managing anxious children: the use of conscious sedation in

paediatric dentistry

M. T. HOSEY

management of anxious children within paediatric

Introduction
dental care in the UK. Indeed, even in parts of the
All children should be able to expect painless, high world where deep sedation techniques are more
quality dental care. The following guideline is common, their use is often limited to hospitals [1].
intended to assist dentists in the management of Nitrous oxide inhalation sedation remains the pre-
healthy anxious children; discussion of the sedation ferred technique for the pharmacological manage-
of medically compromised children or those with a ment of anxious paediatric dental patients.
learning disability is not included. It is hoped that this guideline will be an adjunct
Behavioural management and prevention, coupled to clinical judgement and careful treatment planning
with local anaesthesia when required, form the within both primary dental care and specialist
foundation of the delivery of pain-free dentistry to paediatric dentistry practice. It is therefore generally
children. Although behavioural management may need assumed that the dentist is also the sedationist.
to be augmented with conscious sedation for some Restraining devices (such as the papoose board) and
anxious children, pharmacological agents are not deep sedation techniques (where the patient is more
substitutes for effective communication and the per- deeply sedated than the General Dental Council
suasive ability of the operator. There is certainly no definition of conscious sedation [2]) are not accept-
place for invasive and high-risk sedative techniques able in UK dental practice. Where there is evidence
such as deep sedation or polypharmacy in the dental or a substantive body of opinion relating to a specific
drug or route indicating that deep sedation might
Correspondence: Marie Therese Hosey, University of Glasgow, occur, or where research is meagre, referral to a
Glasgow, UK. E-mail: [email protected] hospital-based paediatric dental service and, where

© 2002 Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons 359

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360 M. T. Hosey

Table 1. ASA Classification.

Class I No organic, physiological, biochemical or psychiatric disturbance.
Class II Mild to moderate systemic disturbance, e.g. mild diabetes, moderate anaemia, well-controlled asthma, not disabling.
Class III Severe systemic disease, e.g. severe diabetes with vascular complications, severe pulmonary insufficiency, disabling.
Class IV Severe systemic disorders that are already life-threatening, e.g. signs of cardiac insufficiency.
Class V The moribund patient who has little chance of survival without operative intervention.

appropriate, the assistance of a qualified anaesthetist

1.2 Goals of paediatric conscious sedation are to:
has been recommended. As such, not all drugs
reported in this guideline are recommended for use Grade C
in primary care dentistry in the UK, but are included 1 Promote patient welfare and safety.
because the author is aware that the diversity of pub- 2 Facilitate the provision of quality care.
lished literature might lead some dental practitioners 3 Minimize the extremes of disruptive behaviour.
to consider using them in an effort to find an alter- 4 Promote a positive psychological response to
native to general anaesthesia. treatment.
These guidelines should be read in the context of 5 Return the child to a physiological state in which
the contemporary recommendations of the GDC safe discharge is possible [4].
and the UK national and regional government and
other respected authorities, particularly in respect
1.3 Patient assessment
of appropriate qualifications, staffing level, training,
equipment and facilities. Grade C
This guideline is based on the evidence currently • This must include a full medical and dental history
available but even although the paediatric dental and must be performed before the decision to pro-
sedation literature is extensive, there are relatively vide treatment under conscious sedation is made.
few randomised controlled trials. Furthermore, the
evaluation of the efficacy of an individual drug is often
1.4 Fitness for conscious sedation
confounded by the use of polypharmacy, restraining
devices and diverse methodology. The Poswillo Report Grade C
[3] clearly stated that conscious sedation should • Children who are ASA I or II (Table 1) can be
involve the administration of a single drug. In the deemed fit to undergo conscious sedation in gen-
light of the paucity of evidence to the converse, and eral, community or specialist (paediatric) practice.
in the interest of the safety and well-being of child • Those who are not in these categories requiring
dental patients, this guideline will apply this prin- conscious sedation should be treated in a hospital
ciple to children’s dentistry in the UK. environment with due consideration to their indi-
vidual needs and medical condition, involving the
assistance of medical colleagues where appropriate.
1.0 Conscious sedation

1.1 General Dental Council definition 1.5 Patient information and consent [2]
A technique in which the use of a drug or drugs Grade C
produces a state of depression of the central nervous • Informed consent for a course of dental treatment
system enabling treatment to be carried out, but during under conscious sedation must be obtained from each
which verbal contact with the patient is maintained parent/guardian, and the child, where appropriate,
throughout the period of sedation. The drugs and tech- prior to the conscious sedation appointment.
niques used to provide conscious sedation for dental • An explanation of the sedation technique proposed
treatment should carry a margin of safety wide enough and of appropriate alternative methods of pain and
to render unintended loss of consciousness unlikely. anxiety control must be given.
The level of sedation must be such that the patient • In advance of the procedure, the child and their
remains conscious, retains protective reflexes, and parent or guardian must be given clear and com-
is able to understand and to respond to verbal prehensive pre- and postoperative instructions in
commands [2]. writing.

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Use of conscious sedation in anxious children 361

• It is essential that primary care dentists who

1.6 Escort
sedate children undergo training that is recognized
Grade C by appropriate authorities and that their clinical
• A parent, legal guardian or other responsible adult skill and knowledge relating to paediatric conscious
must accompany the child to and from the treat- sedation, including local anaesthesia, behavioural
ment facility. management and the provision of operative dental
• A sedated child must always be attended by a care for children, is regularly updated.
suitably qualified member of the dental team. • The dental nurse should be appropriately trained
• The sedationist should be chaperoned at all times in sedation techniques. Attainment of the Certifi-
by another member of staff. cate in Dental Sedation Nursing (CDSN) from the
National Examining Board for Dental Nurses
1.7 Fasting (NEBDN) is encouraged.
• Specialist paediatric dentists are expected to have
Grade C acquired the necessary skills and competency for-
• Fasting is not required for children undergoing nitrous oxide inhalation conscious sedation, but such
inhalation sedation using nitrous oxide but dentists individuals are still obliged to update themselves
might recommend that a light meal only is consumed regularly and to adhere to national and regional
in the two hours prior to the appointment. policy and procedure.

Grade C
• Children who undergo all other forms of seda- 2.0 Choice of sedative agent for children
tion should be fasted prior to the procedure as undergoing dental treatment
follows: The drug groups used for paediatric dental sedation
• No solid food within 6 h include inhalational agents, benzodiazepines, other
• No milk within 4 h sedative hypnotics and psychosedatives.
• No clear fluid within 2 h

2.1 Nitrous oxide

1.8 Documentation
Grade C 2.1.1 Indications
The notes must: Grade A
• Include the name and signature of the operator Nitrous oxide inhalation sedation:
together with the name(s) of the assistants. • Should be offered to children with mild to moderate
• Contain a clear treatment plan, completed medical anxiety to enable them to accept dental treatment
history and consent form, appropriate radiographs better and to facilitate coping across sequential visits.
and briefly give an account of the reason for the • Should not be used in isolation from the support
need for sedation. given to the child by the dentist.
• Document the operative treatment that was
performed, the name of the drug, concentration Grade B
and batch number (if appropriate), dosage, route • Can be used to facilitate dental extractions in children.
and duration of sedation. • Is preferred to general anaesthesia for anxious
• State which monitors were used (as appropriate) children undergoing elective orthodontic (premolar)
together with their readings. extractions.
• Include a time-based record where appropriate. • Is a cost effective alternative to general anaesthesia.
• Is a weak analgesic, although this effect can be
1.9 Staff training requirements influenced by the psychological preparation of the
patient.
Grade C
• The dental team must undergo appropriate training Grade C
on a regular basis as determined by competent • Has a minimal effect on cardiovascular and res-
authorities. piratory function.

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362 M. T. Hosey

2.1.2 Contra-indications 2.3 Midazolam

Nitrous oxide inhalation sedation: 2.3.1 Grade B
• Midazolam is generally reserved for anxious ado-
Grade B lescent or adult dental patients.
• Is of less value in those who require multiple extra- • It can cause disinhibition rather than sedation in
ctions, poor attenders and very young children. children.
Grade C 2.3.2 Grade C
Contra-indications to nitrous oxide inhalation
Oral midazolam:
sedation include:
• May have a potential value as a pre-medication
• Common cold, tonsillitis, nasal blockage and and sedative agent.
bleomycin chemotherapy [5]. • Is not recommended for use outwith a hospital
• Pre-co-operative children. environment.
• First trimester of pregnancy.
2.3.3
2.1.3 Nitrous oxide pollution Intra-nasal midazolam:

Grade C Grade B
• Dental operators should ensure that they comply • Is not recommended in children who have copious
with COSHH [6] in respect of N2O pollution and nasal secretions or who suffer from an upper res-
gas safety. piratory tract infection.
• Is not recommended for use outwith a hospital
environment.
2.1.4 Other inhalational agents
2.3.4
Grade C
• Although isoflurane and other inhalational agents Rectal midazolam:
such as sevoflurane have been reported, their use Grade A
in children should be limited until further research • Can facilitate restorative treatment in uncoopera-
emerges. tive children.
Grade C
2.2 Diazepam and temazepam • Should only be attempted in a hospital facility
with the assistance of a qualified anaesthetist.
2.2.1
2.3.5 Grade C
Grade B
Intramuscular midazolam:
• Oral benzodiazepines can be used to relax anxious
patients prior to dental treatment but their effects • Is not recommended for conscious sedation in
can be unpredictable in children. paediatric dentistry.

2.4 Flumazenil (Anexate)

2.2.2 Rectal diazepam Grade B
Grade B • Reversal with Flumazenil should not be used as
• The anterograde amnesia produced might be of value a routine part of the conscious sedation procedure.
to those children who have to undergo traumatic • Flumazenil may induce convulsions [7].
dental procedures.
2.5 Opioids and other miscellaneous agents with
sedative properties (chloral hydrate, hydroxyzine,
2.2.3 Intravenous diazepam promethyaine hydrochloride, fentanyl & pethidine)
Grade C 2.5.1 Grade C
• There is no role for intravenous diazepam sedation • The efficacy of these drugs is questionable and the
in paediatric dentistry. associated risks may outweigh their benefit.

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Use of conscious sedation in anxious children 363

• Repeated administration of chloral hydrate carries • Children who are given an oral sedative should
a theoretical risk of carcinogenesis. be placed in a quiet room facility together with
• These drugs are not recommended outwith a hos- their escort and a competent member of staff.
pital environment. • Sedated children should be monitored clinically
and electronically.
2.5.2 Grade C
• The use of narcotics such as pethidine is not rec-
ommended in the UK. 3.3 Intravenous conscious sedation
• Fentanyl and other potent opioids should only be
used by a qualified anaesthetist in a hospital setting. Grade C
• Intravenous sedation is not recommended in pre-
cooperative children. Dentists should consider
2.6 Common anaesthetic agents that are used as
whether the provision of an elective general
sedatives
anaesthetic might be preferable in such circum-
2.6.1 Propofol stances.
• Single drug intravenous sedation, e.g. midazolam,
Grade C
is recommended for adolescents who are psycho-
• The use of propofol in paediatric dentistry is still
logically and emotionally suitable.
experimental and requires the assistance of a qual-
• Intravenous sedation should only be administered
ified anaesthetist in a hospital environment.
by an experienced dental sedationist with a trained
dental nurse in an appropriate facility.
2.6.2 Ketamine
• A pulse oximeter, at least, should be used to aug-
Grade C ment alert clinical observation.
• Ketamine should only be administered by a qual- • Intravenous sedation for children below the age of
ified anaesthetist in a hospital environment. 14 years should be carried out in a hospital facility.
• Patient-controlled sedation may be of value for
3.0 Routes of administration anxious adolescents.

3.1 Inhalation
3.4 Rectal
Grade C
• This is the recommended route for conscious Grade C
sedation for paediatric dentistry • Rectal administration is not socially acceptable in
the UK.
Grade B
• It is currently not recommended outwith a hospital
• The inhalational route is the most reliable in terms
facility and requires the assistance of a qualified
of onset and recovery.
anaesthetist.
• Efficacy is reduced when children object to the nasal
hood or have difficulty breathing through the nose.
3.5 Intramuscular sedation
Grade C
• Only dedicated dental nitrous oxide inhalation Grade C
sedation delivery systems must be used. • This is not recommended.
• The operator should use a close-fitting scavenging • Operators should consider whether the alternative
nasal hood. An air-entrainment valve is not required. provision of a general anaesthetic might carry a
• The use of a rubber dam improves the effect of lower risk and give greater long-term psycholog-
the sedation and reduces atmospheric pollution. ical benefit to the child.

3.2 Oral
4.0 Polypharmacy
Grade C
• The oral sedative agent should only be prescribed Grade B
and administered by the operating dentist within the • The use of multiple drugs increases the risk of
facility where the dental procedure is to take place. complication and is not recommended.

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364 M. T. Hosey

undergoing dental extractions, especially elective

5.0 Complications during paediatric dental
premolar orthodontic extractions, with the exception
conscious sedation
of very young children, those who require multiple
Grade C extractions and irregular attenders [10–20].
• Complications can include respiratory depression,
nausea, hypoxia, hyperactivity and unintentional 2.1.2
loss of consciousness.
Nitrous oxide sedation has minimal effect on car-
diovascular and respiratory function and the laryn-
6.0 Monitoring
geal reflex [10,21,22]. However, using nitrous oxide
Grade C inhalation sedation in conjunction with other sedat-
Monitoring is the continuous observation of data ives may rapidly produce a state of deep sedation
from specific organ systems to evaluate the status or general anaesthesia. Nitrous oxide should be used
of physiological function [8]. with caution on ASA 3 and ASA 4 status patients,
• Alert clinical monitoring is essential at all times. for whom it would be more appropriate to admin-
• It is vital that adequately trained staff and the ister sedation in a hospital environment supported
appropriate monitoring facilities are available to alert by a consultant anaesthetist [23].
the operator if the patient undergoes desaturation.
• Electronic monitoring is not required in nitrous 2.1.3 Nitrous oxide pollution
oxide inhalation sedation.
Exposure to nitrous oxide can result in depression of
• A minimum of pulse oximetry is an essential
vitamin B12 activity resulting in impaired synthesis of
requirement for all other types of sedation.
RNA. Dental surgeons and their staff are particularly
at risk as they are exposed to high concentrations
7.0 General anaesthesia in the confined space of a dental surgery, especially
Grade C if scavenging is inadequate [6,24–32].
• For pre-cooperative children, general anaesthesia
remains the preferred method of providing dental 2.1.4 Other inhalational agents
treatment and may carry less risk and psycholog-
Isoflurane
ical trauma than inadequate or over-sedation.
Isoflurane is more potent than nitrous oxide. It has
an ethereal odour and subanaesthetic concentrations
Explanatory notes reportedly produce rapid induction and amnesia
2.1 Nitrous oxide inhalation sedation without any significant cardiac or respiratory
impairment [33–35] but its use as a sedative has not
Nitrous oxide gas has a sweet odour, which is been thoroughly investigated in children. Isoflurane
pleasant to inhale and non-irritant. It has low tissue may irritate infant airways.
solubility and a minimum alveolar concentration
(MAC) value in excess of one atmosphere, rendering Sevoflurane
full anaesthesia without hypoxaemia impossible at Sevoflurane has been reported as a sedative in children
normal atmospheric air pressure. Poor tissue solubility undergoing dental treatment [36] and as a deep sedative
ensures its effect is characterized by rapid onset and for wisdom teeth extraction [37]. There may be a
fast recovery [9]. theoretical risk of nephrotoxicity [38]. The technique
is still experimental and should not be used in primary
2.1.1 care dental practice until further research emerges.

Nitrous oxide inhalation sedation offsets the increase

2.2 Diazepam & temazepam
in pulse and blood pressure that is related to increased
anxiety and facilitates coping across sequential visits, The benzodiazepines have been extensively used by
although some extremely anxious children may refuse both the medical and dental professions on account
to accept the nasal mask. It is a viable and cost- of their characteristic ability to act as anxiolytic,
effective alternative to general anaesthesia for children hypnotic, anticonvulsant and muscle relaxant drugs

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Use of conscious sedation in anxious children 365

which produce an anterograde amnesia [39,40]. 2.3.1 IV midazolam

Whilst the drugs are valued for pre-medication, their Whilst the use of IV midazolam has been widely
sedative effect in children is more variable. reported in adults, there are few studies to support
its routine use in the dental management of anxious
2.2.1 Oral temazepam children. Mixing midazolam and fentanyl for intravenous
Oral temazepam, administered as an elixir or use has led to respiratory arrest in a child [55].
gelatinous capsule has been reported to provide
successful sedation for both anxious adults [42,43] 2.3.2 Oral midazolam
and children [44,45]. Unfortunately, drug addicts Studies have produced conflicting results and are further
who extracted the drug from the ‘jellies’ to inject confounded by the use of restraints and cosedatives
intravenously abused the use of the gelatinous [56–61]. Oral midazolam reaches the systemic
capsule, which is no longer available. circulation via the portal circulation, this decreases
the drug’s bioavailability, necessitating a higher oral
2.2.2 Rectal diazepam dosage compared to intravenous administration [52].
Rectal administration of a solution of diazepam Midazolam is now available in hospitals in a
reaches peak serum levels in approximately 10 min blackcurrant flavoured solution. Previously, ‘crucial
[46]. Flaitz et al. (1985) using this technique to problems arose with administration of (IV formulation)
facilitate restorative care on 2–6-year-old children, oral midazolam due to its unpleasant taste’ despite
reported it to be effective, predictable and safe [47]. it having been ‘dissolved in a favourite beverage’
Whilst Jensen and Schroder (1998) suggested that [60], such as a cherry elixir [52,57,62].
the resultant amnesia facilitated better behaviour and
acceptance of dental care in 4–6-year-old children 2.3.3 Intranasal midazolam
who had undergone local anaesthetic extraction of Intranasal administration of midazolam produces a
traumatized primary incisor teeth [48]. sedative effect within 5 min of administration [63].
Studies using intranasal midazolam in paediatric
2.2.3 Intravenous diazepam dental patients are few in number and have involved
Healy and Hamilton (1971) reported that the few subjects but have shown that amnesia can be
protective laryngeal reflex was lost when IV induced [61,64]. The administered dose is limited by
diazepam was used to sedate anxious children [49]. the volume of the solution, as large volumes can cause
The use of IV diazepam has been superseded by the coughing, sneezing and expulsion of part of the drug
introduction of midazolam. [52,62]. There have been reports of occasional
respiratory depression and transient burning discomfort
effecting the nasal mucosa [59,65].
2.3 Midazolam
Pharmacological agents such as erythromycin, some 2.3.4 Rectal midazolam
calcium channel blockers and antifungals can inhibit Krafft et al. (1993) reported that rectal midazolam
midazolam metabolism, resulting in a more profound had a short duration of onset, required a low dosage
or lengthier sedative effect [7]. Midazolam, known and was easily administered [60]. However, adverse
generically as imidazobenzodiazepine, has a high reactions such as agitation, excitement, restlessness
affinity for the benzodiazepine receptor (almost double and disorientation together with significantly reduced
that of diazepam). Unlike diazepam, the basicity of blood oxygen levels, nausea and vomiting have been
the molecule allows stable water-soluble salts to be reported and ‘advanced airway management
formulated. High lipophilicity at physiological pH proficiency is recommended’ [66–69]. Indeed, the
and very high metabolic clearance and elimination use of this technique is likely to result in a level of
allow rapidity of onset and speedy recovery. Termina- sedation that is unacceptable in the United Kingdom.
tion of action is by redistribution to peripheral tis-
sues and by biotransformation [50,51]. Midazolam 2.3.5 Intramuscular midazolam
has a more rapid onset and recovery and produces Downs et al. (1997) reported that children sedated
a greater degree of amnesia than diazepam in dental using IM midazolam cried continuously throughout
patients [50–53] although it can cause hallucinations the procedure, despite the addition of nitrous oxide,
in children [54]. and did not even benefit from amnesia [70].

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366 M. T. Hosey

or in combination with chloral hydrate. Avelos-Arenas

2.4 Flumazenil
et al. (1998) reported high rates of oxygen desatura-
Flumazenil reverses all the effects of benzodi- tion when chloral hydrate-hydroxyzine hydrochloride
azepines. The duration of action of Flumazenil is combinations were used and suggested that the com-
15–140 min and is dose dependent. The half-life of bination was most effective when deep sedation was
the antagonist is shorter than midazolam, which may produced [84]. Indeed, the addition of hydroxyzine
lead to resedation, and post-op anxiety can occur resulted in 21% of children experiencing at least one
unless it is carefully titrated. Therefore, whilst episode of oxygen desaturation below 95% [85].
Flumazenil renders midazolam a safer agent for Promethazine hydrochloride is a phenothiazine
induction of anaesthesia, conscious sedation and derivative and as such is a potent tranquillising agent
IV infusion [71–78], routine reversal is not recom- that will potentiate the respiratory depressant effect
mended as part of the conscious sedation technique. of narcotics, barbiturates and other antihistamines.

2.5.3 Pethidine
2.5 Chloral hydrate, hydroxyzine and promethazine
Pethidine has been reported to cause nausea,
hydrochlorate and pethidine
vomiting and oxygen desaturation [86].
2.5.1 Chloral hydrate Evidence to support the single use of Hydroxyzine
Chloral hydrate is a chlorinated derivative of ethyl Hydrochlorate, Promethazine Hydrochlorate or
alcohol that can act as an anaesthetic when Pethidine is poor. Their use should be restricted to
administered in high doses. It is a weak analgesic the hospital environment.
and psychosedative with an elimination half-life of
approximately 8 h. In small doses, mild sedation
2.6 Common anaesthetic agents that can also be
occurs and, in intermediate doses, natural sleep is
used as sedatives
produced. Although chloral hydrate has enjoyed
widespread use as a paediatric sedative agent for 2.6.1 Propofol
many years it can be ineffective in the management Propofol (Diprivan: 2,6 di-isopropophenol) is a fast
of the refractory child due to variable absorption and acting sedative with a narrower margin of safety
partial inactivation in the hepatic portal circulation than some other agents, i.e. the dose required to
[79]. Moreover, chloral hydrate depresses blood produce a sedative effect is close to that used to
pressure and respiratory rate and may cause oxygen induce anaesthesia. Infusion pumps are used to control
desaturation [80] and prolonged drowsiness [81]. the dose, and patient controlled systems are currently
Nausea and vomiting are also common complications, in development, which have been used with some
attributable to gastric irritation. In larger doses, success in adult patients [87–93]. Veerkamp et al.
myocardial depression and arrhythmia can occur. (1997) published an account of an exploratory study
The addition of nitrous oxide resulted in 27% of where children, mainly with nursing bottle caries,
children losing control of their airway [82]. Chloral had teeth removed using propofol administered by
hydrate is contraindicated in children with heart an anaesthetist. The authors reported that conscious
disease as well as those with renal or hepatic sedation was difficult to achieve in this age group and
impairment. Recently there has been concern that recommended further investigation [94]. Furthermore,
there is a risk of carcinogenesis, especially when the use of propofol to sedate children in intensive
used repeatedly [83]. It is rapidly becoming obsolete care units has lead to severe adverse reactions,
as a sedative agent in paediatric dentistry. related to hyperlipidaemia [95]. It is therefore
recommended that the use of propofol in children
2.5.2 Hydroxyzine hydrochloride and promethazine should be regarded as experimental and as such
hydrochloride confined to hospital facilities with the assistance
Hydroxyzine hydrochloride and Promethazine of a qualified anaesthetist until further research
hydrochloride are psychosedatives with an evidence emerges in this population.
antihistaminic, antiemetic and antispasmodic effect.
Common side-effects are dry mouth, fever and skin rash. 2.6.2 Ketamine
Hydroxyzine hydrochloride is a diphenylmethane Ketamine is a powerful analgesic, which, in small
which is usually given orally or intramuscularly, singly dosages, can produce a state of dissociation whilst

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Use of conscious sedation in anxious children 367

maintaining the protective reflexes. Side-effects dose administered. Some sedationists prefer to use a
include hypertension, vivid hallucinations and (needleless) syringe placed in the buccal sulcus behind
physical movement although these are less prevalent the teeth or to mix the drug with a flavoured elixir.
in children [9]. Ketamine is also known to increase
secretions, including salivation, increasing the risk
3.3 Intravenous sedation
of laryngospasm [23,54,68,96]. Reinemer et al. (1996)
found that the combination of a benzodiazepine with The majority of studies where intravenous seda-
ketamine resulted in a statistically significant increase tion was performed have used adults, many of whom
in blood pressure, heart rate and a fall in oxygen were undergoing third molar surgery, as the study
saturation [97]. As such, advanced airway proficiency sample. The very few studies that reported the use of
was recommended [54]. This drug is not recommended intravenous sedation in children have used multiple
for use in paediatric dental sedation. drugs and have produced a deeper level of sedation
than is acceptable in the UK, and they have therefore
been excluded from this paper. Indeed, even paedi-
3.0 Routes of administration
atric dentists in the USA, who have deep sedation
techniques available, may prefer general anaesthesia
3.1 Inhalation
over parenteral sedation in their private (non-hospital)
The inhalation sedation technique that is com- practices [1,99–101].
monly used in dentistry refers to the administration
of a titrated dose of nitrous oxide in oxygen. In this
3.4 Rectal route
respect, the technique is different from the Entonox
(50 : 50 oxygen and nitrous oxide mixture) that is Although the rectal route has been reported to be
administered in maternity or medical A & E units. effective, predictable and safe, especially in relation
Only dedicated dental nitrous oxide inhalation seda- to diazepam [40,47], this route has not found wide-
tion delivery systems must be used. The standard spread acceptance in paediatric dental practice in the
delivery system is designed to prevent administra- UK, probably because an enema is required.
tion of nitrous oxide gas concentrations in excess of
70%, i.e. there is an assured minimum oxygen con-
3.5 Intramuscular
centration of 30%. There should be a fail-safe device
which shuts down nitrous oxide delivery should the Intramuscular administration of sedative agents is
oxygen supply fail. The dentist sets the flow depend- reliable but painful and was mainly used in the UK
ing on the calculated tidal volume of the patient and prior to induction of general anaesthesia. It is not
then uses a single valve to vary the percentage delivery recommended for paediatric dental management
of nitrous oxide against oxygen. Meanwhile, the [23,102].
dentist should encourage relaxation through semi-
hypnotic suggestion and reassurance as the psycho-
4.0 Polypharmacy
logical preparation by the operator exerts a beneficial
influence on the analgesic effect of the gas [98]. The use of drug combinations or premixed drug
cocktails is generally best avoided because of the
increased risk of side-effects [23,103–105].
3.2 Oral
Respiratory depression is more likely to occur
Oral agents have a slower and more variable onset when more that one sedative agent is administered.
of action and depth of sedation than sedatives Milgrom et al. reported that 63% of their anxious
administered by other routes. Compared to other young adult study group, sedated with a midazolam-
routes, onset of sedation is prolonged and duration fentanyl combination, suffered from apnoea (cessation
of action is unpredictable due to variable gastric of breathing) [106]. Barr and Wynn (1992) reported
absorption. Despite this, Nathan (1989), in a survey that 37% of children sedated with ketamine and
of USA pedodontists, reported that this was the fentanyl had either nausea or vomiting [107]. In a
preferred route even for difficult paediatric dental more recent study, almost 40% of children sedated
patients [1], even although children may spit out the with a combination of chloral hydrate, hydroxyzine
dose [59], leaving the clinician uncertain of the exact and pethidine suffered from apnoea [108].

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368 M. T. Hosey

mucosal colour are detectable and symptoms may

5.0 Complications during paediatric conscious
not become clinically evident until dangerously low
sedation
levels of oxygen tension develop [113].
The main complications related to paediatric conscious
sedation are hypoxia, nausea and vomiting and
6.1 Pulse oximetry
inadvertent general anaesthesia (over sedation).
Morbidity and mortality increases in the extremes of Pulse oximetry has revolutionized modern moni-
age and with worsening ASA classification [109]. toring procedures. It is a non-invasive method of
Sams et al. (1992), in a retrospective review of case measuring arterial oxygen saturation using a sensor
notes, reported that 48% of children had oxygen probe, placed on the patient’s finger or ear-lobe,
desaturation while sedated for dental treatment which has a red light source to detect the relative
[110]. Even although relatively few papers report difference in the absorption of light between saturated
over-sedation or other adverse effects in paediatric and desaturated haemoglobin during arterial pulsation.
dentistry, such complications are not uncommon Adequate oxygenation of the tissues occurs above
[104,111]. Indeed, even the use of a mouth prop can 95%, whereas oxygen saturations lower than this
misguide the sedationist leading to over-sedation. are considered to be hypoxaemic. Under normal cir-
The interpretation of the level of sedation in cumstances, a child’s oxygen saturation (SaO2) is
literature published outside the UK, especially in 97–100%.
relation to the GDC definition, is often difficult. The probe is sensitive to patient movement,
In the USA, the different levels of sedation are relative hypothermia, ambient light and abnormal
linked to mandatory levels of monitoring, facilities haemoglobinaemias, which means that false read-
and expertise [112]. However, despite this, a critical ings can occur. Indeed, the role of carbon dioxide
incident analysis of paediatric (medical and dental) monitoring (capnography), as an adjunct to pulse
sedation suggested that permanent neurological oximetry and alert clinical observation, is under
injury or death occurred most frequently in non-hos- increasing scrutiny [8,114–116].
pital-based facilities [104].
7.0 General anaesthesia
6.0 Monitoring
Whenever the level of sedation is found to be
Although the principal functions monitored are the inadequate the planned procedure should be
central nervous, cardiovascular and respiratory abandoned. An elective general anaesthetic is safer
systems, hypoxaemia is the major complication in than topping up the sedative dose, even when this
the sedation of paediatric dental patients. is done with extreme care [23].
Hypoxaemia is defined as a low partial pressure
of oxygen in the blood, which may be caused by
Author’s note
conditions such as failure of oxygen supply, pulmo-
nary disease, cardiovascular collapse, hyperventila- Reference to the dosage of the various drugs
tion, apnoea or airway obstruction. Traditional mentioned, with the exception of nitrous oxide, has
methods of monitoring sedated paediatric patients been deliberately excluded, as it was not my
include visual observation of skin colour, depth intention to have this guideline used as a ‘recipe
and rate of respiration, measuring pulse and blood book’ for conscious sedation of children. I am happy
pressure and listening to heart and breath sounds to give further advice or information on request.
using a pre-cordial stethoscope. Moore et al. (1984)
described a method of determining the level of
Acknowledgements
consciousness in a sedated child in which the head
was allowed to drop forward onto the chest while I’d like to express my sincere thanks to Dr Helen
an observer listened for breath sounds [82]. Marlborough, Senior Assistant Librarian, at the
Trained personnel skilled in conscious sedation University of Glasgow Library, for her invaluable
are vital to monitor the safety and well-being of the contribution to the arduous task of systematically
sedated child dental patient. However, hypoxaemia searching the wealth of published literature in this
can occur before changes in vital signs or skin and and related subject areas. Without her help the

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IPD_379.fm Page 369 Friday, August 16, 2002 9:35 AM

Use of conscious sedation in anxious children 369

compilation of this guideline would not have been dental extractions in children (see comments). British Dental
possible. Journal 1998; 184: 608– 611.
18 Crawford AN. The use of nitrous oxide-oxygen inhalation
sedation with local anaesthesia as an alternative to general
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© 2002 Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 12: 359–372