Duplex Stainless Steels

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Foreword
The first experiments making duplex stainless It is fair to say that the uses of duplex stainless steels have not reached their full
steels were initiated in the early 1930s with potential yet. Modern duplex grades combine high strength with good corrosion
Avesta AB in Sweden playing a significant role in resistance and solid formability making this family of stainless steels an
this development. As we now approach the 90th important group for material selection consideration in demanding applications re
anniversary of the development of duplex grades, maintenance-free longevity is also required.
it gives me great pleasure to provide the forward I would like to thank both Bernard Heritier and Clara Herrera who are key
for the ISSF’s new brochure on this family of members of the ISSF Long Products Committee for their dedication to this project.
stainless steels. This brochure is an extremely The detailed content and coherent structure of this publication is very much a
useful reference document that will inform and result of their combined skills and expertise in this field. I would also like to thank
guide readers in how to appropriately select the Jo Claes of the ISSF for her design skills that brought this brochure to life.
correct duplex stainless steel for specific projects.
It will also provide sound guidance for the selection of duplex stainless steels, We commend this brochure to producers, material specifiers, architects, OEMs
when this family of stainless steels may not have been otherwise considered. and stockists, with the knowledge that they will all find this a helpful tool in their
material selection decisions and market development activities.
This document covers an extensive range of helpful subject matter about duplex
stainless steels. Furthermore a detailed walk through many applications where Tim Collins
duplex stainless steels have been used provides inspiration for further usage Secretary-General
possibilities. The brochure concludes with what will be an extremely helpful guide International Stainless Steel Forum
to the fabrication of duplex stainless steels which dispels many of the myths
surrounding this branch of the stainless steels family.
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Table of contents
Foreword 6 Applications
6.1 Art
1 Introduction 6.2 Architecture
6.3 Bridges
2 Standards and Chemical Compositions 6.4 Coastal Works
Applicable Standards 6.5 Restoration
Chemical compositions 6.6 Tunnels
6.7 Transportation
3 Corrosion resistance 6.8 Chemical engineering
3.1 Uniform corrosion 6.9 Pulp and paper
3.2 Pitting and Crevice corrosion 6.10 Oil and gas
3.3 Environmentally-assisted cracking 6.11 Nuclear Energy
3.4 Fatigue corrosion (FC) 6.12 Renewable Energy
3.5 Abrasion Corrosion 6.13 Water
6.14 Multi markets
4 Physical properties
7 Fabrication
5 Mechanical Properties 7.1 Forming
5.1 Tensile properties 7.2 Machining
5.2 Range of Service Temperatures 7.3 Welding
5.3 Work hardening 7.4 Quality control
5.4 Fire resistance
5.5 Seismic resistance 8 Conclusions

9 References

10 Appendices
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1 Introduction
Duplex stainless steels form the latest family of stainless steels, tested as early steel families. Their high strength, high corrosion resistance, good processing
as in the 1930’s and mass produced from the 1970’s onwards (Refs: 1-1 to 1-6). properties – once their specifics are taken into account - have begun to be valued
Their excellent mechanical properties and their corrosion resistance have made in a wide range of new applications such as long-lasting structures (bridges,
them a first choice material for high-load applications in corrosive environments. floodgates...) and equipment (desalination plants, water and energy utilities…).
The development of the modern duplex stainless steel family began with a few Duplex stainless steels complement other stainless steel families, particularly
grades, the most representative being UNS S31803, later S32205, often referred austenitics. In some cases, duplex stainless steels should be the first choice,
to as 2205 (EN 1.4462). Then it went on in two opposite directions: while in other cases, duplex stainless steels solve corrosion unexpected corrosion
ƒ More corrosion-resistant “Superduplex” and “Hyperduplex” stainless steel problems. Examples will be given in this brochure.
grades to meet the demands of very aggressive environments.
ƒ “Lean Duplex” stainless steel grades for demands of higher strength but for This brochure will hopefully help you to consider using duplex stainless steels for
less corrosive environments, typically for structural applications. your projects.
They offer low maintenance and low Life Cycle Costs, just like the other stainless

Sluice gates at the Mont Saint Michel in France

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2 Standards and Chemical Compositions

Applicable Standards more information on PREN.

– Lean duplex grades (typefied by UNS S32304 -EN1.4362),
Duplex stainless steel grades are covered by major standards, such as EN, ISO, PREN 22-27, with a lower Ni content, without or with some Mo, are
ASTM for a number of products and/or applications (see Appendix 1). Although best for less severe environments.
there is a fairly long list of UNS grades, only a few of them make the largest part – Standard Duplex (typified by S32205 (EN 1.4462)), PREN 28–
of today’s production. 38, with 22%Cr and 3%Mo, which is mid-range in terms of
corrosion resistance.
Chemical compositions – Super duplex (typically S32520 (EN 1.4507)), PREN 39–45, with
25%Cr, 3.5% Mo and 0.22-0.3%N.
Duplex stainless steels have a structure of about 50 % ferrite (a body centered – Hyper duplex with PREN >45 for very severe environments,
cubic crystallographic structure) and 50 % austenite (a face centered cubic usually in the oil and gas industry.
crystallographic structure). To achieve this, elements that stabilise the ferrite Note: PREN stands for Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number: PREN = Cr+3.3Mo +
phase (Cr, Mo, Si, W …) are balanced by elements that stabilise the austenite 16N where Cr, Mo and N are the contents expressed in weight percent of the three
phase (Ni, N, Mn …). The ferrite/austenite ratio depends not only on the alloying elements chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen respectively (Ref 2.2). See section
elements but also on heat treatments. 3.2
Many duplex stainless steel grades are offered today, partly as a result of patents,
The classification of duplex stainless steels is done according to their partly because new grades are needed to meet new requirements, particularly for
corrosion resistance which depends on the alloying elements. It use in the oil and gas industry.
is customary to distinguish them according to their Pitting Resistance A list of duplex grades is provided in Appendix 2 and the correspondence between
Equivalent Number (PREN). (Ref 2.1) The next section provides standards is given in Appendix 3.

Champlain Bridge in Montreal, Canada. Picture courtesy of Infrastructure Canada

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3 Corrosion resistance Duplex

1200 Martensitics (Heat-Treated)
Duplex stainless steels show high corrosion Austenitics
resistance in a variety of environments like oxidising 4542 Ferritics
1000
industrial solutions, sulphuric acid containing
solutions, organic acids, diluted mineral acids and
4313
hot alkaline solutions due to the high contents of Cr,

Min Yield Stress, MPa

800 S32707
Mo and N. 4418
4410/S32750
They show an exceptional combination of high 4021
600
strength and good corrosion resistance (Figure 3.1), 4462/S31803

making it possible to design lighter components 4006 4362/S32304

and consequentially to decrease the materials and 400

4521
manufacturing costs. This led to the use of duplex 4016 4113
4529
4539
stainless steel in applications such as oil and gas, 4512
4301 4401
200
reactors and tanks in the chemical industry, water
treatment equipment, desalination plants and heat
exchangers. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
PREN
3.1 Uniform corrosion
Figure 3.1 Minimum Yield Stress vs. Pitting Corrosion Resistance (section 3.2).
Uniform corrosion or general corrosion is the Note: Grade numbers refer to EN standards and for Duplex EN and UNS
uniform loss of metal over an entire surface area Mechanical properties of stainless steels (martensitic are in the heat treated condition) are those of EN 10088-3 and
or a large fraction of the total area. It occurs when 2 standards.
the material is exposed to strong acids (organic
acids are less aggressive than inorganic acids), hot
alkaline environments and many other media used
in chemical engineering processes. Certain minor rates, typically less than 0.1 mm/year are required. It must be pointed out that the PREN should NOT
chemicals and impurities (such as chlorides and Corrosion Tables for stainless steels, covering a be used to predict or to rank stainless steels when
fluorides) and abrasive solids will increase corrosion wide range of chemicals are available and provide a uniform corrosion occurs. For instance, in media with
rates. Conversely, some impurities will reduce the rough guide for alloy selection. Under real industrial a high pH, molybdenum does not contribute to the
corrosion rate. In extremely aggressive media, the conditions, other factors may contribute to corrosion: corrosion resistance.
passive film may not able to prevent completely the aeration, variations of temperature, stop/start Sulphuric acid content solutions are used in several
onset of corrosion. Materials with very low corrosion conditions, flow rates, impurities, etc… industrial processes. Duplex grades must be selected
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to withstand the acidity and the temperature of the medium. Lean duplex can 120
rates that have been
Maximum corrosion rates of materials in batch digester liquors

be used in less aggressive conditions. With increasing acidity and temperature measured in laboratory
standard duplex (S32205) may be the best option, in some case better than 100
corrosion testing of
austenitic grades 316LN or 317LM. For harsher environments, super duplex 80 metals in batch and

Corrosion rate (mpy)

stainless steels are recommended (Figure 3.2). 60
continuous digester
For specific media, lab tests and industrial experience are necessary to refine liquors at 170°C are
40
shown in Figure 3.3.
20 Duplex grades present
160 excellent uniform
corrosion resistance
0
TP312 2507 2205 Alloy 82 TP309 Alloy 625 TP318L TP304L A285-C A516-70
Overlay Duplex Duplex Overlay Overlay Overlay Austenitic Austenitic Steel Steel
140 a. even superior to some
Boiling point curve Ni-base alloys for this
120
application.
100
Maximum corrosion rates for materials in continuous digester liquors Strong alcalis like
Temperature (°C)

1000
caustic soda (NaOH) or
80
100
caustic potash solutions
Alloy 20
(KOH) are not very
corrosive, independently

Corrosion rate (mpy)

60
10

904L of their concentrations,

40 1
when the temperature is
20 2205 2507 0.1
below 100°C. At higher
317 LMN
254 SMO temperatures, where
Type 316
0 0.01
2304 TP312 TP309 Alloy 625
the risk of corrosion
Alloy 82 2205 TP304L A516-70 A285-C
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sulfuric acid concentration (weight %)
Duplex Overlay Overlay Overlay
b. cracking is high, duplex
Overlay Duplex Austenitic Steel Steel

stainless steels, UNS

Figure 3.2 Corrosion in non-aerated sulphuric acid, 0.1 mm/yr (0.004 inch/yr) isocorrosion diagram Figure 3.3 Maximum corrosion rates measured in laboratory S32205 (EN 1.4462)
(laboratory tests using reagent grade sulphuric acid). corrosion testing of metals and alloys in (a) batch
digester liquors and (b) continuous digester extraction
or lean duplex, are
Source: Producer data sheets, 254 SMO is a trademark of Outokumpu.
liquors at 170°C. (Ref. 3.5). Note the log scale. recommended. Super
Duplex stainless
steels are used at
the relative performance of grades. For example different materials, like carbon temperatures up to
steels, stainless steels and nickel-based alloys have been used for batch and about 150°C. These high-temperature caustic environments are found in the
continuous digesters in the pulp and paper production. The maximum corrosion fabrication of alkalis, in oil refineries, in pulp and paper manufacturing and in the
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Caustic Solution Corrosion Chart

processing of alumina. 0.2
S32101 - NaOH During curing cycles at
2.0
The uniform corrosion S32205 - NaOH
S32304 - NaOH
a temperature between
in duplex grades is 0.15
1.5
70°C and 170°C, there

Weight loss in mg
Corrosion rate (mm/year)
lower than 0.3 mm/ is a change in the
year in caustic soda 0.1 1.0 chemical composition of
and sulphide-containing the environment, which
caustic solution (white 0.05
0.5 then contains organic
liquor) even at 170°C. impurities in addition
However, sulphide 0
90°C for 21 days 103°C for 21 days to polysulphides. The
additions increase duplex family presents
0
Lean Duplex LDX2101 304L stainless 316L stainless
40 60 90 170
a.
the corrosion rate in Temperature (°C)
good resistance against
Figure 3.5 Corrosion rate in white liquor (Ref 3.13)
duplex stainless steels, uniform corrosion
especially in grades and stress corrosion
containing Mo like 0.3
cracking in white liquor
UNS S32205 (EN 1.4462) S32101 - WL
S32205 - WL
environments with 20 % caustic soda, chlorides and sulphur contents.
(Figure 3.4 and 3.5). 0.25
S32304 - WL

In paper manufacturing,
Corrosion rate (mm/year)

0.2

sulphides are a
corrosion aggravating 0.15
80 White liquor
316L
factor (Figure 3.6). 0.1 304L
NaOH: 125g/I
Na2S: 50g/II
The processes used to 60
S31803 - 22Cr3Mo duplex Na2/So4: 16g/I

Corrosion rate mdd

S32520 - 25Cr3.5Mo1.5Cu duplex Na2CO3: 27g/I
manufacture cellulose 0.05
Sulfidity: 21%
H2S bubbling
from wood (kraft 0 40
process) involve cooking 40 60 90 170
Temperature (°C)
b.
the wood chips at 170°C, 20
under pressure, with Figure 3.4 Corrosion rates of some duplex grades in (a)
liquor composed of 20 % 3.75M NaOH and (b) 3.75M NaOH + 0.64M Na2S (White
soda, to which sodium Liquor) solutions at different test temperatures. 20 40 60 80 100 120

sulphide Na2S, sodium (Ref 3.12) Chloride concentration (g/l)

carbonate Na2CO3 Figure 3.6 Corrosion rates in white liquor - kraft process
and traces of sodium (Ref 2.2)
thiosulphate Na2S2O3 Uniform corrosion tests in the pulp and paper
have been added. industry. Samples are submitted to hot plate boiling
effects. The samples are 140°C and the liquor 80°C.
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3.2 Pitting and Crevice corrosion chloride-containing environment.

Other formulas have been developed taking into account other elements like W
Pitting corrosion is a localised corrosion that produces holes or cavities in the and Mn. W has a positive effect on the pitting resistance, while Mn decreases it.
metal. Pitting corrosion can be more destructive than uniform corrosion because
it is difficult to predict, detect and design against. PRENW = %Cr + 3.3 × (%Mo+ 0.5%W) + 16 × %N
The pitting resistance depends strongly on the chemical composition of the steel PRENMn = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 16 × %N - %Mn
and is affected by different parameters like temperature, Cl- content, pH value and
the presence of an oxidising agent. Increasing Cr and Mo, which have a positive effect on pitting corrosion resistance,
The elements which have an important effect on the pitting corrosion resistance requires a corresponding increase of austenite stabiliser elements to maintain
are chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. The following empirical formula is the 50 % ferrite / 50 % austenite ratio. An unwanted consequence is that some
widely used: intermetallic phases, very detrimental to the mechanical properties, may form
PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 16 × %N in a short time in some temperature ranges (Figures 5.2 and 5.3). Avoiding them
Percentages are expressed in weight percent. puts some additional constraints on the processing, heat treatment and welding
The PREN describes the resistance of stainless steels to localised corrosion in a of the high alloyed grades i.e. super duplex and hyper duplex. They are, however,

6Mo 100 CCT (°C)

90 CPT (°C)
45
2507
80
Sea-Cure
40 70
904
317LMN 60

Temperature (°C)
35 2205
50
317L Sea Water 20°C
30 40
PREN

444 316 2304 30

25
Sea Water Env. 20
436
20 10
434 304
430 0
15 Water
-10
409 -20
304L 316L 6Mo S32101 2304 S82441 2205 255 2507 S32707
Ferritic Austenitic Duplex

Figure 3.7 PREN Ranking (Ref 3.1 and 3.14) Figure 3.8 CPT* and CCT* for austenitic and duplex stainless steel (Evaluated in 6% ferric chloride
by ASTM G48). (Ref 2.1)
* definitions on the page 10
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well worth the effort as they normally cost much less than super austenitics or Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
Ni-based alloys. A PREN ranking of several stainless steel families is presented in
Figure 3.7. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of localised failure due to a combination
Pitting corrosion can be quantified by determining the Critical Pitting Temperature of tensile stress, corrosive environments and susceptible materials (Figure 3.9).
(CPT) according to different standards such as ASTM G48 method E, or ASTM This combination leads to a component failure by initiation and propagation of a
G150. CPT is the lowest temperature (°C) at which pitting occurs. Stainless steels crack. SCC occurs not only in chloride-containing environments at temperatures
with higher CPT are more resistant to pitting corrosion. above 60°C but also in concentrated alkali solutions at temperatures higher than
100°C.
Crevice corrosion is another type of localised corrosion. It occurs in confined Ferritic and duplex stainless steel show a high resistance to SCC in chloride-
spaces, gaps or crevices, where access to the surrounding environment is containing environments. Duplex stainless steels have better SCC resistance
restrained. These confined spaces can occur between two metals or a metal and
non-metallic material, i.e. gaskets, washers, couplings, fastener heads, lap joints
and clamps. Critical Crevice Temperature (CCT) can be determined according to
ASTM G48 method F or ASTM G78.
Figure 3.8 shows CPT and CCT for various austenitic and duplex stainless steels
Mechanical loading:
measured in 6 % ferric chloride. Lean duplex grades show a better corrosion ▪ Operational tensile stress
resistance than EN 1.4301/1.4307 (304/304L) austenitic grade, than most ferritic ▪ Residual stress
▪ Dynamic straining
grades and are better or equivalent to EN 1.4044 (316) for some environmental ▪ Fit-up stress
conditions. For harsher conditions like marine environments or high temperature ▪ Strain rate
oxidising and chloride-containing solutions, duplex S32205 (EN 1.4462) or super
duplex grades can be used, replacing highly alloyed austenitic grades. Hyper
duplex steels combine high strength with higher CCT and CPT compared to Fatigue
Fatigue
corrosion
nickel alloys and high-alloy austenitic stainless steels, making them suitable for
aggressive environments and critical applications such as oil refineries, deep SCC
Environment:
Material:
water umbilicals, petrochemical and chemical plants, tropical seawater or urea ▪ Chemical composition
▪ Flow conditions
▪ Composition
production (Ref 2.1 and 2.2). ▪ Heat treatment
▪ Corrosion potential
▪ Microstructure Corrosion
▪ Temperature
▪ Cold work
3.3 Environmentally-assisted cracking ▪ Surface condition
▪ Irradiation damage
▪ pH-value
▪ Impurities
▪ Crevice effects
Environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) is a general term that includes ▪ Radiolysis

processes such as stress corrosion cracking (SCC), hydrogen embrittlement (HE),

sulphide stress cracking (SSC), liquid metal embrittlement (LME), and fatigue
corrosion (FC). EAC can be tested using the NACE standard TM0177.

Figure 3.9 Factors effecting Stress Corrosion Cracking. (Ref 3.15)

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300
Neutral aerated 140
Aqueous solutions S32507 1.4404 pH5.5
Duplex
250 No cracking 120

100 SCC+ Pitting + Crevice

200
Temperature (°C)

S32205 80

Temperature (°C)
Duplex
150 60
S32304
Duplex 40 Pitting + Crevice
100
20

304/316 Crevice Safe

50 0
Austenitics
No SCC
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Chloride concentration (M)

0.00001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 % Cl-

Figure 3.10 Effect of chloride content and temperature on the SCC resistance of different
austenitic and duplex stainless steels. (Ref 2.2)
140
1.4410 pH5.5
120
SCC+
than austenitics; they can replace austenitics in the oil and gas, chemical or pulp Pitting +
100
and paper processes where the risk of chloride SCC is significant. Figure 3.10 Pitting + Crevice Crevice

shows the effect of chloride content and temperature on the resistance to stress 80

Temperature (°C)
corrosion cracking of different austenitic and duplex stainless steels. Appendix 60
Crevice Safe
4 presents some data of stress corrosion cracking resistance of duplex and
40
austenitic stainless steels in different environments. Figure 3.11 gives the limiting
conditions, temperature and chloride concentration, in terms of pitting and crevice 20

corrosion and stress corrosion cracking at unadjusted pH (~5.5) for EN 1.4404 0

(316L) and S32750 (EN 1.4410) respectively. Super duplex S32750 shows higher 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

CPT, and CCT than EN 1.4404. Additionally, S32750 presents a better SCC Chloride concentration (M)

resistance at higher temperatures and higher chloride content than EN 1.4404. No

cracking appears in 10M chloride at temperatures lower than 85°C for S32750,
Figure 3.11 Comparison of chloride SCC and crevice behaviour of
while the temperature for EN 1.4404 is lower than 60°C. (Ref 3.16) austenitic grade EN 14404 (316L) and
super duplex EN 1.4410 (S32750) (Ref 3.16)
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Sulphide stress cracking (SSC) 3.4 Fatigue corrosion (FC)

Sulphide stress cracking (SSC) is defined by NACE as the “Cracking of a metal Fatigue corrosion (FC) may take place when materials are exposed to alternating
under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the presence of or cyclic stress in a corrosive environment. Fatigue corrosion resistance
water and sulphides (H2S), a form of hydrogen stress cracking.” The variables decreases when duplex stainless steels ares subjected to high temperatures
involved in SSC are susceptible material, tensile stress, hydrogen sulphide and high loads, low pH value and chlorides, sulphide or CO2. Figure 3.13 shows
and water. SSC is very important in the oil and gas industry because the
media contains chloride and sulphides (sour service). The NACE standard
MR0175/ ISO 15156:3 2015 provides guidance for the selection, specification
and application limits of SSC-resistance materials used in H2S-containing 500
environments in oil and gas production. Figure 3.12 shows the performance of

Fatigue strength at 2x10 cycles (MPa)

duplex stainless steels compared to austenitic, martensitic and nickel alloys.
400

300
250

200

200
DUPLEX
30<PREN<40
100
NI ALLOYS

DUPLEX
PREN>40 0
150 EN 1.4311 (304LN) EN 1.4406 (316L) EN 1.4462
Temperature (°C)

Air pH 7 pH 3 pH 1

100 SUPERAUSTENITICS
Figure 3.13 Fatigue strength of some stainless steels obtained by rotating bending at 40°C, 100Hz, in
PREN>40 air and in 3%NaCl solutions at different pH (Ref 3.18)
MARTENSITICS

50
AUSTENITICS &
SUPERAUSTENITICS the behaviour of the duplex stainless steel S32205 (EN 1.4462) and standard
PREN>30
austenitic grades in fatigue–corrosion tests performed in air and environments
0 with different pH, from neutral to very acid. S32205 shows a better performance
0.1 1.5 3 15 45 100 200
Partial pressure of H2S (psi) than austenitic grades. In seawater conditions, duplex stainless steels (S32205
Figure 3.12 Limit of uses of stainless steel and nickel alloys in H2S-containing environments.
(Ref 3.17)
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and S32304) perform very well compared with austenitic grades (Figure 3.14). 3.5 Abrasion- 400 Ferritic/Martensitic
Results - test solution #1 (14.7 g/l chlorides, pH 3.5, 25C)

Duplex Wear resistant steels

FC is an issue in the pulp & paper and oil & gas industries which is another Corrosion 350

reason for using duplex grades. 300

Abrasion-corrosion is 250

a well-known cause of 200

damage to materials

Wear index
150

400 in many industries, 100

particularly mining, 50

hydrometallurgy, 0

oil sands and water S41003

low H
S41003
high H
S32101 S32202 S32304 S32750 WQ 400 WQ 500 Q&T 400 Q&T 500 Austenitic
Hadfield

▪ In this environment, wear resistant steels suffer corrosion

treatment. ▪ Stainless steels, and especially duplex stainless steels, are clearly more resistant to
300 S31803/S32205 abrasion-corrosion
The results of abrasion-
MPa

S32304 corrosion tests on wear

resistant steels (WRS), Results - test solution #2 (0.3 g/l chlorides, pH9, 25C)

duplex stainless steels 400 Ferritic/Martensitic Duplex Wear resistant steels

317 LN and on the ferritic- 350

200
martensitic grade 300

316L 2.5Mo
S41003 (EN 1.4003) are 250

316L shown Figures 3.15 200

Wear index
a and b. (Ref 3.21). 150
105 106 107
Cycle to rupture
The two media, one 100

acidic and the other 50

basic, both containing 0

Figure 3.14 Fatigue Corrosion resistance of some stainless steels. Tested in synthetic seawater and
abrasive particles, are
S41003 S32101 S32202 S32304 S31803 S32750 WQ 400 WQ 500 Q&T 400 Q&T 500 Austenitic
low H Hadfield
rotating beam. (Ref 3.8) ▪ In this environment, some of the wear-resistant grades present a better
representative of the abrasion-corrosion resistance than stainless steel
▪ The degradation is mainly driven by abrasion
conditions encountered
The fatigue limit in air is approximately 50 % of UTS for most of the stainless in the above-mentioned Figure 3.15 Wear resistance of Duplex vs Wear resistant Steels
steels. On the other hand, in seawater, martensitic and austenitic grades present industries. Note: The higher the wear index, the higher the
a marked decrease of fatigue limit, while duplex grades show a similar ratio Duplex stainless steels abrasion-corrosion
WQ400: Martensitic 0.19%C-steel Water quenched to a
compared to the one determined in air, i;e. close to 40% of the UTS (Ref 3.20). are the best performers Hardness of 400HV
in abrasion-corrosion WQ500: Martensitic 0.30%C-steel Water quenched to a
when corrosion is Hardness of 500HV
Q&T 400: Martensitic/bainitic low C-steel Quenched
the leading damage and Tempered to a Hardness of 400HV
mechanism. Q&T 500: Martensitic/bainitic low C-steel Quenched and
Tempered to a Hardness of 500HV
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4 Physical properties (Ref 4.1)

The physical properties are as one might expect somewhere in between those of
the austenitic and of the ferritic alloys.
They are presented in Appendix 5.

Duplex stainless steel manual valve in the oil and gas production process
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5 Mechanical Properties

5.1 Tensile properties

ASTM EN

The stress-strain curves of austenitic, ferritic and duplex stainless steels, along Yield
Tensile Proof Tensile
with that of that of S355 (a common structural steel with 355 MPa yield strength) strength
strength Elongation strength strength
Elongation
Grade UNS No. 0.2% EN No. A5
are shown in Figure 5.1. MPa
MPa in 2”% Rp0.2 Rm
%
(ksi) MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)
(ksi)

2304 S32304 400 (58) 600 (87) 25 1.4362 400 (58) 630 (91) 25
800

700 2205 S32205 450 (65) 655 (95) 25 1.4462 460 (67) 640 (93) 25

600
2507 S32750 550 (80) 795 (116) 15 1.4410 530 (77) 730 (106) 20
500
Stress (N/mm²)

Table 5.1 Minimum ASTM and EN mechanical properties for duplex stainless steel plates (Ref 3.2)
400

300
Table 5.1 for three typical grades.
Duplex
200 These values are quite conservative, as a higher strength level can be achieved
Austenitic
Ferritic
by chemical composition adjustments and/or by a suitable thermomechanical
100
S355 Carbon Steel
processing. Higher values are usually offered by suppliers. An important case is
0
duplex stainless steel rebar which must meet a minimum Yield Strength value
0 10 20 30
Strain (%)
40 50 60
of 500 MPa (Ref 5.2). Building codes take into consideration load supporting
members obtained by cold forming by allowing larger permissible stress levels
Figure 5.1 Typical stress strain curves of stainless steels (Ref 5.1) (Ref 5.1).
More details on mechanical properties for long products are given in Appendix 6
and for flat products in Appendix 7.

Duplex stainless steels exhibit a much higher yield strength and work-hardening
while retaining an elongation in excess of 25%. Standards guarantee minimum
values of tensile properties. Values for both EN and ASTM standards are given in
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5.2 Range of Service Temperatures much slower and is not usually a problem for metal processing (welding, heat
treatment…). However, the situation is different for operating temperatures in
5.2.1 Elevated temperatures (Ref 5.3 to 5.6) the 250-350°C range, typically in chemical engineering. Over thousands of hours
at this temperature, plus transients, low temperature precipitation can occur and
At temperatures above ~350°C up to ~1000°C, precipitation of intermetallic limits must be known to designers. As shown Figure 5.2, higher contents of Cr,
phases occurs as shown Figure 5.2, causing brittleness at room temperature. Mo, Cu and W accelerate the precipitation kinetics. Lean duplex stainless steels

Mo, W, Si

1000°C M7 C3 carbide, Cr N nitride HAZ

σ phase
Cr
Mo Cr2 N nitride
W ꭕ phase
Si
ɣ2 phase
M23 C6 carbide
R phase
600°C

� phase
ε phase
Cr, Mo, Cu, W
α’ phase
G. phase...

300°C Cr, Mo, Cu, W

As per API-938-C Time Figure 5.3 Temperature/Time/Transformation kinetics of some Duplex stainless steels
(UNS designations) (Ref 2.2)

Figure 5.2 Influence of the alloying elements on the kinetics of precipitation of intermetallic phases
(Ref 3.8)

are therefore expected to be much less prone to low temperature precipitation

than super and hyper duplex grades. This is shown in Figure 5.3 for a few
Precipitation in the high temperature range (~600-1000°C) can be avoided by fast common duplex grades.
cooling. Suppliers are usually able to provide advice.
By contrast, precipitation in the lower temperature range (~350-600°C) is
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Pressure vessel codes have set up maximum service temperatures as follows: 400
ƒ European Code EN 13455 restricts the maximum service temperature to 350
250°C. This is a quite conservative approach.
ƒ ASME VIII div 1 limits the temperature to 316°C for most grades. They all have 300
a warning note that embrittlement may occur above 260°C. 250

CVN (Joule)
No provision has been made so far to distinguish between lean and standard
200
duplex grades, but this may change in the future.
UR2205 Arctic (25 mm)
150
5.2.2 Low Temperatures (Ref 5.7 to 5.9) 100
UR2205 (15 mm)

Duplex stainless steels, unlike austenitic grades, exhibit a ductile to brittle 50

transition as the temperature decreases, evidenced by the decrease of impact 0
resistance (usually measured by Charpy impact values). This limits the use of -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
duplex grades for cryogenic applications. The minimum temperature at which Temperature (°C)
duplex grades can be used is set by the minimum impact values required. → decreasing of transition temperature
However, the impact resistance at low temperatures can be improved by a → at -100°C, CVN = 200J
number of adjustments:
ƒ lowering somewhat the ferrite content by chemical composition adjustment Figure 5.4 Impact resistance vs temperature of EN 1.4462 duplex grades optimized for low
ƒ optimising forging/hot rolling temperature service (Ref 5.7)
ƒ optimising heat treatments
Duplex grades meet the requirements of the international standards (such as
ASTM, NACE and Norsok), which set minimum Charpy KV impact values of 45J at
-46°C.
More recently, requirements for arctic service conditions down to -80°C have
led to the optimisation of grades that meet impact values of 200J at -100°C
(Figure 5.4). It is usually the properties of the welds that determine the lowest
temperature of usage.
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5.3 Work hardening (Ref 5.10 to 5.15)

Work-hardening, i.e. the increase of strength by cold deformation, is a well-known
1800
process. It is widely used in wire products to tailor the mechanical properties to
the application. 1600 UTS
Yield stress
1400
A%

UTS or 0.2%Yield stress, MPa

1200
2200 55

Elongation A, (%)
1000 50
2000 UTS 50
1800 Yield stress 45 800 40
1600 A% 40
UTS or 0.2%Yield stress, MPa

600 30
1400 35

Elongation A, (%)
400 20
1200 30
200 10
1000 25
800 20 0 0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
600 15
Reduction in area, %
400 10
200 5
Figure 5.5b Work hardening curve of super duplex grade S32750 (EN 1.4410) (Ref 5.10)
0 0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Reduction in area, % 316), semi-austenitic precipitation hardening grade (631 a.k.a 17-7PH) and duplex
stainless grades (S32101, S32304 and S32205) is shown Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.5a Work hardening curve of lean duplex grade S32202 (EN 1.4062) (Ref 5.10) Duplex grades do not reach the strength level of the austenitic spring grade
302 (EN 1.4310), but they will be adequate for applications demanding both high
strength and high corrosion resistance, especially to SCC.
The load relaxation vs time of duplex grades is shown Figure 5.7. Treatment
Figures 5.5a and 5.5b show the work-hardening curves of a lean duplex and refers to an in-line induction heating in the 380-400°C temperature range for
of a super duplex stainless steel respectively. As expected, strength increases less than one minute. This relaxation treatment is typical of carbon steel. It must
steadily with deformation while residual elongation decreases. Super duplex be noted that induction heating is more efficient on partly ferromagnetic duplex
grades achieve higher tensile strength levels than lean duplex grades. grades than on paramagnetic austenitic ones
A comparison of the work hardening behaviour of austenitic grades (304 and The performance of cold-worked duplex grades for pre and/or post stressing of
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2000 100.0
304
316 99.5
1750
2304
17-7 2205 Cold drawn
99.0
Tensile strength (MPa)

1500 2304 Cold drawn

2101
2205 2205 Treated

% of initial load
1250 98.5 2304 Treated

98.0
1000

97.5
750

97.0
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% area reduction by cold drawing Time (min)

Figure 5.6 Comparison of UTS values of some stainless steels (Ref 5.12) Figure 5.7 Load relaxation of duplex stainless steels (Ref 5.12)

concrete has been investigated (Ref 5.12 to 5.15). The results show that precast 5.4 Fire resistance (Refs 5.16 to 5.18)
pre-stressed concrete piles may be constructed with S32205 duplex stainless
steel with 250 ksi (1720MPa) low-relaxation strand, using the same procedures as Building codes include fire resistance requirements, typically R120, meaning that
used for conventional pre-stressing and wire reinforcement. the structure must be able to withstand at least 120 minutes before collapsing
Cost considerations have not so far led to the development of this application, when subjected to a “standardised” thermal load such as the one defined by
although problems with the long-term performance of carbon steel pre- and post- ISO 843 , which is typical of cellulosic fire.
stressed concrete, and with cable-stayed bridges have been reported. The variation of the yield strength of carbon steel, of austenitic and of duplex
Cold worked duplex stainless steel is now used in various applications: 10.9 stainless steels with temperature, Figure 5.8, shows that in the 400-700°C range
class fasteners (UTS≥ 1000 MPa and Yield Stress≥ 900 MPa), erosion-corrosion duplex stainless steels retain the highest strength level, expressed in MPa,
resistant profiles, load-bearing members (profiles), high strength rebar (Yield although the decrease is important relative to the strength at room temperature.
stress ≥ 700 Mpa), etc. Duplex stainless steels offer higher strength than carbon steels at all
temperatures with grade S32205 (EN 1.4462) retaining the highest strength up to
800°C.
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Duplex stainless steels, particularly lean grades, are now the preferred grades for 5.5 Seismic resistance (Ref 5.19)
stainless rebar, for strength and corrosion resistance including SCC. They offer in
addition an improved fire resistance. The damage caused by earthquakes results from 3 effects:

ƒ a lateral force exerted on the foundations of the structure, directly

500 proportional to the acceleration measured by the seismographs (can exceed
LDX 2404 1g). The structure then may collapse.
EN 1.4462 ƒ a torsion torque on asymmetrical buildings for which the center of gravity is
400 LDX 2101 not located on the axis of symmetry of the building
ƒ for very tall buildings, a resonance effect.
Rp0.2 or yield strength (MPa)

EN 1.4362
Carbon Steel 355
300 Carbon Steel 235 As it is not practical and probably impossible to design buildings that would
EN 1.4401/1.4404 deform only in an elastic manner, priority is given to a design that allows damage
200
EN 1.4301 but keeps the structure standing and functional as much as possible. One of the
key considerations is to have structural components that can absorb as much
energy as possible, i.e. strength and high deformability without breaking.
100 Austenitic and duplex stainless steels are very good in this respect.
While buildings are of course the main concern, the consequences for industrial
equipment can be very serious as well. The analysis of the seismic resistance of a
0 large storage tank has been published (Ref 5.19).
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.8 Yield strength vs Temperature of austenitic stainless, duplex stainless and carbon steels
(Ref 5.17)

Fire resistance requirements are not limited to commercial, office and residential
buildings. Industries handling flammable liquids and gases or hazardous
chemicals are required to meet stringent requirements. Stainless steels,
particularly duplex grades, can be very useful in this respect. A well-known case
is that of blast walls on oil&gas platforms (see section on oil&gas).
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6 Applications
This section reviews some of the applications of duplex stainless steels today.
Artists, architects, designers, industrial engineers have seen and taken advantage of the benefits
of duplex stainless steels. Building codes and regulations include them now for structural
applications. Duplex offer usually a better alternative to coated carbon steels, starting from the
installation costs.

6.1 Art
Duplex stainless steel is increasingly used by artists when they look for strength and durability.
Three cases of art are presented briefly below.

The sculpture “Arches of Oman” (Ref 6.1.1) by Giles Rayner is formed of two entwined polished
stainless steel tusks that flow around one another, connected by the flowing curtain of water that
streams from their inner surfaces. The sculpture reaches 12 m in height above a 60 m wide oval
pool. Water from 77 vertical jets suggest a stringed instrument. The sculpture is located in the
private gardens outside The Royal Opera House Muscat, Oman. It is made of Duplex stainless steel
grade S32205 (EN 1.4462) for strength, surface finish and corrosion resistance in this hot coastal
environment.

It should be pointed out again that

duplex grades are generally not
competing with other stainless
steel families. If anything, they tend
to complement them and it is not
rare to see them associated in an
application. Some examples will be
given later.
Arches of Oman by Giles Raynet in Muscat, Oman.
Picture courtesy of archesoman.com
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“Venus rising” (Ref 6.1.2) by artist Ross 6.2 Architecture

Wolfgang Buttress was inspired by the Fibonacci
series and by the intersecting spines of nautilus Duplex stainless steels have expanded the potential of stainless steel in
shell. This slender structure, 23 m high, is architecture by offering higher strength and higher corrosion resistance. Design
located in Kangaroo Point Park in Brisbane, manuals and guides for stainless steels which include high strength duplex
Australia. Made of stainless steel 316 (EN 1.4404) grades have been published (Refs 6.2.1 to 6.2.8).
and Duplex S32205 (EN 1.4462) tubes and bars, is A few remarkable projects involving duplex grades are presented in this section.
designed to look as good as new in 50 years.
Stockholm’s waterfront building
(Ref 6.2.1)
This congress center in Stockholm
displays a duplex stainless steel
façade, grade S32205 (EN 1.4462),
2E finish, made from 3500 Z-shaped
louvres. Apart from providing
Venus Rising by Ross Wolfgang a dynamic wave effect and an
Buttress in Brisbane. outstanding appearance, the louvres
Picture courtesy of David Sandison are positioned to reduce solar gain
Waterfront Building in Stockholm.
Picture courtesy of Outokumpu Oyj
in summer and to allow sunlight to
penetrate and provide passive heating
in winter. The building earned a Gold
LEED status.
“The Runners” The runners by Dr. T. Papagiannis in Chicago.
Picture courtesy of CS Associates Inc.
(Ref 6.1.3) This 4.9 m high, Louvre Abu Dhabi, a rain of light (Ref 6.2.2)
12 m long sculpture, by The Louvre Abu Dhabi Museum by Architect Jean Nouvel features a woven double
Dr. T. Papagiannis is located
near intersecting highways close to Chicago O’Hare Airport. It represents five
runners emerging from antiquity into the modern world, represented by Chicago,
“a city on the move”. It is made of Duplex stainless S32205 (EN 1.4462) plate, 2.25”
(57 mm) thick, cut by water jet. Each of the five runners weighs about 3 tons. The
sculpture, exposed to the harsh Chicago winter with its road salt, is expected to
last over 1000 years!

Louvre by Jean Nouvel in Abu Dhabi.

Picture courtesy of Liz Coughlan
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dome, 150 m in diameter, that creates an interior skin of dappled light. The water its high corrosion resistance and strength which will ensure a long life and a
pools, the apertures and the dome create an interior micro climate full of light, large decrease in the weight of the upper levels of the towers. Rebar, plates and
shadows and movement. The roof is made of 8 interlocking layers of Aluminium profiles were used for prefabricated elements that were then easy to assemble
and Duplex stainless steel. Approximately 300 tonnes of stainless were used for and allowing a reduction in cost.
the roof. In addition, 250 tonnes of stainless rebar were used for the structure. Gaudi’s masterpiece will be completed with materials and technologies that did
not exist in his lifetime. Who knows what he might have designed with them?
Roof of Doha airport (Ref 6.2.3)
The Doha airport, in Qatar, sets Louis Vuitton Foundation (Ref 6.2.6 to 6.2.8)
new standards in elegance, comfort Architect Frank Gehry’s remarkable structure for the Louis Vuitton foundation,
and smart technology. One of its a museum in Paris, involves 12 spectacular glass sails supported by an
most striking characteristics is entanglement of steel columns, beams, tension rods, etc. Overall, approximately
its undulating stainless steel roof 1500 tons of duplex stainless were used for nodes, inserts, mullions transoms
(350,000 m²). It has to resist heat and and gutters.
humidity, salt corrosion and possess
a low reflectance to protect pilots
from glare. A duplex stainless steel
(21.5%Cr, 3.7%Ni, 1.8%Mo, 0.17%N)
Roof of Doha Airport in Qatar.
was selected for the roof as it met the
Picture courtesy of Hamad International Airport
corrosion requirements and offered a
favourable strength to weight ratio. A proprietary surface finish achieved a low
gloss, a uniformly textured appearance, and a low reflectance.

La Sagrada Familia
(Ref 6.2.4 and 6.2.5)
The construction of the world-famous
Basilica de la Sagrada Familia in
Barcelona, designed by Gaudí, began
in 1882. This huge project now nears
completion, scheduled for 2026, thanks
to the possibilities offered by new
technologies and materials, of which
stainless steel is one. Duplex grade
S32205 (EN 1.4462) was selected for Fondation Louis Vuitton by Frank Gehry in Paris.
La Sagrada Familia by Antoni Gaudí in Picture courtesy of Daniel Rodet.
Barcelona. Picture courtesy of Outokumpu Oyj.
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6.3 Bridges (Ref 6.3.1 to 6.3.14) lifetime of 120 years. Duplex stainless steel plate grade UNS S32205 (EN 1.4462)
was used as skin around concrete for the upper part of the towers, for the cable-
There are hundreds of thousands of bridges in the world, over 600,000 in the stay anchorage and for reinforcing bar of the foundations and lower parts of the
USA alone. More and more are being built. They provide essential links between towers.
regions and countries. The costs of maintenance or/and replacement amount to
huge figures over time. Champlain bridge, Montreal
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) evaluations consistently show the benefits of providing (Ref 6.3.9 and 6.3.10).
operation with as little maintenance as possible over a lifetime exceeding a The new bridge (2019), which replaces
century. Duplex stainless steels offer an extremely attractive way of providing the old one that was failing due to
structural integrity over unlimited time, thanks to their high strength and their corrosion, will resist severe freeze-
corrosion resistance that meets all climates and weather conditions. The extra thaw cycles with temperatures as
cost over a cheap short-term solution is less than 10 % when just used in the low as -25°C to up to 30°C. It is 3.4 km
critical areas. long, spans over the St. Lawrence
The few cases below illustrate the use of duplex stainless steel for road, river and the seaway and will carry
pedestrian, rail, mixed rail/road/cycles traffic. They are located in hot and cold over 50 million vehicles per year. The
climates, inland and on the seaside. Champlain Bridge in Montreal, Canada. elegant structure features innovations
Various product forms, tubes, tie rods, rebar, plates, fasteners, etc... have been Picture courtesy of Infrastructure Canada such as construction largely from
used, demonstrating the wide range of options available to the architects and civil prefabricated elements and a provision
engineers. for the mobility of the future with a
commuter rail line, a 4-lane highway,
6.3.1 Road and Rail Bridges bicycle tracks and lookouts for sightseeing. Over 15,000 ton of duplex stainless
steel S32304 (EN 1.4362) rebar was used in the critical parts of the structure.
Stonecutter’s bridge in Hong Kong
(Ref 6.3.6 to 6.3.8). Hong-Kong - Zhuhai - Macau Bridge (Ref 6.3.11 and 6.3.12).
This heavily-trafficked iconic bridge The bridge is a part of a 50 km link consisting of a series of three cable-stayed
is located in an urban area, and has bridges, one 6.7 km under-sea tunnel, and 3 artificial islands. The bridge was
been designed to withstand tropical constructed over 9 years, at an estimated cost of $20 billion for a lifetime of 100
weather conditions, urban pollution, years and was completed in 2018. Over 10,000 ton of duplex stainless steel was
sea mist, wind, typhoons, accidental used in the critical areas.
loads due to ship impacts and seismic
loading. It was at the time (2009) the
first cable-stayed bridge exceeding
a 1 km span and has an expected Stonecutter’s bridge in Hong Kong.
Picture courtesy of Outokumpu Oyj
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specified value for Carbon steel was

only 355 MPa. The stainless structure
was assembled on site from 8 sections
and the whole construction time lasted
from October 2004 to June 2005.

In India, future railway bridges built

in corrosive environments (e.g.
seaside...) are likely to rely on duplex
stainless steels (Ref 6.3.15)

Hong Kong - Zhuhai - Macau bridge Cala Galdana bridge in Menorca

Picture courtesy of Pedelta

Bridge at Fort Worth, Texas (Ref 6.3.13) 6.3.2 Foot bridges

This is the world’s first arch bridge
made of precast elements, 12 in Helix bridge in
total. It was completed in 2013. The Singapore (Ref 6.3.16)
innovative feature is the load-bearing Its unique double helix
angled hanger bars that connect the structure, 280 m long,
top and the bottom of the arch bridge. supporting a walkway
They provide stability and structural is made of tubes and
performance. They are made of plates of duplex S32205
duplex stainless steel grade S32205 (EN 1.4462). This grade
(EN 1.4462). The overall design is has been selected for its
structurally very efficient, very elegant strength and corrosion
Fort Worth bridge in Texas
and ensures long-term durability. resistance in a tropical
maritime environment. Helix Bridge in Singapore
Cala Galdana bridge, Menorca (Ref 6.3.14). The life cycle cost of the Picture courtesy of Christopher Fredrick Jones
This is a case of the replacement of a carbon steel reinforced concrete structure bridge will be lower than
by a stainless one. Duplex grade S32205 (EN 1.4462) was selected over carbon that of a carbon steel
steel for its higher mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The minimum solution. The white light at night is particularly beautiful, enhanced by the surface
Yield strength specified was 460 MPa, for a measured value of 535 MPa, while the finish of the stainless steel.
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Bascule pedestrian bridge, Lyon,

France (Ref 6.3.17)
Located in an area that underwent a
major upgrading and close to the new
Musée des Confluences, this duplex
stainless steel bridge opens up to
allow the passage of ships entering
the docks. It is elegant, aesthetic and
requires no maintenance.

Bascule Pedestrian Bridge

Picture courtesy of Industeel

Footbridge of Trumpf, Ditzingen,

Germany (Ref 6.3.18)
This footbridge over the heavily
trafficked Gerlinger Strasse connects
two work sites at the TRUMPF
Headquarters in Ditzingen, Germany. San Diego Harbor Bridge, California
Made of thin, strong, corrosion- Picture courtesy of Sherry V. Smith
resistant duplex grades S32205
(EN 1.4462) cut with TRUMPF laser
technology. San Diego Harbor Bridge (Ref 6.3.19)
It has a very original shape Footbridge of Trumpf, Ditzingen, Germany This self-anchored suspension structure, 168 m long, is strikingly beautiful. The
that everyone remembers and Picture courtesy of Schlaich Bergermann curved deck is supported by stay cables attached to a single inclined pylon,
Partner
demonstrates that duplex is not for resulting in a very simple and attractive design. Duplex stainless steel grade
very large structures only. S31803 and austenitic 317L have been selected for structural parts, railings,
cables and connectors. The expected life time will exceed 100 years in this marine
environment.
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6.4 Coastal Works Tsunami-proof floodgates in Japan

(Ref 6.4.3)
Sea Wall at Cromer, United Kingdom Japan has paid a huge price to
(Ref 6.4.1) disasters caused by tsunamis. The
Cromer is a beautiful North Norfolk Fukushima nuclear accident was
seaside resort from the Victorian the last major disaster caused
times. Protection against the sea is by a tsunami. Under the national
achieved by a concrete sea wall and Earthquake reconstruction project,
by timber groynes. Following a major aiming at safety and resilience, over 50
storm in 2013, large and expensive dams and floodgates have been built.
repairs had to be carried out, not only Sea wall at Cromer, UK Kamihirai Floodgate in Japan The new floodgates are huge
Picture courtesy of Archant/Anthony Kelly Picture courtesy of NIPPON STEEL Stainless
to maintain the actual level of defense, Steel Corporation
structures. For instance, the Kamihirai
but also to anticipate 100 years of gate is 11 m high, 2 m higher
predicted sea level rise. In this project, over 300 MT of S32304 (EN 1.4362) duplex than the previous one. The use of
stainless steel rebar were used. duplex stainless steel grades SUS323L (S32304 / EN 1.4362) and SUS821L1
(21%Cr, 2%NI, 3%Mn, 1%Cu, 0.17%N) allowed the increase of height without the
Breakwater at Bayonne, France corresponding increase in weight.
(Ref 6.4.2)
The breakwater, built in the 1960s,
protects the entrance of the Bayonne
harbour against storms. It features a
wall and a platform wide and strong
enough to bear a heavy duty crane.
This crane replaces the 40 ton concrete
blocks that dissipate the energy of the
incoming waves on the sea side as
Breakwater in Bayonne, France they wear out. As the platform itself
Picture courtesy of Ugitech S.A. eventually started to show cracks, it
has been repaired using high strength Sluice gates and Mont Saint Michel, France.
S32205 (EN 1.4462) duplex stainless
steel rebar (Yield stress min 750 MPa), allowing a significant reduction of tonnage.
In the end only 130 tons of rebar were needed. Sluice Gates at Mont Saint Michel, France (Ref 6.4.4)
Mont Saint Michel is one of the most visited tourist spots of France. The tiny
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island with its cloister and with an angel on top is located in a bay. Over time, Monaco extension on the sea
stilting of the bay was slowly taking place, changing the landscape. Gates were (Ref 6.4.6)
built to store the water of the incoming stream during the incoming tides and The Principauté (principalty) de
release it at low tides, thereby taking away some sediments back to the sea twice Monaco, on the mediteranean coast,
per day. The eight sets of sluice gates were built using for each 24 tons of carbon is expanding its tiny territory (2 km²)
steel and 6 tons of S32205 (EN 1.4462) duplex stainless steel, selected for its good over the sea to build a huge 600 000 m²
corrosion and abrasion resistance. new city development, residential
Mont Saint Michel now returns to the sea. and commercial, for an estimated
cost of 2 billion Euros. The technical
River floodgates at Tampere, Finland (Ref 6.4.5) challenges are huge: creating a
Monaco Extension on the sea
The Tammerkoski rapids flow temporary dam to build the enclosure;
Picture courtesy of Bouygues TP
through the center of the Finnish erecting the concrete wall capable of
city of Tampere, running four lasting at least 100 years, filling up the
hydroelectric power plants. An ongoing new space gained over the sea and
rehabilitation project will bring the preparing it for multi storey residential
rapids’ two channels to the highest buildings, minimising the impact on
standards and worthy of the culturally marine life, etc. Over 4000 metric tons
and historically valuable site. For the of duplex S32304 (EN 1.4362) stainless
past one hundred years, the water flow steel rebar will be used to reinforce
in the channels has been controlled by the concrete walls and protect them
structures and equipment that have against the corrosion by sea water.
reached the end of their service lives.
The old floodgates were largely built Monaco Extension on the sea
from wood and would take hours to Picture courtesy of Cedinox
open.
The design life of the rebuilt
channels is 200 years. Duplex S32101
(EN 1.4162) stainless steel was
preferred over coated carbon steel
for all the main structural parts of the
gates.

Floodgate at the Tammerkoski rapids, Finland

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6.5 Restoration duplex, spring-loaded, hollow bolts.

The latter allowed a weight reduction
Duplex stainless steels are now part from 16 down to 5 tons.
of the solution for restoration when
strength and corrosion resistance are
needed. Here are some examples:

The iconic Statue of Liberty, (Ref

Partial view of the Vasa ship
6.5.1) installed in New York in 1886, Picture courtesy of Anneli Karlsson of the
was repaired in 1981 using austenitic Swedish National Maritime Museum
stainless steel 316L secondary
armature to replace the original iron
one. This one, in turn, is supported Churches
by a high strength, highly corrosion- Less visible but essential restorations
resistant duplex stainless steel (UNS have been carried out in other heritage Reinforcing stainless bar in the floor of the
Santa Catalina church in Spain
S32550). Austenitic and duplex grades buildings such as the churches of Picture courtesy of Cedinox
complement each other and provide Santa Catalina (Ref 6.5.3) and San
a solution to corrosion conditions Antonio in Spain, (Ref 6.5.4). There,
involving chlorides, some pollution duplex stainless steel rebar reinforces the structure.
and galvanic coupling.
6.6 Tunnels
The great Warship Vasa (Ref 6.5.2)
was launched on August 10, 1628 Road tunnels are subjected to very aggressive environments caused by heat,
and sank immediately on her maiden humidity, pollutants from exhaust gases and chlorides brought in by incoming
voyage. After sitting some 300 years traffic when the tunnel is close to the sea or when roads leading to it are de-iced.
at the bottom of the sea, she was Tunnels must resist fire, be open at all times and no lifetime limit has been set
raised in the 1950’s and sits now for them. Therefore long lasting, maintenance-free, fire resistant solutions are
in the Vasa Museum in Stockholm. needed. (Ref 6.6.1)
Among the necessary repairs was the
replacement of the iron bolts that held In the refurbishment of the Queensway tunnel, connecting Liverpool and
the beams together. Epoxy-coated Statue of Liberty, New York Birkenhead under the Mersey river, new cladding panels on the tunnel sides are
Picture courtesy Maurice LE BAIL from Pixabay
galvanized bolts corroded and had supported by a stainless steel framework of both austenitic EN 1.4301 strip and
to be replaced by super and hyper Duplex EN 1.4462 hooks. The duplex grade complements the austenitic grade and
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 30

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The station ceiling is supported by dynamic hangers made of duplex stainless

steel hollow bars. These hangers are dynamic, i.e. they are able to accommodate
pressure waves and vibrations beside the design load and provide damping. They
are designed for a life of 100 years (Ref 6.6.4 and 6.6.5).

6.7 Transportation (Ref 6.7.1 to 6.7.7)

Marine chemical tankers (Ref 6.7.1 to 6.7.4)
The use of high strength duplex stainless steels allows a 10 % reduction of tank
Lining of the Queensway tunnel in Liverpool weight, decreases the initial cost of the tank, and increases the useful payload. In
Picture courtesy of Ancon Ltd addition, their coefficient of expansion, close to that of carbon steel, facilitates the
welding to surrounding steel structures.
Chemical tankers are equipped with large corrosion-resistant tanks or double
has been selected for its higher yield hulls. Transporting large quantities of corrosive chemicals in rough seas without
strength (Ref 6.6.2). risk of spills and of harm for the crew puts additional constraints on the tanks’

In the North/South bypass in Brisbane,

Australia, the ventilation system is Road Tunnel ceiling hangers
supported by duplex stainless steel Picture courtesy of Ancon Ltd
suspension tie-bars. With as many as
100 jet fans installed, smoke can be
quickly flushed out in the event of a
fire. (Ref 6.6.3)

Railway Tunnels
Dynamic Hangers
The underground Holmestrand train
station in Norway is part of the high
speed train system that is being built.
As high speed trains generate high
Dynamic hangers in Holmestrand train tunnel
forces of pressure, vibration, noise and Picture courtesy of Sandvik Materials
winds even in open railway stations, Technology
new problems had to be solved. Bow Sagami chemical tanker
Picture courtesy of Manuel Hernandez Lafuente
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 31

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design and materials. Duplex stainless steels are increasingly used although they Railway Wagon (Ref 6.7.6)
are not suitable for all chemicals (see the corrosion resistance section). Wagons for the transportation of iron
ore in Kiruna (Sweden) are now built
Flue Gas Desulphurization equipment (FGD) (Ref 6.7.5) using duplex stainless steel (S32101 –
The combustion of crude oil releases harmful SO2, a pollutant that has been EN 1.4162). The cost increase is offset
drastically reduced years ago in most countries. Accordingly, FGD equipment by the following advantages:
has been installed years ago, chiefly in power plants. These regulations were not ƒ the stainless surface allows
applicable to ships. The International Maritime Organization has caught up and good discharge properties of the
similar regulations are applicable to basket in the long term – also
Iron ore wagon
ships as of 2020. for materials that can be hard to
Picture courtesy of Kiruna Wagon
Ship owners must comply and install release.
FGD systems in ships, where space ƒ the thickness and therefore the
is limited and ship stability must be weight can be reduced compared to carbon steel, a cost-effective option for
taken into account. The alternative mining transportation
today is to use LNG (liquid natural ƒ weldability and formability are good, making it ideal as part of a construction.
gas), but soon (green) hydrogen may ƒ there is a good compatibility of welds with C-steel used in all the outside
take over. reinforcements, bars and in the bottom section or ‘skirt’ of the basket.
Materials used for FGD must resist
the very aggressive environment of Public transportation (Ref 6.7.7)
hot combustion gases containing ash, High strength duplex stainless steel
CO2, SO2 and often hot seawater. Super has been selected by Stadler, a Swiss
duplex stainless steels and Ni-base company, for light, corrosion-resistant
alloys are required. tramlink cars, such as the pictured one
for Transportes Urbanos de São Paulo,
Tank trucks Brazil. Such cars will provide a long
Duplex stainless steels are used for service life with minimal maintenance.
tank trucks for the same reasons as
for chemical tankers. The payload Tramcar with duplex stainless frame
increase reduces the transportation Picture courtesy of Stadler SA
cost to a greater extent than for
chemical tankers.

Duplex tank on truck

Picture courtesy of Technoimpianti A.P.M.
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6.8 Chemical engineering (Ref 6.8.1 to 6.8.3) 6.9 Pulp and paper (Ref
6.9.1 to 6.9.4)
Duplex stainless steels are used along with other stainless steels to process/
produce a wide variety of chemicals: fertilisers, polymers, pharmaceuticals, etc. The Pulp and Paper industry is very
Their corrosion resistance and high strength make them particularly valuable for competitive, and reducing costs a
key process equipment such as priority. In spite of it, or because of
ƒ pressure vessels, it, this industry has been one of the
ƒ heat exchangers, earliest ones to recognise the value of
ƒ condensers, duplex stainless steels.
ƒ storage tanks, For example, S32205 (EN 1.4462),
ƒ distillation columns, S32304 (EN 1.4362) and S32101
ƒ and all the ancillary equipment: tubes, pumps, valves, fittings, filters, (EN 1.4162) can be used in digesters, Batch Digester
fasteners, agitators, …. pressure vessels and liquor tanks as Picture courtesy of Metso Paper Pori Oyj
A list of chemicals with the corresponding corrosion resistance can be found in well as in paper machines. For more
Ref 3.3. aggressive environments, such as
Presence of impurities such as chlorides or fluorides, abrasive solids and of bleaching, super duplex S32750 (EN 1.4410) is needed.
course elevated temperature increase the aggressiveness of the medium. The properties that led to this development are the overall low life cycle costs,
the high strength (reduction of weight), the increased corrosion resistance
(particularly to SCC) and the higher surface hardness. The latter property is
important to resist the abrasion of wood chips and pulp (particularly in digesters).
The optimum material choice today is a selection of austenitic, duplex and super-
austenitic stainless steels that complement each other.

6.10 Oil and gas (Refs 6.10.1 to 6.10.9)

The oil and gas industry remains by far the largest user of duplex stainless steels.
Standards such as Norsok and NACE (Appendix 1) provide detailed instructions
for the selection of materials. They range from carbon steels, stainless steels
Heat Exchanger Pressure vessel (martensitic, austenitic, duplex, super austenitic) to nickel-base alloys depending
Picture courtesy of Titan Metal Fabricators
upon pressure, temperature, chloride concentration and H2S content (Figure 3.12)
Duplex are generally used in an intermediate position between martensitics and
super-austenitics / Ni-base alloys. Their high strength is an asset when it comes
to high pressures at great depths.
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Area Application Alloy

Process piping
Process pumps
Injection pumps
2205 / Superduplex
Process valves
Separator vessels
Topside Manifolds
Seawater/ waste water piping
Oil and gas field layout Blast wall Seawater pumps
Superduplex
Picture courtesy of the Photothèque Technip Picture courtesy of Mech Tool Engineering Seawater valves
FMC – All rights reserved Seawater filter vessels

Flexibles 2003 / 2205

As oil exploration offshore moved to greater depths, involving higher pressures
Flowlines
and harsher environments, demands for higher corrosion resistance, particularly Gathering lines
to chloride SCC, and higher mechanical properties emerged. They led to the Subsea Manifolds 2205 / Superduplex
development of super and hyper duplex grades that offer the lowest life-cycle- Valves
Hub connectors
cost including that of the risk of a component failure. The latter is critical in
subsea operations. Risers Superduplex
Duplex grades are specified in a wide range of components in the oil&gas industry
as shown in Figures 6.10.1 and 6.10.2. OCTG
Downhole Wireline 2205 / Superduplex
Besides the ancillary equipment (pumps, valves, fittings, filters) not listed in the Valves
table, armouring of umbilicals (for
wear and damage resistance) and Figure 6.10.1 Examples of the uses of duplex stainless steels in oil and gas recovery
blast walls designed to contain fire and (Ref 6.10.8)
explosions on oil and gas platforms
(see picture) are examples of other Oil and Gas service conditions are pushing materials to their limits in corrosion
applications. resistance, service temperatures, both high and low, and mechanical properties.
The wide use of duplex stainless steels demonstrates their remarkable
capabilities.

Cross section of an umbilical (Ref 6.10.9)

 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 34

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duplex stainless steels are used in the

Area Application Alloy piping of the secondary water cooling
circuit of the power plants.
Crude desalters 2205 & Superduplex In decommissioning, they are now one
Amine towers lean/rich H/Ex 2205 of the preferred materials for boxes
Refinery Amine reclaimer units with caustic 2205
Filter drums (at risk of SCC) 2205
in which slow-decaying radioactive
Fresh and brackish water coolers 2205 materials are placed for geological
Freshwater cooling towers/Coolers 2101/2102/2205 storage. An example is provided by the
Steam Cracker
Dilution steam generators 2205 Pile Fuel Cladding Silo at Sellafield,
Spent caustic oxidation vessels/piping 2205 & Superduplex
Coolers for acidic process condensate 2205 & Superduplex
one of the world’s oldest nuclear
storage sites, which will need a total
Feed fraction tower airfins/piping/vessels 2205
Aromatics
Aromatics/HC separation units, reboilers, H/Ex tubing 2205
of 2200 duplex stainless containers,
weighing 1.3 tons each, to keep the Nuclear waste container
Polypropylene piping, drums, dust collectors, dryers and 2205 nuclear waste for at least 500 years. Picture courtesy of Sellafield
rotating equipment
Elastomer slurry tanks, vessels, piping and rotating equipment 2205 Other applications are canisters for
Polymers
LLPDE extruder feed shafts 2205 transport and storage of nuclear fuel.
LDPE co-polymer piping 2205
Elastomer extruders barrels and screws 2205
Corrosive service with organic acids, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, 2205 6.12 Renewable Energy (Refs 6.12.1 to 6.12.10)
Intermediates phosphoric acid, caustic, carbonyls etc. at high temperature and
and other fluids pressure As mitigation of climate change is now recognised as one the most urgent
Intermediate storage tanks 2101/2102
problems the world must deal with, renewable energy production is set to
Figure 6.10.2 Typical uses of duplex stainless steels in refineries and chemical plants increase drastically. Duplex stainless steels are increasingly relied on wherever
(Ref 6.10.8) strength and high corrosion resistance are required.

6.11 Nuclear Energy (Refs 6.11.1 to 6.11.6) Biogas

Biogas, produced by the anaerobic digestion by bacteria of biomass, is a very
In this industry with very high safety standards, any change in materials attractive process as it produces energy from organic waste. Farms, restaurants,
specifications takes a very long time. Nevertheless, duplex stainless steels are waste water treatment plants and others industries generating suitable organic
being specified in some new build and in decommissioning uses. waste can produce biogas that can be converted into electricity, used locally or
Their high SCC corrosion resistance ensures long term safety (up to 150 years), sold to an energy utility. Heat is used onsite for drying or for heating purposes.
while the high strength allows a simpler design. In addition, a better thermal (Ref 6.12.2)
performance is obtained thanks to a relatively low thermal expansion and higher While austenitic grades are usually specified for most of the equipment, duplex
thermal conductivity compared to austenitic stainless steels. In new built plants, stainless steels provide the best solution for large digesters, where strength is
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 35

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needed besides corrosion resistance. performance than pre-painted and coated carbon steels for supporting frames.
In addition, on-site construction from They provide the necessary corrosion resistance for no maintenance but in
lighter prefabricated sections are less addition the higher strength allows the design of lighter structures that are both
expensive. less expensive and easier to install.

Biofuels (Ref 6.12.3) Geothermal (Ref 6.12.6 and 6.12.7)

Reducing the dependence from fossil Wellheads can use duplex or super duplex as an alternative to nickel alloy 625 for
fuels has led to the development of the geothermal well heads carrying hot brine.
bioethanol and biodiesel from energy
Duplex stainless biogas tank crops, particularly in Brazil and in the Offshore/onshore wind turbines (Ref 6.12.8 to 6.12.10)
Picture courtesy of Börger GmbH USA. Bolts are used to fasten turbine components not only for the
While austenitic grades 304L/304 and excellent corrosion resistance in marine environments but also
316L/316 are capable of resisting most for the high mechanical properties that reduce weight, increase
of the corrosive conditions encountered in the production of biofuels, some parts efficiency and guard against premature failure.
of the cellulosic ethanol process such as the pretreatment phase of the bioethanol Duplex stainless steel grade UNS S32205 (EN 1.4462) is used in
plants require a higher corrosion resistance. There, duplex S32205 and super brackets that are used to connect the monopile foundations to the
duplex S32750 are used, along with super austenitic 904L, super austenitic 6 %Mo transition piece. It was chosen for its high mechanical properties
and nickel alloy C-276. In addition, duplex and super duplex are used when better (YS > 355MPa) and excellent corrosion resistance, in tough
erosion-corrosion properties are necessary, i.e pumps. operational conditions that can include freezing temperatures,
A similar situation occurs in biodiesel plants, where duplex UNS S32205 strong currents and winds, and marine environment. These
(EN 1.4462) and S32750 are used where weak hydrochloric or sulphuric acids are properties have been considered for windmill towers tubular
present in the pretreatment systems designs able to reach heights up to 160 m.
and in the washing and glycerin
removal processes. Centrifuges can
be made of 317L/317 and S32205. In
both bioethanol and biodiesel plants,
large tanks can be made of lean duplex
S32101 (EN 1.4162) (Ref 6.12.4).

Solar panel supporting frames

Windmill with monopile foundation (orange)
(Ref 6.12.5)
and transition piece (yellow)
In harsh environments duplex
stainless steels offer a better Solar panels supporting frames made of Duplex
Grade SUS821L1
Picture Courtesy NIPPON STEEL Stainless Steel
Corporation
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 36

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6.13 Water coating after some Material

years 800 Welding,

assembly
Corrosion resistance has always been a requirement for any material in contact ƒ High strength duplex Surface treat-
with water, whether drinking water, waste water or sea water. Duplex stainless allows reductions 600
ment, coating
Recoating, loss of
steels are used for an increasing number of applications for strength and in wall thickness production and
scrap value
corrosion resistance: and therefore 400
weight compared to
Boats (Refs 6.13.1 to 6.13.4) austenitic stainless
200
ƒ Hulls, for high quality yachts, steel grades. Less
provide a long life without material is needed,
maintenance. transportation and 0
ƒ Davits (onboard cranes): They are assembly of lighter S420/ S250/ EDX 2304 304L
A537-2 A36
usually made from sheets bent parts and welding is
into square sections and then easier.
Figure 6.1 LCC of a duplex tank (Ref 6.13.6)
laser-welded. The work-hardening Similar results were
associated with bending provides obtained with different
a beneficial increase in strength tank sizes and duplex grades (Ref 6.13.8)
at no extra cost. As with other Ferritic and/or austenitic stainless steel grades remain the preferred choice for
stainless steels, various surface Davit (Marine crane)
finishes are available on demand. Picture courtesy of Stainless Structurals
ƒ Propellers and boat shafts: Duplex Duplex Stainless Steel in Storage tanks give the
stainless steels are now part of following structural efficiency:
the materials available. Manufacturers value their high level of resistance to ƒ Stainless steel does not need any corrosion
fatigue corrosion and their good resistance to abrasion and erosion at high allowance
flow rates. ƒ In the lower part of the tank the minimum shell
thickness corresponds to the design strength
Large storage tanks (Refs 6.13.5 to 13.6.9). of the material
They may contain, besides water, a wide range of liquids and corrosive chemicals ƒ In total this gives a significant weight saving
at various stages of processing, the end product before shipping, etc by using the high strength of duplex stainless
A comparison of the Life Cycle Costs (LCC) of various options for a typical 20 m steel
in diameter, 20 m high tank over a 30 years life is shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
Duplex grade S32304 (EN 1.4362) offers the lowest LCC because: Figure 6.2 Thickness reduction achieved by duplex stainless steels (Ref 6.13.7)
ƒ Carbon steels require an expensive coating, and an even more expensive re- small and medium-sized tanks, as the thickness reduction is much smaller.
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 37

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material in the future.

Wastewater tanks Desalination plants (Refs 6.13.14 to 6.13.17)
(Ref 6.13.9 to 6.13.12) Water scarcity is a big problem in many countries. Desalination of sea water is an
Among the ongoing developments, the effective mitigation solution. Two processes are used:
use of duplex grades for wastewater ƒ Multi-Stage Flash distillation (MSF) / Multi-effect Distillation (MED) in which
treatment tanks is receiving a lot of the water is evaporated and then condensed, producing drinking water while
attention, for both the replacement Waste water treatment plant
the remaining water is a concentrated salt solution, a brine.
of existing ones (often carbon steel Picture courtesy of Institut de la Corrosion ƒ Reverse osmosis (RO) and Brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) in which
reinforced concrete) or for new ones. the water under pressure of about 60 bars is forced through a membrane that
retains the salt ions. In this process even the salt-free water has some degree
Drinking water storage tanks of corrosiveness.
(Ref 6.13.13) In both processes the incoming sea water must be filtered to remove solids and
These storage tanks are much larger and have been for the most part made of the brine safely discharged into the
reinforced concrete, with coatings. Deterioration over time requires expensive sea to avoid harming the ecosystem.
crack repairs and waterproofing, which only have a temporary effect. Microbial All processes require very corrosion
growth is always a concern and materials that do not favour it while remaining resistant materials. Super austenitics
innocuous for human health are needed. (such as 904L and 6 %Mo), duplex
These considerations have led to the retrofitting of an existing water reservoir in S32205 (EN 1.4462), super duplex
Korea with duplex stainless steel lining, grades 329LD (20Cr-2.5Ni-1.4Mo-N) and grades (typically UNS S32750
329J3L (22Cr-5Ni-3Mo-0.15N ). The lining is assembled on-site by welding (which (EN 1.4410)) and Titanium are used
will be automated) and anchoring to the concrete, technologies which are also in various parts of the plants. High
used with austenitic stainless steels. Duplex grades may well be the preferred strength and high fatigue resistance
are additional criteria for material
Reverse Osmosis water desalination plant in selection.
Israel Some of the plants that use duplex
stainless steels are the Melittah plant
(2004) in Libya, the Skikda plant (2005)
in Algeria, and Sing Spring desalination plant (2005) in Singapore.

Water heaters (Ref 6.13.18)

Hot water cylinders for domestic/institutions water heaters and boilers are
increasingly made of lean and standard duplex, thanks to their lower weight and
their excellent resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion and chloride SCC, making
Left: Water reservoir before repairs. Right: Same with duplex stainless steel lining them competitive compared to coated carbon steels.
Pictures courtesy of Moonchang.
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6.14 Multi markets (Refs 6.14.1 to 6.14.3) Some of these components take advantage from the additional strengthening due
to cold work: fasteners (with yield stress levels close to 1000 MPa), structural
Besides market-specific applications, duplex stainless steels are used in less profiles obtained by the cold forming of sheets, cold drawn profiles, parts made
visible but essential components widespread in all industry sectors: pumps, from cold-drawn bars, rebar, … Higher strength without reduction of corrosion
valves, tie-bars, machined parts, fittings, fasteners, anchoring systems, filters, resistance reduces thickness, weight and therefore cost.
springs, structural profiles…. A more complex mix of properties may offer optimum solutions. For good heat
Duplex stainless steels are generally part of a range of available materials for transfer properties, very thin walls with a heat conductivity close to that of ferritic
these applications. They are preferred when high strength and high corrosion grades can be obtained by using thin gauge cold-worked sheets.
resistance, with occasional additional requirements such as resistance to erosion
corrosion and to fatigue corrosion, are demanded.

Balcony connector Profiles wire for filtration Anchoring systems

Picture courtesy of Slabe Picture courtesy of Ugitech S.A. Picture courtesy of Halfen

Fittings Valve Submerged pump

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7 Fabrication

7.1 Forming (Refs 7.1.1 to 8) Hot-forming/forging

Minimum
Optimum hot working conditions UNS N° EN N°
Hot forming
temperature
soaking
Cold Forming require a good control of the range °C
temperature,
°C
Duplex stainless steels can be cold-formed without any particular difficulty, as temperature range (Table 7.1), as
long as provisions are made for: it affects: S32101 1.4162 1100-900 950

ƒ a higher strength, requiring sturdier and more powerful machines ƒ the austenite/ferrite phase S32304 1.4362 1150-950 980
ƒ a larger springback (Figure 7.1.1) balance S32205 1.4462 1230-950 1040
ƒ a lower ductility than austenitics and ferritics, particularly for deep drawing ƒ the precipitation of nitrides S32750 1.4410 1230-1025 1050
operations. ƒ the precipitation of S32520 1.4507 1230-1000 1080
Grades with improved cold formability are available today. They rely mostly on intermetallic phases at S32760 1.4501 1230-1000 1100
optimised compositions. temperatures below ~1050°C. S30400 1.4301 1205-925 1040
These conditions define an S31600 1.4401 1205-925 1040
operating “window” shown in
110
(Figure 7.1.2). Alloying elements, Table 7.1 Recommended hot forming temperature
100 Cr and Mo in particular, accelerate range (Ref 7.1.2)
the precipitation of intermetallic
90
316L
phases like sigma phase
Final bend angle (degrees)

80 2304

70 by low cooling rate

Cr2N and low temperatures,

Increasing temperature
60
Effect of N while N induces the
2205
50 precipitation of Cr
40
nitrides inside the
Effect of Mo & Cr
ferrite at very high
30 σ-phase
temperatures and fast
20 cooling rates. As a
result, the operating
10
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Increasing cooling rate window is widest for
Bending angle (degrees) the lean duplex and
Figure 7.1.2 Schematic diagram of the production window of narrowest for the super
Figure 7.1.1 Comparison of springback of duplex stainless steels and Type 316L for 2 mm duplex stainless steels defined by temperature
(0.08 inch) thick sheet (Ref 7.1.1) and cooling rate (Ref 7.1.6)
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 40

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and hyper duplex grades.

In practice, attention must be paid to make sure that the temperature at the final
stage of hot working (rolling or forging) is above the lower limit, and that a rapid
cooling follows.

Special processes are known:

Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP effect), whereby the austenite phase
transforms into martensite during cold work. This in turn increases the work
hardening rate and prevents early rupture. For this to happen, the chemical
composition of the grades must be carefully balanced. The TRIP effect in this
material enhances strain hardening over a wide deformation regime hence the
ductility of the steel. Duplex stainless steels that show TRIP effect present an
excellent strength- Figure 7.1.4 Overview of total elongation to fracture vs.
ductility profile with an ultimate tensile strength for different steel
1200 ultimate tensile strength grades (Ref 7.1.7)

1000
above 1000MPa and an
elongation to fracture Superplasticity, a property known in many materials (such as glass),
Engineering stress (MPa)

800 of above 60%. These superplasticity has been evidenced in duplex stainless steels. It requires the
600
steels can be used in right temperature and
applications that require strain rate conditions. 1200
LDX 2101
as supplied
400
Mn-duplex steel good formability and Figure 7.1.5 shows that 45% cold rolled
60% cold rolled
70% cold rolled
1000
1.4362 high energy absorption elongations in excess of

Engineering elongation %
200
(Figure 7.1.3). Some 1000% can be obtained 800
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
applications that in a lean duplex 600
Engineering strain (%) can profit from TRIP previously cold worked.
effect are forming- The conditions required 400
Figure 7.1.3 Stress strain curves of a standard duplex (1.4362)
and of a TRIP modified grade (Ref 7.1.7)
intensive components, for superplastic 200
components from behaviour, and in
0
automotive industry, particular the low strain 750 800 850 900 950

heat exchangers, pump components, braiding and springs, etc. rates, have not allowed Testing temperature, °C

Figure 7.1.4 shows the excellent behaviour of duplex TRIP steels compared to the development of this
other non-stainless steels. forming process. Figure 7.1.5 Superplastic elongation of a lean duplex
(Ref 7.1.8)
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7.2 Machining (Refs 7.2.1 to 7.2.4) achieved by increasing Ni and Cu and decreasing N, leaving the same
austenite/ferrite balance, or increasing somewhat the ferrite content.
2. Optimizing the Sulphur Content. The EN 10088-1 standard sets a maximum S
All bar products are machined to produce parts. Plates are often drilled
content of 150 ppm for most grades. Figure 7.2.1 (Ref 7.2.2) shows that large
and milled to obtain the desired shape. Machining is therefore an important
differences in good chip breakability (Blue area in the feed/depth-of-pass
processing property as it can significantly increase the cost of the finished parts.
diagram with S content varying from 7 to 37 ppm. By contrast, there is no
Improved machinability grades are well known in engineering steels, in
significant change in
martensitic and austenitic stainless steels, but it is only recently that attention
tool wear. Even at
has been given to the machinability of duplex stainless steels.
Pitting potential (mV/SCE) in 0.5M NaCl 70°C such low S contents,
The two most important parameters for machinability are tool wear and chip 350
well below the
breaking behaviour. The high strength of the duplex grades leads to higher 300
limit of 150 ppm, a
cutting forces and increased tool wear. 250
marked decrease of

Pitting potential (mV/SCE)

Improving machinability can be achieved in different ways 200
150 the pitting potential
1. Adjusting the grade chemical composition to decrease strength and work- 100 is observed (Figure
hardening without deteriorating the corrosion resistance. This can be 50
7.2.2). The higher
0
-50
the S, the lower the
#A2 #A3 #A5
S (ppm) 8 23 37 -100 pitting resistance.
Furthermore,
40 40 40

0 35
-150
35 35
#A1 #A2 #A3 #A4 #A6
71 30 30 56 30 (S=3ppm) (S=8ppm) (S=23ppm) (S=34ppm) (S=100ppm) increasing
Vc (m/min)

Vc (m/min)

Vc (m/min)
Sulphur contents
175 3 25 <5 105 25
25

O.O.Z. 107 735 14 3 20 561 268 20 665 20

Figure 7.2.2 Pitting Corrosion resistance vs. S content
HSS Ø4 mm
Tivoly M2
213 1140+ 95 3 15 231 1140+ 129 <5
15 1140+ 152 15
deteriorates the
impact properties,
1140+ 266 5 10 1140 1140 52 1140+ 1140+ 106 10
830 10

155 238 5 5 5
0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25 0.3 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25 0.3
f (mm/rev)
Maximal chip flow rate:
f (mm/rev)
Maximal chip flow rate:
f (mm/rev)

Maximal chip flow rate:

Impact strength of 73 mm hot rolled 4462 bars as a function their Sulphur content particularly
1.5 cm³/min
200 367
1.5 cm³/min
200 1
2.0 cm³/min
200
350
KV (J) at 20° C
at subzero
180 180 180
300 KV (J) at -46° C temperatures,
160 516+ 160 394 160
250 Figure 7.2.3.
Impact strength KV (J)

From these results,

363 140
453 140 125 140
Vc (m/min)

Vc (m/min)

Vc (m/min)

200
CBZ
a very low sulphur
120 516+ 516+ 121 120 120
251 516+

Coated carbide 516+ 193 100 516+

308
100
100 150
516+ 141
Ø 6 mm
Gühring RT100F 516+ 476 80
516+ 516+ 332 80
473 80
content is required
100
516+ 516+ 516+ 91 60
60
60 to ensure a good
pitting corrosion
40
505 (*) 40 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 40 50
0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225
f (mm/rev) f (mm/rev) f (mm/rev)

Maximal chip flow rate: Maximal chip flow rate: Maximal chip flow rate: 0
#A2 (S=8ppm) #A3 (S=23ppm) #A6 (S=37ppm)
resistance and good
15 cm³/min 27 cm³/min 27 cm³/min
impact properties.
Figure 7.2.1 Optimum chip breakability vs Sulphur content for High Speed Steel and for Figure 7.2.3 Impact strength vs. S content As a result, the
Coated Carbide cutting tools (Ref 7.2.2)
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improvement of machinability by Sulphur additions is not attractive. 7.3 Welding (Ref 7.3.1 to 7.3.6)
3. Low melting point oxide inclusions, able to lubricate the carbide tool/ steel
interface, are well known. Improved machinability grades based on such
Duplex stainless steels can be readily welded by most processes, the most
oxide inclusions have been developed for engineering steels, martensitic
frequent one being arc welding. Unlike austenitic grades, they are not sensitive to
and austenitic stainless steels, but the “recipe” cannot be just copied for the
hot cracking and their coefficient of expansion is close to that of Carbon Steels.
duplex grades. Nevertheless, duplex stainless grades with controlled oxide
The welding recommendations presented below stem from the following
inclusions have been developed. Fig 7.2.4 shows a significant machinability
metallurgical features of the duplex grades (Figure 7.3.1):
improvement
ƒ Solidification of duplex takes place fully in the ferritic phase. Then, as the
achieved by oxide
temperature drops, austenite forms. If the cooling rate is very high, there may
inclusion control VB rough turning test (average of 2 reference inserts)
15/0.15
be more ferrite phase than what the equilibrium phase balance would lead to.
of grade S32304 260

In addition, the solubility of N in ferrite decreases sharply with temperature,

VB15/0.15 (m/min) rough turning test with a

(EN 1.4362) in a
CNMG 120408 insert without lubrication

250
leading to the unwanted precipitation of chromium nitrides inside the
turning operation
ferrite phase unless nitrogen can migrate into the austenite. Increased
with carbide tools. 240
transformation of ferrite to austenite can be obtained by proper choice of
Similar results are
reported for drilling. 230

Chip breaking is also 220

100
Melt
1. Liquid
improved. Published 90 2. BCC_A2#1
3. FCC_A1#1

data indicate that 210

UGI4362 UGIMA 4362 UGI4404 ©
UGIMA 4404HM
© Austenite
4. HCP_A3#2
5. SIGMA#1
Ferrite
80
oxide inclusions 6. M23C6
7. LAVES_PHASE_C14

do not deteriorate Figure 7.2.4 Improved machinability obtained by controlled 70

8. SIGMA#2

Phase-Fraction [weight-%]
significantly the oxide inclusions (Ref 7.2.4) Ferrite
60
pitting corrosion
resistance of lean 50

duplex grades. Their main drawback, as of today, appears to be a large 40

decrease of KV impact values below 0°C. It limits the applications for which
duplex grades with an improved machinability by oxides can be used. 30 Sigma Phase
Sigma Phase
20

10
Laves Phase
Cr2N
0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature Celsius

Figure 7.3.1 Equilibrium phases of a 22%Cr duplex stainless steel versus T° computed by
Thermocalc (Version 2017a/TCFE 9)
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shielding gas and filler metal.

ƒ Cooling below ~1000°C must take place fairly quickly to avoid the precipitation Welding Process Shielding Gases Remarks

of intermetallic phases, of nitrides and of carbides that are detrimental to

both impact properties and corrosion resistance. Low temperature spinodal Ar+30 He+1 O2 Short arc welding gives very convex beads
decomposition takes place too slowly to be a concern in welding. Ar+30 He+1 O2 (22Cr duplex) Spray arc welding
The optimum welding conditions will therefore depend on the thickness of the GMAW Ar+2 CO2 (Super duplex)
plates to be welded and of their chemical composition. The welding parameters Ar+30 He+1 O2 (22Cr duplex)
Pulsed arc welding
must be set accordingly, with the following rules: Ar (99.996%) for super duplex

ƒ Heat input: An optimum value results from the compromise between the need ƒ Purge to maintain 0.5% oxygen max
ƒ Ar+ 2% N2 shielding gas is
for a rather slow cooling below the melting point and that of a fast cooling recommended for the root run
below ~1000°C ƒ For subsequent runs, Argon (Ar)
ƒ Filler metal composition: It usually has a higher Ni content than the base may be used as shielding gas
ƒ Shielding - Ar+2% N2 ƒ Root is mandatory for first two runs
GTAW
metal, so that it helps the formation of austenite. The nitrogen content, on the ƒ Purging / Root Gas- Ar
other hand, may be lower than that of the base metal to reduce the potential Note: Per ASME section IX, a changing for purging gas
is a non-essential variable. Formier gas (90% nitrogen
for precipitation of chromium nitrides and 10% hydrogen) is a cheaper and sometimes a tried
ƒ Shielding gas: It may contain some nitrogen to promote austenite formation as alternative for root Pp. However, the acceptance is subject
to satisfactory procedure qualification only
well. In all cases, moisture and hydrogen must be avoided
ƒ Ar-20% CO2 ƒ Typical gas flow rate 20-25 l/min
ƒ Preheating should be avoided. When necessary, the temperature should be FCAW
ƒ Ar-18%CO2 -2%O2 ƒ Wire stickout length 15-20 mm

Figure 7.3.3 Recommended welding parameters (Ref 7.3.1)

Electrode/
Recommend-
Weld Filler Welding Travel speed
Diameter (in) Bead ed current Voltage (V)
Process AWS Position
(A)
(inch/min.) about 100°C.
Classification
ƒ The requirement for maximum interpass temperature is usually at 150°C for
3/32
50-60
lean and standard duplex, and at 100°C for super duplex.
SMAW E-2209 & 3G-Up Root Cap 20-24 4-6/7-9 ƒ Stress relief treatment at low temperature (600-650°C) must be avoided.
80-95
1/8
ƒ Postweld heat treatment should be a solution annealing followed by fast
GTAW ER-2209 3/32 1G Root 100-120 16-18 5-8 cooling.
ER-2209 3/32 16-18 5-8 Processes without filler metal such as spot welding should be avoided.
GTAW & 100-120
FCAW
+ & 1G Root Cap
190-210 Note: The welding of dissimilar metals, usually austenitic stainless steels or
E2209T1-4 1/16 28-30 17-22
carbon steel is commonly done. The most suitable filler metal will depend on the
ER-2209+
SAW P100 3/32 1G Cap 350-400 30-32 30-40
particular combination of alloys.
Flux

Figure 7.3.2 Recommended welding parameters for different types of joints (Ref 7.3.1)
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 44

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7.4 Quality control (Ref 7.4.1 and 7.4.2)

Duplex stainless steels are not significantly more difficult to process than
martensitic or austenitic grades, but they require a closer control of fabrication
parameters.

Specifications must include the necessary testing. They usually rely on standards
(see Appendix 1). For instance, ISO 17781 and NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 provide
and describe common test methods for quality control for oil and gas applications,
which are among the most demanding ones. More specific standards can be
demanded, an example being Norsok M-630 (for materials) and M-650 (for vendor
approvals), also for oil and gas.
The usual quality control requirements are :
1. Chemical composition (ASTM or EN)
2. Heat treatment parameters
3. Mechanical properties: hardness, tensile test, impact test at room
temperature and subzero if need be (i.e: Norsok at -46°C)
4. Metallography examination: ferrite between 40- 60%. No third phases such as
Sigma phase, Chi phase, nitride or carbide (ASTM A923).
5. Corrosion test: corrosion pitting temperature (ASTM G48).
An example of additional requirement is Stress Corrosion Cracking test for oil and
gas applications involving H2S.

Qualification of operators
Fabrication must be carried out by operators with the required level of
qualification. This is particularly important for welding. ISO and ASME specify
qualification procedures. Similar qualifications requirements are demanded for
non-destructive testing operators.
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8 Conclusions
Duplex stainless steels are now used in a wide variety of applications, but
they are still far from having reached their full potential. In most uses they
complement other stainless steel families, particularly austenitics.
While strength and corrosion resistance are their best-known advantage, recent
developments are tailoring them to fit different requirements: arctic service,
higher corrosion resistance, higher mechanical properties, better heat transfer
(thinner gauges), improved machinability, better forming properties. Further
developments will come out. The additive manufacturing (3D printing) process,
for instance, may be able to produce duplex stainless parts with high strength
and corrosion resistance. All this while offering the usual properties of stainless
steels, i.e. durability, low life cycle cost, 100% recyclability, aesthetics, …
Hopefully, this brochure will help you for your projects.

Detail of the Kwandong Ice Hockey Center in Korea, clad in lean duplex 329LD
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9 References

1. Introduction 3. Corrosion Resistance

1. Peckner D., Bernstein I.M. “Handbook of stainless steels”, McGraw Hill (1977) 1. IMOA Publication: “Stainless grades and properties”
2. P. Lacombe, B. Baroux and G. Beranger «Les Aciers Inoxydables » Les imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/steel-
Editions de Physique (1990) grades.php
3. Voronenko, B.I. “Austenitic-Ferritic stainless steels: A state-of-the-art review” 2. NACE Publication: R. Francis “The corrosion of duplex stainless steels: A
Met Sci Heat Treat (1997) 39: 428. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02484228 practical guide for engineers (2018)” ISBN 978-1-57590-369-9
4. J. Charles: “Duplex families and applications: A review Part 1: From Duplex store.nace.org/the-corrosion-of-duplex-stainless-steels-a-practical-guide-for-
Pioneers up to 1991” Stainless Steel World (July/August 2017), p.1 engineers-2
stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/Duplex_families_and_applications_A_review_ 3. Sandvik Corrosion Tables
Part_1.pdf materials.sandvik/fr/materials-center/corrosion-tables/
5. J. Charles: “Duplex families and applications: A review Part 2: From 1991 to 4. F.V. Adams, P. Olubambi, J.H. Potgieter and J. Van Der merwe: “Corrosion
nowadays” Stainless Steel World (September 2015) p.67 resistance of duplex stainless steels in selected organic acids and organic
stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/Duplex_families_and_applications_Part_2.pdf acid/chloride environments” Anti-corrosion Methods and Materials, (May
6. J. Charles: “Duplex families and applications: A review Part 3: The lean Duplex 2010), 57(3), p.107
grades” Stainless Steel World (October 2015) p.1 researchgate.net/publication/235312358_Corrosion_resistance_of_duplex_
stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/Duplex_Families_applications_a_review_part3. stainless_steels_in_selected_organic_acids_and_organic_acidchloride_
pdf environments
5. Nickel Institute Publication: “Stainless steels and specialty alloys for pulp,
2. Standards and grades paper and biomass conversion” 2nd Edition, (2017)
nickelinstitute.org/media/1810/
1. IMOA Publication: “Practical Guidelines for the fabrication of Duplex stainless stainlesssteelsandspecialtyalloysformodernpulpandpapermills_11025_.pdf
steels”, 3rd Edition, (2014) ISBN 978-1-907470-09-7 6. super-metals.com/applications/corrosion-resistance-of-duplex-stainless-
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/practical-guidelines/ steels/
fabrication-series.php 7. British Stainless Steel Association: “Duplex stainless steels – A simplified
2. J. Charles and P. Chemelle: “The history of Duplex developments, nowadays guide”
DSS properties and duplex market future trends” Proceedings of the Duplex bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article=668
Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune, (2010), p.29 8. J. Grocki “A primer for duplex stainless steels” Stainless Steel World Seminar
pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel--- (October 2012)
DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html steeltank.com/Portals/0/Pressure%20Vessels/SSWseminarOct2012/4%20
A%20Primer%20for%20DUPLEX%20%20Corrosion%20Solutions%20
presentation.pdf
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9. F.W. Hoinard Les aciers inox Duplex (2014) Cefracor publication Expo (2016) Vancouver
docplayer.fr/15144426-Les-aciers-inox-duplex.html
10. F. Busschaert, T. Cassagne, A. Pedersen and Stale Johnsen: “New challenges 4. Physical properties
for the use of duplex stainless steels at low temperature” Rev. Metall., 110 3
(2013) 185-197 1. Euro Inox “Stainless Steel: Table of Technical Properties” Materials and
metallurgical-research.org/articles/metal/abs/2013/03/metal110081/ Applications series Vol 5, ISBN 978-2-87997-242-8
metal110081.html worldstainless.org/what_is_stainless_steel/Mechanical_and_physical_
11. Jamila Adem:, “Erosion-resistance of the 1.4062 lean duplex for mining properties
industries”. Duplex World Seminar & Summit 2016, (October 2016),
Düsseldorf 5. Mechanical Properties
12. A. Bhattacharya:. “Stress Corrosion Cracking of Duplex Stainless Steels in 1. Steel Construction Institute publication: “Design Manual for Structural
Caustic Solutions”. Thesis: Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta. (2008) Stainless Steel”, 4th Edition (2017)
13. Technical data datasheet of Associated Steel Corp. steel-sci.com/
associatedsteel.com/technical-data/duplex-stainless-steel-asc2250ldx- 2. ISSF Stainless steel rebar website: stainlesssteelrebar.org (and additional
caustic-solution-corrosion-test-data/ refs on some bridges)
14. J. Charles: “Past, present and future of the duplex stainless steels” 3. J. Baas: “Application limits for Duplex Stainless Steels at elevated
worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/ temperatures in the process industries” Proceedings of Duplex Seminar and
Pastpresentandfutureoftheduplexstainlesssteels.pdf Summit (2016)
15. R. M. Magdowski; M. O. Speidel. Stress corrosion cracking of high nitrogen 4. S. Cissé and G Passot: “Effect of ageing on lean duplex UR2202 properties for
steels. Proceedings: High nitrogen steels - HNS 88. EDITED BY J Foot, J.; plates and welds” Proceedings of Duplex Seminar and Summit (2016)
Hendry, A.; 1989. p.251-255 5. D.S. Bergstrom and D.R. Hasek: Elevated Temperature Phase Stability of
16. R. Pettersson et al.: Avoiding catastrophic corrosion failure of stainless steels ATI2003® Mo-Containing Lean Duplex Alloy” Proceedings of Duplex Seminar
(CORINOX). European commission report in press from RFCS-CT-2006-00022. and Summit (2016)
(2009), p.92 6. R. Bapat and P. Goswami: “Duplex stainless steels: A critical review of
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18. Outokumpu publication “Handbook of stainless steels” (2013) Americas conference & Expo 2012 (October 2012)
outokumpu.com/choose-stainless/stainless-basics/handbooks 7. S. Cissé and G Passot: “Duplex Stainless Steels for Arctic Applications”
19. IMOA Moly review (1/2008) Proceedings of Duplex Seminar and Summit (2016)
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php 8. A. Fajimi: “Low temperature application of duplex stainless steels”
20. J.Charles, and S . Bernhardson, S. Duplex Stainless Steels ’91 Conference Proceedings of Duplex Seminar and Summit (2016)
(1990) 9. R. Cordewener: “Impact values at low temp” Proceedings of Duplex Seminar
21. V.S. Le Manchet and A. Proust: “Abrasion-Corrosion resistance of stainless and Summit (2016)
and wear-resistant steel for oil sands applications” NACE Conference and 10. Ugitech S.A.: Work Hardening Curves of grades EN 1.4062 and EN 1.4410
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11. Sandvik brochure “Stainless steels for springs and other demanding 6. Applications
applications”
12. R. Moser, P. Singh, L. Kahn and K. Kurtis: “Durability of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Piles in Marine Environment, Part 2. Volume 2: Stainless Steel
General
Prestreessing Strand and Wire” Final report. School of Civil & Environmental 1. Stainless Steel World: “A steel for all seasons: duplex expands its range”,
Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, (June 2012) (November 2014)
13. D.P. Schuetz: “ Investigation of High Strengthe Stainless Steel Prestressing stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/a_steel_for_all_seasons.pdf
Strands”, M.Sc. Thesis, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Georgia 2. J. Chater “Playing-to-strength-duplex-gains-market-share-in-construction-
Institute of Technology, (May 2013) and-transport”, Stainless Steel World, (November 2017)
14. P. Alvaro, L.F. Kahn and K. Kurtis: “Corrosion-free precastprestressed 3. C. Houska : “Duplex stainless steel revolutionizes structural design” The
concrete piles made with stainless steel reinforcement: construction, test and Construction Specifier, (April 2015)
evaluation” GDOT research Project N°1134 Final report. Contract with Georgia constructionspecifier.com/duplex-stainless-steel-revolutionizes-structural-
Department of Transportation in cooperation with the US department of design/1/
transportation federal Highway Administration, (March 2015) 4. AISC and SCI Guide7 – Design Guide 27: Structural Stainless Steel
15. Y. Wu and U. Nürnberger: “ Corrosion-Technical properties of high-strength aisc.org/Design-Guide-27-Structural-Stainless-Steel
stainless steels for the application of prestressed concrete structures” 5. SCI: Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, 4th Edition, (February 2018)
Materials and Corrosion, (2009), 60, N°10, p.771 DOI: 10.1002/maco.20090527 steel-stainless.org/designmanual
16. AISC and SCI Guide7 – Design Guide 27: Structural Stainless Steel p.113 6. Deutsche Institut für Bautechnik publication “Sonderdruck 862: Allgemeine
aisc.org/Design-Guide-27-Structural-Stainless-Steel bauaufsichtliche Zulassung Z-30,3-6) (March 2018)
17. H. Groth and Erik Schedin: “Austenitic and Duplex Stainless Steels in Fire” edelstahl-rostfrei.de/publikationen/iser-publikationen/sonderdruck-
Proceedings of Nordic Steel Construction Conference 2012, Oslo (Nov 2012) 862-allgemeine-bauaufsichtliche-zulassung-z-303-6-vom-5-maerz-2018-
researchgate.net/publication/287632825_Austenitic_and_Duplex_Stainless_ erzeugnisse-bauteile-und-verbindungsmittel-aus-nichtrostenden-staehlen
Steels_in_Fire 7. IMOA Publication “ Duplex Stainless steel”
18. G. Waller and D.J. Cochrane: “Stainless steel for durability, fire resistance and imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/duplex-
safety” Nickel Institute publication stainless-steel.php
nickelinstitute.org/library/?opt_perpage=20&opt_
layout=grid&searchTerm=fire&page=1
6.1 Art
19. C. Tigerstrand and J. Sjöström: “DSS adds structural and cost efficiency 1. Arches of Oman, Muscate: “ISSF publication “Stainless Steel in Architectural
to seismic design of storage tanks” Proceedings of the 8th International Applications Volume 4”, p.6
Conference on Duplex Stainless steels, 13-15 (October 2010), Beaune, France, worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters
p.1197 2. Venus rising Brisbane, Australia: “ISSF publication “Stainless Steel in
pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel--- Architectural Applications Volume 2”, p.13
DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters
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3. The Runners, Chicago 3. EU Publication report “Application of duplex stainless steel for welded bridge
csaeng.com/projects/view/the-runners construction in an aggressive environment”, (March 2009), ISBN 978-92-79-
09948-9
6.2 Architecture op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ec2748d4-3269-43cd-9a34-
1. Euro-Inox publication “Innovative Façades in Stainless Steel” Building Series, 3a0e1fba4e23/language-en/format-PDF/source-111268318
vol. 19, p.34. ISBN 978-2-87997-372-2 4. Euro Inox publication “Pedestrian bridges in stainless steel” ISBN 2879970849
worldstainless.org/news/show/1851 bssa.org.uk/cms/File/Euro%20Inox%20Publications/Pedestrian%20Bridges.
2. IMOA Publication Molyreview issue 1, (2019) “Louvre Abu Dhabi: A rain of pdf
Light” 5. N. Baddoo and A. Kosmač “Sustainable Duplex Stainless Steel bridges” Euro
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php Inox publication
3. IMOA Publication Moly-grade stainless steel makes waves at Middle Eastern worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/Sustainable_Duplex_
Airport (Roof of Doha airport) Moly Review (January 2009) p.4 Stainless_Steel_Bridges.pdf
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php 6. K F. Hansen, L. Lauge and S. Kite: “Stonecutters Bridge – Detailed design”
4. Cedinox publication Acero Inoxidable N°82, Junio 2018 Basilica de la Sagrada (January 2004) DOI: 10.2749/222137804796291719
Familia researchgate.net/publication/233611421_Stonecutters_Bridge_-_Detailed_
cedinox.es/es/publicaciones/revista-acero-inoxidable/ Design/citation/download
5. ISSF publication “Stainless Steel in Architectural Applications Volume 3” p.34 7. Steel Construction Institute publication: “Stonecutters Bridge Towers”(2010)
“La Sagrada Familia” worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/Stonecutters_Bridge_
worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters Case_Study-2.pdf
6. IMOA Publication “Duplex rigging for glass sails” Moly review, issue1, (2015) 8. G. Gedge: “Use of duplex stainless steel plate for durable bridge construction”
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php (January 2007) DOI: 10.2749/222137807796119771
7. ISSF page “Fondation Louis Vuitton” researchgate.net/publication/233632633_Use_of_Duplex_Stainless_Steel_
worldstainless.org/news/show/2000 Plate_for_Durable_Bridge_Construction
8. ISSF Publication “Stainless Steel as an Architectural Material Volume III” 9. Champlain bridge, Montreal Nickel Institute magazine, Vol. 34, N°2, (2019)
worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters nickelinstitute.org/nickel-magazine/nickel-magazine-vol34-no2-
2019/?lang=English&p=6
6.3 Bridges 10. Champlain bridge, Montreal Stainless Steel World online, 05 January 2016
1. IMOA web publication “Stainless steel in Vehicular, rail and pedestrian stainless-steel-world.net/news/58262/nas-to-supply-stainless-steel-bar.html
bridges” (March 2018) 11. Hong-Kong Macau bridge ISSF Publication: “Stainless steel in Infrastructure”
imoa.info/stainless-solutions/archive/37/Vehicular-rail-and-pedestrian- worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/ISSF_Stainless_Steel_in_
bridges.php Infrastructure_English.pdf
2. C. Houska “More on duplex stainless steel and bridges “, The construction 12. Hong-Kong Macau bridge
specifier, (May 2015) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Zhuhai%E2%80%93Macau_
constructionspecifier.com/duplex-bridges/ Bridge
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13. IMOA publication “Innovative bridge at Ft Worth, Texas” Moly-Review 1/2018 5. Tammerkoski floodgate
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/ pratiwisteel.com/news/view/20110708090600/Outokumpu-Duplex-Stainless-
14. Steel Construction Institute publication: “Cala Galdana Bridge” (2010) Steel-For-Sluice-And-Flood-Gates-Structures-In-Finland.html
worldstainless.org/architecture_building_and_construction_applications/ pontek.fi/in-english
structural_applications 6. Monaco extension
15. Railway Bridges in India cedinox.es/opencms901/export/sites/cedinox/.galleries/publicaciones-
apnnews.com/pamban-to-become-indias-first-railway-bridge-to-use- tecnicas/Extension-en-mer-de-Monaco.pdf
stainless-steel-structurals/ 7. Gårda Dämme floodgate, Gothenburg
16. Steel Construction Institute publication: “Helix Pedestrian Bridge” (2011) outokumpu.com/en/choose-stainless/2016/floodgates-to-fight-rising-sea-
worldstainless.org/architecture_building_and_construction_applications/ levels
structural_applications
17. ISSF Publication: Bascule pedestrian bridge in “Stainless steel as an
6.5 Restoration
architectural material” 1. Statue of Liberty
worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/ISSF_Stainless_Steel_ imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/
as_an_Architectural_Material.pdf architecture/structural-restoration.php
18. Trumpf bridge 2. IMOA Publication: “Super duplex to keep the Vasa safe”
structurae.net/en/structures/trumpf-footbridge imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/
19. IMOA Publication “San Diego’s new harbor bridge sails onto the skyline” architecture/structural-restoration.php
MolyReview, (June 2012) 3. Cedinox publication “Rehabilitacion – Iglesia de Santiago” Acero Inoxidable
imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/ N°76, Junio 2015, p.14
architecture/pedestrian-bridges.php cedinox.es/es/publicaciones/revista-acero-inoxidable/index.
6.4 Coastal works html?psolrlistsliderrevistas=2
4. Cedinox publication; “ Rehabilitacion de Iglesia de Santa Catalina” Acero
1. Sea Wall at Cromer Inoxidable, vol. 83, december 2018, p.8.
stainlesssteelrebar.org/applications/coastal-protection-at-cromer-uk/ cedinox.es/es/publicaciones/revista-acero-inoxidable/index.
2. Bayonne breakwater html?psolrlistsliderrevistas=1
stainlesssteelrebar.org/applications/bayonne-breakwater/ 6.6 Tunnels
3. Tsunami-proof floodgates Japan (NSSC presentation)
4. Sluices Mt St Michel 1. ISSF Publication “Stainless steels in tunnels”
nickelinstitute.org/nickel-magazine/nickel-magazine-vol-30-no3-2015/ worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters
europe.arcelormittal.com/europeprojectgallery/fol_montsaintmichel 2. Nickel Institute publication “Queensway Tunnel Refurbishment England” (May
2017)
nickelinstitute.org/library/?opt_perpage=20&opt_
layout=grid&searchTerm=tunnel&page=1
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3. ISSF publication “Slab suspension in a bypass tunnel” 7. Stadler SA datasheeet : “Tramlink for EMTU Santos, Brazil” (2016)
worldstainless.org/architecture_building_and_construction_applications/ stadlerrail.com/en/references/overview-references/
infrastructure
4. S. Mead “How a new duplex stainless steel helped transform Norway’s rail
6.8 Chemical engineering
infrastructure” Design Solution Journal, (February 2018) 1. G. Notten: “Application of Duplex stainless steel in the chemical process
connectingindustry.com/DesignSolutions/how-a-new-duplex-stainless-steel- industry” 5th Duplex stainless steel world Conference, (1997)
helped-transform-norways-rail-infrastructure.aspx stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/D97_201.pdf
5. Sandvik Publication 2. Heat exchangers: enerquip.com/heat-exchanger-blog/duplex-stainless-steel-
materials.sandvik/en/news-media/news-and-stories/archive/2016/10/ makes-an-excellent-choice-for-manufacturers/
sandvik-hollow-bar-brings-100-years-of-maintenance-free-service-to- 3. Proc. Int Conf. on Duplex Stainless Steels, (13-15 october 2010), Beaune
norways-revolutionary-high-speed-railway/ Session IB “Process (Chemical) Industry” p. 167 – 249.
6.7 Transportation pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel---
DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html
1. IMOA “Safer seas with stainless steel”, Moly-review (032018) 6.9 Pulp and paper
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/molybdenum-use-by-
material/duplex-stainless-steel/duplex-stainless-steel.php 1. A. Tuomi et al. : “Increased usage of duplex materials in manufacturing
2. F. Neessen and P. Bandsma: Tankers – “A composition in Duplex stainless” pulping equipment” Duplex America 2000 Conference proceedings, p.401.
Welding innovation, vol. 18, (2001) N°3 stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/DA2_061.pdf
jflf.org/v/vspfiles/assets/pdf/duplexstainless.pdf 2. J. Chater: “The pulp and paper industry turns to duplex” Stainless Steel
3. J. Chater « Playing to Strength: duplex gains market share in construction World, (October 2007), p. 70
and transport” Stainless Steel World, (November 2017) stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/SSW_pulp_LR.pdf
4. H. Groth, B. Leffler and A. Bergquist: “Advantages and limitations of 2205 3. Penn Stainless “ Duplex Usage in the Pulp and Paper Industry” (August 2012)
and other duplex stainless steels for the transportation of chemicals” Duplex pennstainless.com/blog/2012/08/duplex-usage-in-the-pulp-and-paper-
Conference ´97”, (21-23 October), 1997, Maastricht, The Netherlands industry/
researchgate.net/publication/318860884_Advantages_and_limitations_ 4. Nickel Institute Publication: “ Stainless steels and specialty alloys for pulp,
of_2205_and_other_duplex_stainless_steels_for_the_transport_of_ paper and biomass conversion – A practical guide for mill engineers” Senior
chemicals Editor Andrew Gardner 2nd Edition, (2017)
5. J. Peultier, F. Barrau and J.P. Audouard: “Corrosion Resistance of Duplex and nickelinstitute.org/library/?opt_perpage=20&opt_
Super Duplex Stainless Steels for Air Pollution Control process Systems” , layout=grid&searchTerm=pulp%20and%20paper&page=1
Corrosion 2005, 3-7 April 2005, Houston, Tx, USA. ©2005 NACE International
Document ID: NACE-05316
6. Kiruna Wagon News: “Kiruna wagon modernises wagons with Duplex
Stainless Steel for LKAB” (05 April 2018)
kirunawagon.com/archives/2651
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6.10 Oil and gas 6.11 Nuclear

1. D. Zuili: “The use of stainless steels in oil&gas industry” Proceedings of the 1. F. King: “Corrosion resistance of austenitic and duplex stainless
Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune, (2010), p575. steels in environments related to UK geological disposal“ UK Nuclear
pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel--- decommissioning Authority, (2009)
DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html rwm.nda.gov.uk/publication/corrosion-resistance-of-austenitic-and-
2. Norsok and NACE standards (see Appendix 1) duplex-stainless-steels-in-environments-related-to-uk-geological-
3. T. Cassagne F. Busschaert “Experience with Duplex stainless steels in Oil and disposal/?download
Gas Production”, Duplex 2007, June 18-20, Grado, Italy ISBN 88-85298-60-5 2. American Metal Market “Stainless steel waste boxes ready for Sellafield” April
tib.eu/en/search/id/tema%3ATEMA20071106432/Experience-with-duplex- 09, 2018
stainless-steels-in-oil/ amm.com/Article/3799585/Stainless-steel-waste-boxes-ready-for-Sellafield.
4. atimetals.com/markets/oilandgas/products html?Print=true
5. World Oil Magazine: “Stainless steel umbilical tubing proves strength after 17 3. A. Backhouse: “Stainless Steels for the Nuclear Industry” Outokumpu
years’ subsea service”, vo 238, N°5, (June 2017) Experience 2013, London
worldoil.com/magazine/2017/june-2017 marketing.outokumpu.com/ext/webpage/show.
6. IMOA newsletter (July 2008) “Lean Duplex Stainless Steel Flexible Flowlines php?p=165720a5c08034848fc7aee14024aa3ab462c9d
for the Kikeh Offshore Oil Field” 4. IMOA publication:”Duplex 2205: The new choice for nuclear power piping”
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php Moly Review, (July 2010), p.8
7. API Technical report 938C “Use of Duplex Stainless Steels in the Oil refining imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/moly-review.php
Industry” 3rd Edition, (February 2015) 5. US Areva (now called Orano) leaflet (NUHOMS® DOX Duplex Stainless Steel
api.org/~/media/files/publications/whats%20new/938-c_e3%20pa Canister Option”
8. R. Francis: “The corrosion of Duplex stainless steels: A practical guide for us.areva.com/home/liblocal/docs/Catalog/AREVA-TN/ANP_U-542-V3-17-
engineers”, NACE International Publication, (2018), ISBN: 978-1-57590-369-9 ENG_NUHOMS_DPX.pdf
store.nace.org/the-corrosion-of-duplex-stainless-steels-a-practical-guide-for- 6. Sellafield Magazine, issue 08, (January 2018), p.11
engineers-2 gov.uk/government/publications/sellafield-magazine-issue-8
9. Wikipedia: subseapedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umbilicals 6.12 Renewable Energy
1. REN21 report“Renewables 2018 Global status report”ISBN 978-3-9818911-3-3
ren21.net/status-of-renewables/global-status-report/
2. The Steel Construction Institute Publication p.412: “Stainless steel tanks for
biogas production » (2016)
worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/Structural_Applications/
ED026_BIOGASS_20_May_2016.pdf
3. K. Osterman : “Stainless steels – Cost-efficient materials for the global biofuel
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industries” Nickel Institute technical Series N°10 090 publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a4313c3e-0c7f-

nickelinstitute.org/library/?opt_perpage=20&opt_ 4261-b08d-135dd4067af2/language-en
layout=grid&searchTerm=biofuel&page=1 6. IMOA Publication “Strong sustainable water tanks” MolyReview 2/2017, p.1
4. IMOA Publication: “Strong sustainable storage tanks” Moly Review, (2/2017) imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-stainless-steels/duplex-
imoa.info/download_files/molyreview/excerpts/17-2/Storage_tanks.pdf stainless-steel.php
5. ISSF Publication: “New application Awards 2017”, p.24 7. P.-E. Arnvig: “New applications and experiences with Duplex Stainless Steels
worldstainless.org/publications/brochures_and_posters – the importance and challenge of standards” Proceedings of International
6. I.O. Thorbjornsson et al : “Materials for geothermal steam utilization at higher Duplex Seminar and Summit (2016)
temperatures and pressure” Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, (April 8. R. Cordewener ArcelorMittal Industeel “Duplex Stainless Steels for Storage
2015), Melbourne Tanks – Focus on corrosion and Life cycle Cost” Proc. Stainless Steel World
researchgate.net/publication/303462143_Materials_for_Geothermal_Steam_ Conference and expo 2017
Utilization_at_Higher_Temperatures_and_Pressure 9. Institut de la Corrosion: RFCS Project “Lean Duplex Stainless Steel for Urban
7. M. Van Wijngaarden and J. Chater: “CalEnergy goes for duplex” Stainless and Industrial Wastewater” started 01/09/2017 duration 40 months
Steel World (October 2006) p.54 institut-corrosion.fr/activities/research-and-development/projet-rfcs-
stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/SSW_Geo_LR.pdf duplexwaste/?lang=en
8. IMOA Publication: “Lighter and safer offshore platforms” MolyReview, issue 1 10. ISSF Publication: “Stainless Steel in Sewage Treatment Plants” ISBN 978-2-
(2018) p.3 930069-62-3
imoa.info/molybdenum-media-centre/downloads/ worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/ISSF_Stainless_steel_in_
9. J. Chater “Playing to Strength: duplex gains market share in construction and sewage_treatment_plants.pdf
transport” Stainless Steel World, (November 2017) 11. Euro Inox Publication: “Performance of Stainless Steels in Waste Water
10. altenergymag.com/story/2019/05/stainless-steel-lends-long-life-to-merkur- Installations” ISBN 978-2-87997-040-0
wind-farm-structure/30962/ worldstainless.org/news/show/216
12. Nickel Institute Publication “Giving Sewage the stainless steel treatment”
6.13 Water/marine Nickel Magazine, Vol.31 N°2, p.10
1. Hulls: J. Chater: “Running a tight ship: Stainless steel can be cost-effective for nickelinstitute.org/about-nickel/water/
the construction of ships and boats” Stainless Steel World, October 2014, p.2 13. Information from POSCO, Korea
stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/Running_a_tight_ship.pdf 14. J. Olsson: “Stainless steels for desalination plants” Desalination 183 (2005)
2. Propeller Shafts: clementsengineering.co.uk/technical/ p.217.
3. Propellers: steelcraftpropellers.fi/en/propellers/ 15. ISSF Publication: “Desalination in stainless steel”
4. Davits: Laser welded square sections worldstainless.org/news/show/214
stainless-structurals.com/blog/duplex-stainless-steel-marine-cranes/ 16. ISSF Publication: “Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant”
5. Tanks: T. Snauwaert et al. “Duplex stainless steels in storage tanks” EU worldstainless.org/news/show/449
Publication” , December 2013, ISBN 978-92-79-34576-0 , DOI 10.2777/4944
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17. E.D. Mackey and T.F. Seacord : “Guidelines for Using Stainless Steel in the 4. Euro Inox Publication “ The forming Potential of Stainless Steels” ISBN978-2-
Water and Desalination Industries 87997-211-4
awwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.5942/ worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/Euro_Inox/
jawwa.2017.109.0044?tracking_action=preview_click&r3_referer=wol&show_ FormingPotential_EN.pdf
checkout=1 American Waterworks Association 5. A. Groth et al: “Forta FDX27 Duplex stainless steel for high strength
18. Solar hot water tanks gasket plate heat exchangers” J. Phys: Conf. Series 896 (2017) 012013 doi
redcirclesolar.com.au/slit-systems-and-retro-fitting-to-existing-tanks 10.1088/1742-6596/896/1/012013
researchgate.net/publication/320073320_Forta_FDX_27_-_duplex_stainless_
6.14 Multi markets steel_for_high_strength_gasket_plate_heat_exchangers
1. Insulated Balcony connectors 6. J.O. Nilsson, G Chai: “The physical metallurgy of DSS” Proceedings of the 8th
slabe.fr/ Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune, (October 2010) p.369
ancon.co.uk/products/insulated-balcony-connectors/stc-steel-to-concrete- pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel---
connectors DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html
2. Springs: materials.sandvik/en/materials-center/material-datasheets/strip- 7. C. Herrera, D. Ponge, D. Raabe “Design of a novel 1Gpa duplex stainless TRIP
steel/sandvik-springflex/ steel with 60% ductility by a reduction of austenite stability” Acta Materialia,
3. Valves and Pumps: stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/Duplex_stainless_use_is_ Vol 59, issue 11, (June 2011) p.4653
expanding_in_valves_and_pumps.pdf doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.04.011
4. Laser welded profiles: stainless-structurals.com 8. J. Tomu et al “Superplastic Forming of LDX2101 (EN 1.4362) Duplex Stainless
5. Anchorings Steel” Proceedings of European Conference on superplastic forming, (2004)
Albi, France.
7 Fabrication researchgate.net/publication/289531575_Superplastic_Forming_of_
LDX_2101_EN_14162_Duplex_Stainless_Steel
7.1 Forming and forging 7.2 Machining
1. IMOA Publication “ Bending, Cold forming and springback of Duplex stainless 1. IMOA Publication: “Machinability of Duplex Stainless Steels”
steels” imoa.info/download_files/stainless-steel/IMOA_Shop_Sheet_103.pdf
imoa.info/download_files/stainless-steel/IMOA_Shop_Sheet_102.pdf 2. N. Renaudot, E. Chauveau and M. Mantel: “Machinability of Stainless Steel
2. IMOA Publication: “Hot forming and Heat Treatment of Duplex Stainless Long products: How to deal with the Sulphur way?” Proceedings of the 8th
Steels” Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune (2010), p.1233
imoa.info/download_files/stainless-steel/IMOA_Shop_Sheet_101.pdf pubs.kci-webshop.com/Webshop/Product/BOOKS/Duplex-Stainless-Steel---
3. H. Hänninen and J. Romu: “Trends in Forming and welding of Stainless DSS-2010-Conference-Proceedings.html
Steels” Proc. 6th European Stainless Steel Conference, (June 2008), Helsinki. 3. N. Renaudot, E. Chauveau and M. Mantel: “1.4669, a new lean duplex stainless
researchgate.net/publication/242272425_TRENDS_IN_FORMING_AND_ steel with improved toughness and machinability” La Metallurgia Italiana,
WELDING_OF_STAINLESS_STEELS (Sept 2012), Vol. 105, p.29
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4. Ugima4362 Data Sheet, Ugitech SA. 6. IMOA Publication: imoa.info/download_files/stainless-steel/IMOA_Shop_

Sheet_105.pdf
7.3 Welding 7. F. Babish: “Welding practice of the duplex stainless steels SAF 2304 SAF2204
1. R. Bapat and P. Goswami: “Duplex stainless steels: A critical review of and SAF2507”
Metallurgy, Engineering codes and Welding practices” Stainless steel world fr.slideshare.net/lalutrivandrum9/welding-duplex-stainless-steel
Americas conference & Expo 2012 (October 2012) 7.4 Quality control
2. P.J. Cunat: “The welding of stainless steels”, Euro Inox Publication (2007)
worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/Euro_Inox/ 1. A. Wensley “Developments in the Quality Assurance of Duplex Stainless Steel
BrochureWeldability_EN.pdf pressure Vessels for the Pulp and Paper industry” Stainless Steel World
3. L.M. Haldorsen: “Welding of duplex piping – Experiences and challenges” Conference, Houston, Tx (November 2001)
Duplex world seminar and summit (2016) researchgate.net/publication/279181178_Developments_in_the_Quality_
4. R. Pettersson, M. Johansson, E. M. Westin: “Corrosion performance of welds Assurance_of_Duplex_Stainless_Steel_Pressure_Vessels_for_the_Pulp_
in duplex, superduplex and lean duplex stainless steels” Rivista Italiana della and_Paper_Industry
Saldatura vol. 66 (Jan. 2013), p.335 2. EMMUA Publication 218 “Quality requirements for the Manufacture and
5. researchgate.net/publication/286677410_Corrosion_performance_of_welds_ Supply of Duplex Stainless Steels”
in_duplex_superduplex_and_lean_duplex_stainless_steels eemua.org/Products/Publications/Digital/EEMUA-Publication-218.aspx
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Appendix 1 Main standards

1. ISO 15510 Stainless steels – chemical composition and test methods
2. ISO 17781 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries -- Test 17. EN ISO 9445 Continuously cold-rolled stainless steel – Tolerances on
methods for quality control of microstructure of ferritic/austenitic (duplex) dimensions and form Part 1:narrow strip and cut lengths Part2: Wide strip
stainless steels and plate/sheet
3. ASTM A182 Standard specification for forged or rolled alloy or stainless steel 18. EN 10088-1 Stainless steels – list of stainless steels
pipe flanges, forged fittings and valves and parts for high temperature service 19. EN 10088-2 Stainless steels. Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate and
4. ASTM A240 Standard specification for Chromium and chromium nickel strip of corrosion-resisting steels for general purposes
stainless steel plate, sheet and strip for pressure vessels and for general 20. EN 10088-3 Stainless steels. Technical delivery conditions for semi-finished
applications products, bars, rods, wire sections and bright products of corrosion-resisting
5. ASTM A270 Standard specification for seamless and welded austenitic and steels for general purposes
ferritic/austenitic stainless steel sanitary tubing 21. EN 10028-7 Flat products made of steels for pressure purposes. Stainless
6. ASTM A276 Standard specification for stainless steel bars and shapes steels
7. ASTM A480 Standard specification for general requirements for flat-rolled 22. EN 10216-5 Seamless steel tubes for pressure purposes. Technical delivery
stainless and heat resisting steel plate, sheet and strip conditions. Stainless steel tubes
8. ASTM A789 Standard specification for seamless and welded ferritic/austenitic 23. EN 10272 Stainless steel bars for pressure purposes
stainless steel tubing for general service 24. EN 10296-2 Welded circular steel tubes for mechanical and general
9. ASTM A790 Standard specification for seamless and welded ferritic/austenitic engineering purposes. Technical delivery conditions. Stainless steel
stainless steel pipe 25. EN 10217-7 Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes. Technical delivery
10. ASTM A815 Standard specification for wrought ferritic, ferritic/austenitic, conditions. Stainless steel tubes
martensitic stainless steel piping fittings 26. EN 10253 Butt-welding pipe fittings. Wrought austenitic and austenitic-ferritic
11. ASTM A890 Standard specification for castings, iron-chromium-nickel- (duplex) stainless steels without specific inspection requirements
molybdenum corrosion-resistant, duplex (austenitic/ferritic) for general 27. EN 10297-2 Seamless circular steel tubes for mechanical and general
application engineering purposes. Technical delivery conditions. Stainless steel
12. ASTM A923 Standard test methods for detecting detrimental intermetallic 28. Vd TüV WB418 Ferritisch-austenitischer Walz- und Schmiedestahl,
phase in duplex (austenitic/ferritic) stainless steels X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, Werkstoff-Nr. 1.4462; Band, Blech, Flansch, Form- und
13. ASTM A928 Standard specification for ferritic/austenitic(duplex) stainless Stabstahl, nahtloses Rohr, Schmiedestück
steel pipe electric fusion welded with addition of filler metal 29. Norsok Standard M630 Material data sheets and element data sheets for
14. ASTM A959 Standard guide for specifying harmonized standard grade piping
compositions for wrought stainless steels 30. NACE MR0175/ISO15156-3 petroleum and natural gas industries – materials
15. ASTM A995 Standard specification for castings, austenitic/ferritic (duplex) for use in H2S containing environments in oil and gas production
stainless steel for pressure-containing parts
16. BS 6744: 2016 Stainless steel bars. Reinforcement of concrete. Requirements
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Appendix 2 Chemical compositions (typical analyses) BACK ? __ ← →

Grade Standards C Cr Ni Mo N Mn Cu W PREN

S32001 1.4482 0.03 19.5-21.5 1.00-3.00 0.6 0.05-0.17 4.00-6.00 1.00 - 21-23
S82012 1.4635 0.05 19.0-20.5 0.80-1.50 0.10-0.60 0.16-0.26 2.00-4.00 1.00 - 24-26
S82122 0.03 20.5-21.5 1.50-2.50 0.60 0.15-0.20 2.00-4.00 0.50-1.50 - 24-26
S32101 1.4162 0.04 21.0-22.0 1.35-1.70 0.10-0.80 0.20-0.25 4.00-6.00 0.10-0.80 - 25-27
S32202 1.4062 0.03 21.5-24.0 1.00-2.80 0.45 0.18-0.26 2.00 - - 25-28
S32304 1.4362 0.03 21.5-24.5 3.00-5.50 0.05-0.60 0.05-0.20 2.50 0.05-0.60 - 25-28
S82011 0.03 20.5-23.5 1.00-2.00 0.10-1.00 0.15-0.27 2.00-3.00 0.50 - 25-27
1.4655 0.03 22.0-24.0 3.50-5.50 0.10-0.60 0.05-0.20 2.00 1.00-3.00 - 25-27
Lean Duplex 1.4669 0.045 21.5-24.0 1.00-3.00 0.50 0.12-0.20 1.00-3.00 1.60-3.00 - 25-27
S81921 0.03 19.0-22.0 2.00-4.00 1.00-2.00 0.14-0.20 2.00-4.00 - - 27-28
S82031 1.4637 0.05 19.0-22.0 2.00-4.00 0.60-1.40 0.14-0.25 2.50 1.00 - 27-28
S82121 0.035 21.0-23.0 2.00-4.00 0.30-1.30 0.15-0.25 1.00-2.50 0.20-1.20 - 27-28
S31500 1.4424 0.03 18.0-19.0 4.30-5.20 2.50-3.00 0.05-0.10 - - - 28-29
S32404 0.04 20.5-22.5 5.50-8.50 2.00-3.00 0.20 2.00 1.00-2.00 - 29-30
S32900 1.4460 0.08 23.0-28.0 2.50-5.00 1.00-2.00 - 1.00 - - 30-31
S32003 0.03 19.5-22.5 3.00-4.00 1.50-2.00 0.14-0.20 2.00 - - 30-31
S82441 1.4662 0.03 23.0-25.0 3.00-4.50 1.00-2.00 0.20-0.30 2.50-4.00 0.10-0.80 - 33-34
S31803 1.4462 0.03 21.0-23.0 4.50-6.50 2.50-3.50 0.08-0.20 2.00 - - 33-35
S32205 1.4462 0.03 22.0-23.0 4.50-6.50 3.00-3.50 0.14-0.20 2.00 - - 35-36
Standard Duplex
S32950 0.03 26.0-29.0 3.50-5.20 1.00-2.50 0.15-0.35 2.00 - - 36-38
S32808 0.03 27.0-27.9 7.00-8.20 0.80-1.20 0.30-0.40 1.10 - 2.10-2.50 36-38
S32506 - 0.03 24.0-26.0 5.50-7.20 3.00-3.50 0.08-0.20 1.00 - 0.05-0.30 40-42
S32520 1.4507 0.03 24.0-26.0 5.50-8.00 3.00-4.00 0.20-0.35 1.50 0.50-2.00 - 40-43
S32550 1.4507 0.04 24.0-27.0 4.40-6.50 2.90-3.90 0.10-0.25 1.50 1.50-2.50 - 38-41
S32750 1.4410 0.03 24.0-26.0 6.00-8.00 3.00-5.00 0.24-0.32 1.20 0.50 - 40-43
Super Duplex
S32760 1.4501 0.03 24.0-26.0 6.00-8.00 3.00-4.00 0.20-0.30 1.00 0.50-1.00 0.50-1.00 40-43
S32906 1.4477 0.03 28.0-30.0 5.80-7.50 1.50-2.60 0.30-0.40 0.80-1.50 0.80 - 41-43
S39274 - 0.03 24.0-26.0 6.80-8.00 2.50-3.50 0.24-0.32 1.00 0.20-0.80 1.50-2.00 40-42
S39277 - 0.025 24.0-26.0 6.50-8.00 3.00-4.00 0.23-0.33 0.80 1.20-2.00 0.80-1.20 40-42
S32707 - 0.03 26.0-29.0 5.50-9.50 4.00-5.00 0.30-0.50 1.50 1.00 - 49-50
Hyper Duplex
S33207 - 0.03 29.0-33.0 6.00-9.00 3.00-5.00 0.40-0.60 1.50 1.00 - 52-53
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 58

_
Appendix 3 Equivalence between Duplex stainless steel grades listed in the BACK ? __ ← →
international standard ISO  15510:2010

4460-312-00-I X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 1.4460 S31200 S22553

4480-312-60-J X2CrNiMoN25-7-3 1.4481 S31260 SUS329J4L S22583

4424-315-00-I X2CrNiMoSiMnN19-5-3-2-2 1.4424 S31500

4462-318-03-I X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462 S32205, S31803 F51, F60 SUS329J3L S22053

4162-321-01-E X2CrMnNiN21-5.1 1.4162 S32101

4062-322-02-U X2CrNiN22-2 1.4062 S32202

4362-323-04-I X2CrNiN23-4 1.4362 S32304 S23043

4507-325-50-X X3CrNiMoCuN26-6-3-2 1.4507 S32550 S25554

4507325-20-I X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 1.4507 S32520

4501-327-60-I X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 1.4501 S32760 S27603

4410-327-50-E X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410 S32750 S25073

4658-327-07-U X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1 1.4658 S32707

4477-329-06-E X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 1.4477 S32906

4480-329-00-U X6CrNiMo26-4-2 1.4480 S32900 329 SUS329J1

4485-332-07-U X2CrNiMoN31-8-4 1.4485 S33207

 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 59

_
Appendix 4 Comparative Stress corrosion cracking resistance of unwelded BACK ? __ ← →
duplex and austenitic stainless steels in accelerated laboratory
tests (Ref 2.1)

Type 304L S32101

Grade 3RE60 2205 Super duplex Hyper duplex
Type 316L S32202

42% MgCl2, boiling,

154°C, U-bend
35% MgCl2, boiling,
125°C, U-bend
Drop evap., 0.1M NaCl,
120°C, 0.9 x Y.S.
Wick test 1500 ppm Cl
as NaCl 100°C
33% LlCl2, boiling,
120°C, U-bend
40% CaCl2,
100°C, 0.9 x Y.S.
25-28% NaCl, boiling,
106°C, U-bend
26% NaCl, autoclave,
155°C, U-bend
26% NaCl, autoclave,
200°C, U-bend
600 ppm Cl (NaCl)
autoclave, 300°C, U-bend
100 ppm Cl (sea salt + O2),
autoclave, 230°C, U-bend

Cracking anticipated Cracking possible Cracking not anticipated Insufficient data

 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 60

_
Appendix 5 Physical properties BACK ? __ ← →

from EN 
10088-1:2014-12 standard

Specific
Thermal Electrical
Mean coefficient of thermal thermal
Steel designation Density Modulus of elasticity at conductivity at resistivity at
expansion between 20° and capacity at
20°C 20°C
20°C

Magnetisable
W J Ω . mm²
20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 100°C 200°C 300°C _____ ____ _____
Name Number kg/dm³
m.K kg . K m

GPa 10-6 x K-1

X2CrNiN22-2 1.4062 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 480 0.68

X2CrCuNiN23-2-2 1.4669 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3 1.4424 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 13 475 0.8

X2CrNiN23-4 1.4362 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 1.4162 7.7 205 200 190 180 13.0 14.0 14.5 15 500 0.75

X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3 1.4482 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 15.0 13 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8
yes
X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2 1.4662 7.7 205 200 190 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 1.4507 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 1.4460 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 1.4501 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8

X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 1.4477 7.7 200 194 186 180 11.5 12.0 12.5 13 470 0.8

X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1 1.4658 7.8 197 189 178 168 12.5 - 13.5 12 470 0.8

unusual austenitic-ferritic corrosion resistant steels

X2CrNiCuN23-4 1.4655 7.8 200 194 186 180 13.0 13.5 14.0 15 500 0.8 yes
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 61

_
Appendix 6 Mechanical Properties, Long Products BACK ? __ ← →
EN 10088-3:2014 Stainless steels – Part 3: Technical delivery conditions for semi-finished products, bars, rods,
wire, sections and bright products of corrosion resisting steels for general purposes

Thickness t or Elongation after

Steel designation Hardness 0.2% proof strength Tensile strength Impact energy (ISO-V) Resistance to intergranular corrosion
diameter d fracture

in the delivery in the sensitised

Name Number mm HBW max. Mpa min. Rmd MPa % min. (long.) KVJ min (long.)
condition condition

Standard grades

X2CrNiN23-4 1.4362 ≤160 260 400 600 to 830 25 100 yes yes

X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462 ≤160 270 450 650 to 880 25 100 yes yes

X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 1.4460 ≤160 260 450 620 to 880 20 85 yes yes

Special grades

X2CrNiN22-2 1.4062 ≤160 290 380 650 to 900 30 40 yes yes

X2CrCuNiN23-2-2 1.4669 ≤160 300 400 650 to 900 25 100 yes yes

≤50 260 450 700 to 900 25 100 yes yes

X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3 1.4424
50 < t ≤ 160 260 400 680 to 900 25 100 yes yes

X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 1.4162 ≤160 290 400 650 to 900 25 60 yes yes

X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3 1.4482 ≤160 - 400 650 to 900 25 60 yes yes

X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2 1.4662 ≤160 290 450 650 to 900 25 60 yes yes

X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 1.4507 ≤160 270 500 700 to 900 25 100 yes yes

X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410 ≤160 290 530 730 to 930 25 100 yes yes

X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 1.4501 ≤160 290 530 730 to 930 25 100 yes yes

≤10 310 650 800 to 1050 25 100 yes yes

X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 1.4477
10 < t ≤160 310 550 750 to 1000 25 100 yes yes
Mechanical Properties, Flat Products - EN 10088-2:2014 Stainless Steels - Part 2: Technical
0.2% proof Impact energy (ISO V) KV2 Resistance to
Steel designation Product form Thickness Tensile strength Elongation
strength >10 mm thick - J min intergranular corrosion

ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 62

Delivery Conditions For Sheet/Plate And Strip Of Corrosion Resisting Steels For General Purposes

Rp0.2 A80 <3 mm thick A ≥ 3 mm thick

Rm in the delivery in the sensitised
Name Number mm max. Mpa min. % min. % min. long. transv.
Mpa condition condition
(long) long.+transv. long.+transv.

Standard grades
C 8 450 - -
650 to 850 20 20
X2CrNiN23-4 1.4362 H 13.5 400 yes yes
100 60
P 75 400 630 to 800 25 25
C 8 500 20 20 - -
700 to 950
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462 H 13.5 460 25 25 yes yes
100 60
P 75 460 640 to 840 25 25
Special grades
C 6.4 530 700 to 900 20 20 - -
X2CrNiN22-2 1.4062 H 10 480 680 to 900 30 30 80 80 yes yes

? __ ← →
P 75 450 650 to 850 30 30 80 60
C 8
450 700 to 900

_
X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3 1.4424 H 13.5 25 25 100 60 yes yes
P 75 400 680 to 900
C 8 420 - -
600 to 850 20 20

BACK
X2CrNiCuN23-4 1.4655 H 13.5 400 yes yes
100 60
P 75 400 630 to 800 25 25
C 6.4 530 700 to 900 20 30 - -
X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 1.4162 H 10 480 680 to 900 30 30 80 80 yes yes
P 75 450 650 to 850 30 30 60 60
C 6.4 500 700 to 900 20 30 - -
X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3 1.4482 H 10 480 660 to 900 30 30 100 60 yes yes

C: cold rolled steel; H: hot rolled steel; P: plate

P 75 450 650 to 850 30 30 100 60
C 6.4 550 750 to 900 20 25 - -
X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2 1.4662 H 13 550 750 to 900 - 25 80 80 yes yes
P 75 480 680 to 900 - 25 60 60
C 8 550 - -
750 to 1000 20 20
X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 1.4507 H 13.5 530 yes yes
100 60
P 75 530 730 to 930 25 25
C 8 550 - -
750 to 1000 20 20
X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410 H 13.5 530 yes yes
100 60
Appendix 7

P 75 530 730 to 930 20 20

X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 1.4501 P 75 530 730 to 930 25 25 100 60 yes yes
C 8 650 800 to 1050 20 20 - -
X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 1.4477 H 13.5 550 yes yes
750 to 1000 20 20 100 60
P 75 550
 ISSF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS - 63

_
BACK ? __ ← →

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The International Stainless Steel Forum (ISSF) is a ISSF thanks the following persons and companies for
? Help page not-for-profit research and development organisation their help in the preparation of this brochure:
which was founded in 1996 and serves as the focal Bernd Beckers (Outokumpu), Eric Chauveau
__
_ Contents page. point for the global stainless steel industry. (Ugitech), Amélie Fanica (Industeel), Dominique
Ferrière (Ugitech), Luis Peiro Hergueta (Acerinox),

← Vision Mitsuo Ikeda (ISSF), Nina Lappalinen (Outokumpu),

Previous page. Carole Lecomte (Aperam), Didier Paul (Industeel),
Sustain our future with stainless steels Nicolas Renaudot (Ugitech), Benoît Van Hecke (Nickel
→ Institute) and others for their help and support.
Next page.
Membership of the ISSF Special thanks to Jo Claes (ISSF) for the presentation
of the brochure.
BACK Previous view. ISSF has two categories of membership namely: ISSF is very grateful to Gary Coates (Nickel Institute),
a. company members who are producers of Nicole Kinsman (International Molybdenum
stainless steels (integrated mills and re-rollers) Association) and Luis Peiro Hergueta (Acerinox) for
reviewing the draft.
b. affiliated members who are national or regional
stainless steels industry associations.
The ISSF now has 57 members in 26 countries.
Collectively they represent approximately 90% of the
total production of stainless steels.

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