WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM

Mobile Radio Propagation:

Large-Scale Path Loss Model
 Mobile Radio Propagation

Propagation study: provides prediction models for estimating the power
required to close a communications link and provide reliable
communications.

Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical fashion, measuring
propagation characteristics in a variety environments and then
developing a model based on the measured statistics for a particular
class of environments.

Wired channels are stationary and predictable, radio channels are
extremely random and have complex models.
 Propagation Models
 Large-scale model:
 predict the average received signal strength over large distance from

the transmitter.
 variations due to path loss and shadowing

 signal reduces when traveling farther

 slow variation about mean caused by large obstructions

 Small-scale model or fading model:

 predict the variability of signal strength in short distance (within few

wavelengths).
 rapid variation caused by local scatterers around the Rx
 …Propagation Models

The ratio of the received-to-transmit power in dB versus log-distance for the

combined effects of path loss, shadowing and multipath.
…Large Scale vs Small Scale
 Free Space Propagation Model
 The power density at the distance d from the isotropic antenna must
decrease as 1/4πd2.
Pt
PD =
4πd 2
Isotropic
antenna
radiating
equally in
every
direction

 Electric field strength is used to specify signal strength in unit volts/meter

30 Pt
E=
d
 …Free Space Propagation Model

Power Density at distance d including transmitting antenna Gain

PT GT
PD =
4πd 2
Received Power and Receiving Antenna Effective Area
PR = Aeff PD
Aeff PT GT
=
4πd 2
λ GR
2

where Aeff =
4π
 …Free Space Propagation Model
2
 λ 
Received Power PR = PT GT GR  
 4πd 
Substitute, λ=c/f, d in km and f in MHz

Received Power in dB,

PR (dB) = PT (dB) + GT (dB) + GR (dB) − (32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log f )
PR (dB) = PT (dB) + GT (dB) + GR (dB) − LFSPL (dB)
where Free Space Path Loss LFSPL = 32.44 + 20log d (km)+ 20log f (MHz)
Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP): the maximum radiated power
available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain,
EIRP [W] = PtGt
 …Free Space Propagation Model
2
EIRP PG E
Pd = = t t
= W/m 2

4π d 2 4π d 2 η
η − intrinsic impedance of free space
µo
η= = 120πΩ = 377Ω
εo
E
2 2
E Gr λ 2 λ2Gr
Pr = Pd Ae = Ae = Ae =
120π 480π 2 4π
The far-field or Fraunhofer region:
2D 2
df =
λ
D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna
 Example 2.1

Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of

1 m and operating frequency of 900 MHz
 Example 2.2

If the power of a receiving antenna is Pr = 70 nW, receiving

antenna gain, Gr = 2 and transmitting frequency is 900 MHz,
determine the electric field strength at the receiver
 Example 2.3

If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit

power in unit of (a) dBm, and (b) dBW.
If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space distance
of 100 m from the antenna.
What is Pr(10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
 Example 2.4

Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 900 MHz, cells of radius

100 m, and nondirectional antennas. Under the free-space path loss
model, what transmit power is required at the access point such that
all terminals within the cell receive a minimum power of 10 µW. How
does this change if the system frequency is 5 GHz?
(Nondirectional antennas, GrGt = 1)

Pt = 21.52 dBW
Pt = 36.42 dBW
 Example 2.5

Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W

transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free space
propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 2, find (a) the
power at the receiver, (b) the magnitude of the E-field at
the receiver antenna, (c) the rms voltage applied to the
receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna has a
purely real impedance of 50 Ω and is matched to the
receiver.

Pr = -61.52 dBm
E = 3.87 mV/m
V = 0.188 mV
 Basic Propagation Mechanism:
Reflection
 Reflection
 Happens when electro-magnetic wave meets a large object

 Abrupt change in direction of a wave at an interface of large

objects (much larger than the wavelength) so that the wave

returns into the medium from which it originated.
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
 Effects: extra copies of signal with power attenuation, delay, phase
change
Pt

Pr
θ θ
 Basic Propagation Mechanism:
Diffraction

 Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver

obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges

 Waves bend and spread around the obstacle (Huygen’s principle)

 Effects
 Propagation behind obstructions

 Receivers behind an obstruction can still receive signal, although

with less power, longer delay, and different phase

 Known as “shadowing”
 …Diffraction

Double-slit diffraction
Pt

Pr

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v

2(d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2
v=h =α
λ d1d 2 λ (d1 + d 2 )
 Example 2.6

Compute the diffraction loss between the transmitter and receiver

Assuming:

λ = 1/3 m
d1 = 1 km
d2 = 1 km
h = 25 m

v = 2.74
Gd = -22 dB
 Basic Propagation Mechanism:
Scattering
 Scattering
 Happens when electro-magnetic wave meets small objects (smaller

than the wavelength of the propagation wave) with rough surface.

- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
 Signals spread in all directions due to rough objects.
 Effects
 The scattered fields increase the strength of the signal at the

receiver.
EM source

Radar Cross Section (RCS)

Power density of scattered wave in direction of receiver
=
Power density of radio wave incident on the scattering object
Radio Propagation Effects
Building

Direct Signal

hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm

d
Transmitter Receiver
 Ray-Tracing Method

 Predict received signal strength by analyzing reflection, diffraction,

and scattering of electro-magnetic (EM) wave.
 Approximate the propagation of EM wave by representing the
wavefronts as simple particles.
 EM wave propagation is simplified to be geometric equations.

 Computer programs:
Pt
 Lucent’s Wireless System Engineering
software.
 Wireless Valley’s Site Planner. Pr
 Marconi’s Planet.
 Widely used for system planning in
both indoor and outdoor
environments.
 Plane Earth Path Loss (Ground Reflection
(2-ray) model)
Direct wave

ht

Reflected wave
hr

The model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the

multipath effect.
A good predictor for large-scale signal strength over distances of several
kilometers for mobile systems with tall towers (h > 50m).
 The received E-field:
2 E0 d 0 2π ht hr k
ER ( d ) = ≈ 2 V/m
d λd d

E0 is the free space E-field (V/m) at a reference distance d0 from the

transmitter

Power received for flat earth reflection:

2
 ht hr 
Pr = PG
t t Gr  2 
for d >> ht hr
 d 
In large distance (d >> ht hr ) the received power falls with d at
40 dB/decade
 Example 2.7

A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a

vertical λ/4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive
cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1 km from the transmitter is
measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier frequency used for this
system is 900 MHz.

(a) Find the length (m) and the effective aperture of the receiving
antenna (m2)
[8.33cm, 0.016m2]
(b) Find the received power at the mobile using the two ray ground
reflection model assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is
50 m and the receiving antenna is 1.5 m above ground.
[ER = 1.131 x 10-4 V/m, Pr = -122.7 dBW]
 Exercise 1

A cellular radio system based on GSM 1800 has ht = 30 m

and hr = 2 m, Gt = 5 dB and Gr = 2 dB. The RBS radiated
power, Pt = 10 W. The distance between RBS and MS is 2
km. Assume Plane Earth Path propagation exist, determine
the received power (dBm).

Pr = -49.48 dBm
 General Path Loss Models

 Radio propagation models

 Analytical or Deterministic models

 Obtained from analyzing EM propagation

 Example: free space, two-ray models, ray tracing technique etc

 Empirical or Statistical models

 Obtained from measurement data

 Implicitly takes into consideration of many known/unknown

effects
 Example Okumura, Hatta Models

 Composite models: analytical + empirical

 Applications of path loss models

 Predict large scale coverage for mobile systems

 Estimate and predict SNR or CNR (carrier to noise ratio)

 Used for link-budget design

 Log-distance Path Loss Model

Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate

that average received signal power decreases logarithmically with
distance.
The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is
expressed as a function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n;
LPL(d) dB = LFSL(do) + 10 n log10 (d/do)
LFSL(do) = Free space path loss at reference distance, do
d = distance between transmitter and receiver (T-R separation)
do = reference distance that allows for LOS propagation (For large
coverage cellular system, 1 km are commonly used, whereas in
microcellular systems, much smaller distances are used ( 100 m or
10m)
Path Loss Exponent
 Example 2.8

If measured power loss is 70 dB at d0 = 10m, and 110

dB at d = 100 m. What is path loss exponent, n? What
environment is mostly likely?
 Calculation of Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)

Carrier to noise ratio

C/N = PT + GT – L + GR – (kTB + NF) dB

GT
PT Path loss

GR C/N dB

kTB
NF
 Exercise

For a given cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz the

RBS transmit 10 W into 10 dB gain antenna. The mobile
station is located 2 km away from RBS. If the medium loss
where the receiver is located is 10 dB, calculate the power
received at the receiver. Assume gain of receiving antenna
is 2 dB.
If the receiver has a 7 dB noise figure and IF bandwidth of
200 kHz calculate carrier to noise ratio.
 Sensitivity

 Sensitivity (W) = kTB * NF(linear) * minimum SNR required (linear)

 Sensitivity (dB) = 10log10(kTB) + NF(dB) + minimum SNR required (dB)
 Example parameters
 Signal with 200KHz bandwidth at 290K
 NF for amplifier is 1.2dB or 1.318 (linear)
 Modulation scheme requires SNR of 15dB or 31.62 (linear)
 Sensitivity = Thermal Noise + NF + Required SNR
 Thermal Noise = kTB = (1.38 x 10-23 J/K) (290K)(200KHz)
= 8.006 x 10-16 W = -151dBW or -121dBm
 Noise Floor = Thermal Noise + NF
 Sensitivity (W) = (8.006 x 10-16 W )(1.318)(31.62) = 3.33 x 10-14 W
 Sensitivity (dBm) = -121dBm + 1.2dB + 15dB = -104.8dBm
 Sensitivity decreases when:
 Bandwidth increases
 Temperature increases
 Amplifier introduces more noise
 Outdoor Propagation Models

 Predict the signal strength by considering also the terrain

profile, e.g., mountains, trees, buildings, obstacles.
 This is more accurate than the statistical approach of log-normal
model, but has also more limited applications
 Most of such models are obtained from systematic
interpretation of measurement data
 Their application is limited to similar environments
 Model classification
 Computer based model: Longley-Rice model
 Measurement model: Okumura model
 Empirical model based on measurement model: Hata model
 Computer-based Models

 Longley-Rice model
 Model point-to-point propagation

 Frequency band 40MHz-100GHz

 Use ray-tracing techniques

 Two-ray ground reflection, knife edge refraction, scattering,

etc
 Can use the terrain path profile if available

 Can not add environment corrections, no multipath

considerations
 Measurement Model: Okumura
Model
 Okumura model
 Most widely used model in urban areas

 Obtained by extensive measurements in and around Tokyo

 Okumura’s method is based on determining the free space path loss

between the Tx and the Rx and then adding and subtracting
numerous correction factors to account for the nature of the terrain,
the extent of urbanization and the height of the antennas.
 Valid under:
 Frequency band: 150-1920 MHz

 T-R distance: 1-100 Km

 BS antenna height: 30-1000 m

 Quasi-smooth terrain (urban & suburban areas)

 Okumura Model
 Okumura path loss model expression

L50 [dB] = LF + Amu ( f , d ) − G (ht ) − G (hr ) − GA

L50 : median of propagation path loss
LF : free space path loss
Amu ( f , d ) : median attenuation with frequency f and distance d
G (ht ) is the base station antenna height gain
factorfactor
G (hr ) is the mobile antenna gain factor
height gain factor
G (ht ) = 20 log(ht /200): 1000 m > ht > 30 m
 10 log(hr / 3), hr ≤ 3 m
G (hr ) = 
20 log(hr / 3), 10 > hr > 3 m
GA : gain factor due to the type of environment
Median Attenuation (Amu)
Correction Factor, GA
Base station Antenna Height G(ht)
Mobile antenna Height G(hr)
 Example 2.9

Find the median path loss using Okumura’s model for d

= 50 km, ht = 100 m, hr = 10 m in a suburban
environment. If the base station transmitter radiates
EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier frequency of 900 MHz, find
the power at the receiver in dBm (assume a unity gain
receiving antenna)
 Other Correction factors

Correction factor for rolling hilly (undulating) terrain Kter

Correction factor for sloping terrain Ksp

Correction factor for land sea Kls
Correction factor on Rolling Hilly
Terrain (Undulation) (Kter)
Correction factor on Sloping Terrain
(Ksp)
Correction Factor On Land Sea
Terrain (Kls)
 Exercise
Given these values
Base station antenna height (ht) = 200 m
Mobile antenna height (hr) = 3m
Frequency (f) = 500 MHz
Distance between antennas (d) = 10 km
Average angle of slope θm = 10 miliradians
Terrain undulation height ∆h = 50m (near bottom of
undulation)
Base station gain (Gt) and mobile (Gr) = 10 dB and 2dB
Power transmitted (Pt) = 50 dBm
Mobile is located in a suburban area. Find the predicted power received
using Okumura model.
 Hata Model

The Hata model is the empirical formulation of the graphical path loss
data provided by Okumura and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz.
The standard formula for median path loss in urban is given by

L50 (urban )(dB ) = 69.55 + 26.16 log f c − 13.82 log ht − a(hr ) + (44.9 − 6.55 log ht ) log d

fc is the frequency in MHz from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

ht is the transmitter base station height in meters ranging from 30 m to
200 m
hr is the receiver antenna height in m ranging from 1 m to 10 m
d is the T-R distance in km
a(hr) correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is the
function of the size of the coverage area
 …Hata Model

For a small to medium sized city, the mobile antenna correction factor
is given by

a(hr ) = (1.1log f c − 0.7 )hr − (1.56 log f c − 0.8)dB

For large city it is given by The picture can't be display ed.

a(hr ) = 8.29(log 1.54hr ) − 1.1 dB for f c ≤ 300MHz

2

a(hr ) = 3.2(log 11.75hr ) − 4.97 dB for f c ≥ 300MHz

2
 …Hata Model

To obtain path loss in suburban area, the standard Hata formula is

modified to

L50 ( Suburban) ( dB ) = L50 ( urban ) − 2 log ( f c / 28 )  − 5.4

2

For rural propagation, the path loss modified to

L50 (rural ) ( dB ) = L50 ( urban ) − 4.78 ( log f c ) + 18.33log f c − K

2

where K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert)