Special Topics In Electrical Power Engineering

Part
"RENEWABLE ENERGY"

Solar And Wind Energy

2
Eng. Tamador Al-momani

2019/2020
 Introduction
Energy can be defined as the ability to do a work. It is an integral
part of our daily life; it is used in agriculture, industry, health, and
social services. In other words, the energy is the backbone of our
life. In general, energy exists in several forms including electrical,
thermal, mechanical, potential, kinetic…etc.
Despite this variety of energy forms, fossil fuels are always the
common source of the world energy.

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Modern power networks are:
1) generation, 2) transmission, and 3) distribution.

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 Power Plant (generation)
A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, the power
plant itself must be useful economically and environmental friendly to the society.

A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and
delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the
generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the
generator, the electricity is generated. The type of prime move determines the type of
power plants.

The major types of power plants:

1. Steam power plant
2. Diesel power plant
3. Gas turbine power plant
4. Nuclear power plant
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• The generation system includes the main parts of the power plants
such as turbines and generators.

• The main parts of the power plant are the burner (in fossil plants),
the reactor (in nuclear power plants), the blades (in a hydroelectric
plant).

• These turbines rotate the electromechanical generators that

convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

• At the power plant, energy resources such as coal, oil, gas,

hydropower, or nuclear power are converted into electricity.

• The generator used in all power plants is the synchronous machine.

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Nowadays, with increasing energy demand and depending
basically on fuel to provide customers with electricity, fuel cost
has been always exposed to uncontrolled increase.
Simultaneously, there has been a growing concern about
environmental issues such as global warming and pollution
associated with burning such fuels.

On the light of the above information, the solution to energy

dilemma can be found in renewable energy sources which satisfy
the majority of the above requirements.

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 Renewable Energy
Renewable energy (RE) or alternative energy can be defined as:
“the energy obtained from the continuous or repetitive currents of
energy recurring in the natural environment”.

The main sources of RE are: sun, wind, hydropower, biomass,

geothermal, tidal and wave energy, or hybrid energy.

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 Renewable Energy Sources
• Sun energy: There are three main uses of solar energy: Heating of
water, Generate Electricity (Solar thermal and PV).

• Wind Energy: generate electricity by converting the kinetic energy

(KE) in the wind into electrical energy by using wind turbines.

• Hydropower: Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water…

winter and spring runoff from mountain streams and clear lakes. It
comes from water in motion.

• Biomass: a renewable energy source, is biological material from

living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, (hydrogen)
gas, and alcohol fuels. Biomass is commonly plant matter grown to
generate electricity or produce heat.
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 Renewable Energy Sources
• Geothermal Energy: is heat from within the earth; we can recover
this heat as steam or hot water and use it to heat building and generate
electricity. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because
the heat is continuously produced inside the earth.

• Tidal and Wave energy: As water flows out or in (tidal), up or down

(wave), a turbine is spun then electricity
is generated by the turbine

• Hybrid energy: is an energy system consisting of two or more

generating subsystems.

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Wind and Solar energy are two of the major alternative resources of
energy being utilized in many parts of the world.

Despite of the advantages, the renewable energy resources such as wind

and solar are not reliable, because they are weather dependent; it is
difficult to identify when clouds are coming through to block the
sunlight or when the wind speed is high.

A hybrid energy system which includes RE’s such as Wind and Solar
could resolve the main shortcoming of single renewable energy systems
which have the problem such as the intermittency and unpredictable
from renewable generation.

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 1. Solar Energy

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 Energy from the sun
Technically, most of our energy resources are forms of solar energy.
The wind would not blow without the sun.

The sun causes evaporation of water that ends up in rivers that are used
for hydro electrical power; without the sun, water would be eternally
locked in a solid state, ice.

 No biofuels can exist without the sun.

Biomass is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains

comes from the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture
the sun’s energy.

And by most accounts, all fossil fuels exist because the sun allowed
things to grow.
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 Energy from the sun
• That rely on solar energy as a source of electric power is the best
solution to get the free energy and environmentally friendly.

• The instantaneous solar power that is received from the sun on a unit
surface is called Irradiance and is normally given in watt per meter
squared (W/m^2), and measured by a device called Pyranometer.

• reach to the earth ~18% of the total solar energy, in the bright day is
estimated at 1000 W/m^2.

• Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar

or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and
distribute solar energy.

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 To measure energy from the sun at Earth's surface, Pyrano-meters are
designed specifically for this purpose The name Pyrano-meter stems from
Greek, "pyr" meaning "fire" and "annoy" meaning "sky "

Pyrano-meter

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 HORIZONTAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
(HCS)
The sun earth angles, that are used to determine the sun position with respect
to the observer’s location.

To determine the Latitude , longitude , altitude, and time zone of your location,
Google Earth software you can used.

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 1) Altitude Angle (αs): which it is sometimes called elevation, solar altitude
angle is the angle between the rays of the sun and the horizontal plane under
consideration.(between 0o to 90o).

2) Azimuth Angle (γs): is the angle of the sun around the horizon, usually
measured from the south. It is the angle between the south direction and the
projection of the sun rays.

3) Zenith Angle (φ): is sometimes used instead of altitude in some calculations.

The zenith angle is the complement of altitude angle. Moreover, the zenith angle
is the angle of the sun’s ray away from the zenith direction.

Zenith Angle = 90o - AltitudeAngle

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 Solar Water Heating
Most solar water-heating systems consist of a solar collector and a water
storage tank.

There are many type of collectors:

1. Flat panel 2. Evacuated Tube system 3.Concentrating

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A solar thermal power plant converts solar energy into electricity:
 The temperature in a concentrated solar power station is high enough to
produce steam .
 The steam is fed into a turbine which generates electricity .

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Photovoltaic (PV) Electricity

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 Photovoltaic Technology
• Photovoltaic (PV) is the technology of converting light directly
to electrical energy (photo = light, voltaic = electricity).

• Commonly known as “solar cells”.

• The simplest systems power the small calculators we use every

day. More complicated systems will provide a large portion of
the electricity in the near future.

• PV represents one of the most promising means of maintaining

our energy intensive standard of living while not contributing
to global warming and pollution.

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 Solar Cell Operation
Solar cell consists of two different layers of Silicon deliberately
doped with small quantities of impurities atoms (n-type and p-type)
joined together to form a p-n junction.

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What is Doping?
Adding foreign atoms to the silicon crystal to produce negative or
positive free charge carries (electrons or holes).

Why Doping?
Electrons freed and energized by photons will wander for a short time
and then recombine with a wandering hole. The energy originally
transferred to the electron from the photon is simply lost as heat. The
key to producing usable output current is to sweep the freed electrons
out of the material before they recombine with holes.

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 Doping the Silicon
Pure silicon wafer is doped with a small amount of another
atoms at temperature (1000-1200)°C, which creates a valence
bond between it and the silicon.

The most common impurity atoms are the Boron (B5) and the
Phosphorus (P15).

The Boron has three electrons in its outer level (less than the
silicon by one electron).

The Phosphorus has a five electrons in its outer level (more

than the silicon by one electron).

The Boron is doped by one atom for every 10,000,000 silicon

atoms to form the P-type silicon.

The Phosphorus is doped by one atom for 1000 silicon atoms,

to form the N-type silicon.
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 The P-Type Silicon

The silicon atom creates four covalent

bonds with other neighboring atoms in
the pure silicon crystal.

When the crystal is doped with Boron

atoms, the silicon will make three
covalent bonds with it with the forth
bond missing, which represents a hole
(e+), so this type of semiconductor is
called P-type.

This hole is waiting for a free electron to

fill its location to create the forth bond,
so the impurity atoms then is referred to
it as acceptor atoms.

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 The N-Type Silicon

Silicon is doped with Phosphorus

which has five electrons in its outer
orbit. So one electron (e-) will be
free. This type of semiconductor is
called N-type.

Phosphorous atoms (P) can donate

this electron to another bond that
needs it, so it is referred to as donor
atoms.

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 Doping in 3D view

P-type N-type

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 Solar Cell Operation
When photons strike a PV cell they may be reflected or absorbed or pass through
it, but only the absorbed photons generate electricity. Photons contain different
amounts of energy corresponding to different wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
If the energy of the photon is larger than the energy of the p-n junction band gap,
the PV cell absorbs the photon energy and an electron is excited from an
occupied low energy level in the valence band to an unoccupied higher energy
level in the conduction band. Then the excited electrons move from the p-type
material to the n-type material of the PV cell to flow through the load. The
amount of transmitted light through the cell can be increased by an anti-reflective
coating layer added to the surface of the PV cell and therefore, improve the
quality of light absorption.

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 Photovoltaic System Components
PV cell: semiconductor material that generate voltage and current when
exposed to sunlight.

Module: A configuration of PV cells.

string: One or more modules fastened together
Array: One or more string wired together for a specific voltage.
Inverter: A device that changes direct current to alternating current .
Battery: A device that chemically stores direct current (DC) electricalenergy.
Charge controller: Equipment that regulates battery voltage.

Net metering: The difference between production-consumption is measured

DC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by direct current.
AC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by alternating current.

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 Cells, Modules, Arrays
The single photovoltaic cell generates a very low voltage (around 0.5 V), so
more than one PV cells can be connected either in series (voltage add) or in
parallel (current add) or as a grid (both series and parallel) to form a PV module
(panel). The module is a group of PV cells connected in series and/or in parallel
and encapsulated in an environmentally protective laminate.

A group of modules is connected in series called a PV string. The PV array is a

group of several PV strings which is electrically connected in parallel to generate
the required current and voltage to get a unit with a suitable power rating.

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Cells, Modules, Arrays

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Most of the PV arrays have power diodes, which are called bypass diodes, which
are connected in parallel with each individual module. The function of the bypass
diodes is to conduct the current when the module is shaded or damaged.
Another diodes are used, which are called blocking diodes, which are connected
in series with each string to prevent reverse current flow and protect the modules.

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 Types of PV cell materials

• PV cells are made of semiconductor materials. The major types of materials

are crystalline and thin films, which vary from each other in terms of light
absorption efficiency, energy conversion efficiency, manufacturing
technology and cost of production.

1. Mono-crystalline silicon

2. Poly-crystalline silicon

3. Thin Film solar cell

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 Mono-crystalline VS. Poly-crystalline Silicon

These types of crystalline silicon depending on its purity and crystals

orientation obtained during the crystal growth process:
•Poly-crystalline: Non-uniform crystals orientation
•Mono-crystalline: Uniform crystals orientation (purer and more expensive
and efficient)
The mono-crystalline silicon ingots are prepared by the exacting crystal
growth process (crystal pulling). While the poly-crystalline silicon ingots
are prepared by a simpler casting (or, more generally, directional
solidification).

Poly-crystalline Mono-crystalline 35
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 Equivalent Circuit for Solar Cell

Equivalent circuit consists of:

 Diode (p-n junction)
 Current source (light-generated current)

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 The current source Iph is proportional to the solar irradiance, and diode D is a
typical junction diode. The output terminal current (I) is equal to the current
source (Iph) minus the diode current (Id) and the shunt leakage current (IRp).
Resistor Rp represents the leakage current along the cell borders and localized
short circuits, Rp=∞ (no leakage to ground).

Whereas; the series resistance Rs represents the internal resistance to the current
flow, and depends on the p-n junction depth, the impurities, and the contact
resistance, in an ideal PV cell Rs=0 (no series loss) and a small increase in Rs
can decrease the photovoltaic output significantly.

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 The output current from the photovoltaic array is given by

The equation for the PV cell power can be written as in

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 PV Performance Parameters

• Open-circuit voltage (Voc)

• Short-circuit current (Isc)

• Maximum power voltage (Vmp)

• Maximum power current (Imp)

• Maximum power (Pmp)

• Fill Factor ( FF )

• Maximum Power Efficiency (ηmax)

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 Open-circuit voltage (Voc) & Short-circuit current (Isc)

The electrical behavior of the PV cell can be described using two

substantial values; these are short circuit current (Isc) and open circuit
voltage (Voc). However, at these two operating points, the power from
the PV cell is zero .

Short circuit current is the current through the PV cell at zero output
voltage; it flows through the external circuit when the electrodes of a
solar cell are short-circuited. For ideal solar cell when the series resistor
is neglected, the short circuit current equals the light-generated current
(Isc = Iphoton), and this current is directly proportional to the illumination
level of the PV cell.

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 Open-circuit voltage (Voc) & Short-circuit current (Isc)

Open circuit voltage is the voltage at which no current flows through

the external circuit; i.e. when the solar cell terminals are opened or not
connected to a load. It is inversely proportional to the operating
temperature.

The open-circuit voltage of the PV cell at a certain operating

temperature and illumination level can be expressed as in

where Voc (Tr) is the open-circuit voltage at reference temperature, and

ᵝoc is the open-circuit temperature coefficient (V/Co).

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 Characteristics Curves of PV Array

the PV output curve and power variation with voltage, the output power from the
panel are the product of the current and the voltage outputs. The maximum
power point Pmp, is the multiplication result of Vmp and Imp (voltage and current at
the point of maximum power)

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 the PV cell current-voltage static characteristic on dark state and
illuminated state. The characteristic in the dark state is similar to the
diode characteristic and in illuminated state same but shifted by the
amount of photon energy.

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 Fill Factor
• The fill factor (FF) is an important parameter in evaluating the performance
of PV cells

• The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum obtainable power of the PV

cell to the product of the open-circuit voltage and short-circuits current

• Why is the fill factor important? The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure
of quality of the PV module. If the I-V curves of two individual PV modules
have the same values of Isc and Voc, the module with the higher fill factor
(Rectangular I-V curve) will produce more power.

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 Efficiency
The efficiency (η) is an important parameter to compare one solar cell with
another. It is defined as the ratio between the maximum generated power to the
input or incident power of the cell as given by

where Pin is the total power of sunlight illumination on the cell.

Each solar panel, or module, is rated to produce a certain wattage, voltage and
amperage under specific conditions, called the standard test conditions (std),
1000 w/m^2, 25Co

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 •Usually, the DC power generated from the PV array is affected by several
factors, such as the power loss due to dust on the PV array, the power loss due to
module parameter mismatch, the power losses in the DC circuit.

•Some of the light is reflected by the cell's grid structure and some is reflected
by the surface of the cell.

•Some light (long-wavelength infrared) does not have the threshold energy
needed to free electrons from the Si atoms and passes through the cell without
interacting.

•Some light (short-wavelength ultraviolet) has more than enough energy to

create the electron hole pairs. The excess energy transferred to the charge
carriers is dissipated as heat.

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The solar cell efficiency is low due to:
•Low energy and excessive high energy photons which constitute 55% of the
losses.
•Internal cell functional losses due to series resistance, shunt resistance,
reflection and contacts which constitute 25% of the losses.

In conclusion, maximum cell’s efficiency is around 20%.

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Solar Balloon

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 Clear days and sunshine hours average numbers

Average No. of hours of

Month Average No. of clear days
sunshine

January 20 232
February 22 260
March 24 296
April 25 275
May 25 348
Jun 30 405
July 31 380
August 31 390
September 29 334
October 25 280
November 26 264
December 22 233
Sum 310 day/year
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 There are two main factors which are responsible for the efficiency and the
performance of a solar cell; these factors are the temperature and the light intensity

a. Temperature: We know that semiconductor materials are sensitive to the variation

of temperature. This means that solar cell is also sensitive to the variation of
temperature. Temperature affects the electrons speed and therefore the amount of
energy produced. In the solar cell, the most affected parameter due to temperature is
the open circuit voltage, as the temperature increases the open circuit voltage
decrease and the fill factor (FF) decrease and hence the overall efficiency will
decrease.

b. Light intensity: The density of sunlight received at a location on the earth is called
light intensity. In cloudy days, the light intensity becomes lower and this leads to
low shunt resistance. Changing the light intensity effects on the cell parameters,
including Isc, Voc, FF and the efficiency of the cell. As the intensity increases, both
Isc and Voc increase and hence the Pmax varies.

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 (V-I ),(P-V) Curves of solar cell for different temperatures
at constant irradiance of 1000W/m2

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 (V-I ),(P-V) Curves of solar cell for different irradiations
at constant temperature of 25◦C

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 • The Power Inverter: The inverter is one of the most important components in

any solar power plant(the heart of the system). It aims to convert the direct

current (DC) generated in photovoltaic modules into alternating current (AC). It

is used to change low voltage DC (12, 24, 32, 36, 48, 96 or 120) voltage to

higher voltage AC (120, or 240).

• True Sine Wave power inverters: It will run practically any type of AC

equipment and is also the most expensive. Also, most appliances run more

efficiently and use less power with a True Sine Wave inverter as opposed to a

Modified Sine Wave power inverter.

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 Inverters connection types
Several technological concepts are used for connecting the PV plant to the grid.
They are categorized based on the number of power stages. Each technology has
its advantage and/or disadvantages, e.g. efficiency and maximum power point
tracking (MPPT*)

*The MPPT is a bit of electronics that optimizes the power from the panels

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Configurations of the inverters used in PV grid connected systems

1) Central inverter: One inverter for the whole PV generator.

PV strings connected on a DC bus (DC side).

Advantages:
efficient technology and low cost due to a usage of
only one inverter.

Disadvantages:
long DC cables required to connect the PV modules to
the inverter and the losses caused by string diodes,
mismatches due to a combination of a large group of
PV modules and failure of inverter causes loss of
whole PV energy.

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2) String inverters One string of PV modules connected to one inverter.

Connection on AC side.

Very popular.

Easy plant design, one PV string-inverter unit can be

repeated for the total required power by the
customer.

Low cost due to mass production.

In case of an inverter failure only small part of PV

energy is lost, replacement is easy.

Reduced mismatch losses

Ease of plant expansion

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3) Multi-String inverters
If you have solar panels facing different
directions then you need a Multi String Inverter

Further development of string inverters.

Each string of PV modules uses a small DC/DC

converter (with integrated MPPT tracking In
order to maximize output from your solar
panels),

and one larger inverter unit is used for the whole

plant.

Expansion of system is possible by adding a PV

string and an extra DC/DC converter, within a
certain power range.

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4) Module individual inverter One module (panel) uses one inverter.

Connection on AC bus.

Mismatch losses and DC wiring minimized.

Suitable mainly for small residential systems.

Disadvantages:
Due to low power ratings, lower efficiencies
and higher cost.

Difficult and expensive the replacement of

failed inverters.

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To connect the PV power to the utility grid, there are two conditions:
1. It must be equal in magnitude(voltage and frequency).
2. It must be equal in phase angle (synchronized).

The inverters are doing voltage and frequency check to connect with a grid

Inverter must be disconnected itself automatically:

 If grid is turned off for maintenance or fault,

 If grid voltage, frequency, and impedance are outside the specified
specifications.

The inverter is shut down within 0.1s to prevent island operation

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 Storage Batteries: They store the electrical power in the form of a chemical
reaction. Without storage you would only have power when the sun was
shining or the generator was running.

 A Charge Controller: Battery charge Controllers control the amount of

current entering the battery and protect it from overcharging and from
completely discharging. They can also measure battery voltage to detect the
state of charge. Proper charging will prevent damage and increase the life and
performance of the batteries.

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 Monitoring battery voltage and system performance: It is important to
know the state of your system. Specifically, you need to keep close watch on
the SOC (state of charge) of your batteries.

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 WHAT IS MPPT
 MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included
in the inverter or in charge controllers, used for extracting maximum
available power from PV module under certain conditions. The major
principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV
module by making them operate at the most efficient voltage .

 MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it grid voltage or to

battery voltage, then fixes what is the best power that PV module can
produce to connect with grid or to charge the battery and converts it to
the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. It can also supply
power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.
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MPPT

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In case the maximum output power of the inverter is reached, the operation point
of the PV generator will be adjusted to limit the power.

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  Net metering: The difference between production/consumption is
measured

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The photovoltaic system can be classified into two main systems:

1) Standalone (off-grid) Systems, the generated power is transferred to the

load but if there is an excess generated power; a storage system is needed
such as batteries.

2) Grid-Connected (on-grid) Systems, the grid performs as a storage

system. Photovoltaic power results from the direct conversion of solar
Insolation into electricity. The grid-connected photovoltaic system (PV)
systems are typically 1-10 MW sized plants linked to conventional
feeders.

Photovoltaic is the fastest growing distributed generation technology.

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 Type Of PV systems

Types of PV Systems

Standalone Grid-connected
“off-grid” “on-grid”

directly connected to
Without With Hybrid the public grid
storage storage Systems

DC with wind connected to public

Motors grid via house grid
“e.g. pumps” Systems turbine
AC with diesel
Systems generator
with public
grid backup
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 Standalone (Off-Grid) Systems
Types:

 System without battery storage or inverter:

o supplies DC loads directly, DC motors

 System with battery, without inverter.

o security systems, low-energy lights

 System without battery, with inverter.

o supplies AC loads directly, AC motors for pumping

Note: off grid inverter different than on grid inverter

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 Grid connected system
a schematic diagram of a grid-connected PV system consists of a PV array that
produce a DC power, a DC link capacitor, then an inverter to get an AC power,
after that, LC filter to have a sinusoidal voltage and frequency similar to the
grid, A step up transformer is used to boost up the inverter voltage to the
nominal value of the grid voltage, and to provide an electrical isolation between
the PV system and the grid, Finally, the harmonic filter used to eliminate the
harmonic components.

Schematic diagram of a grid-connected PV system 71

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 Comparison
Stand alone system Grid connected system

May need other power sources No need for other power sources
(Hybrid system, Wind generator)

Battery bank (finite source): Cost, Grid (infinite source)

sizing, and reliability .

PV modules should be suitable for Higher voltage with series-

charging batteries (12V or 24 V). connected modules
Parallel or parallel/series connected
modules.

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 PV Mounting Structures

• Fixed

• Adjustable tilt (season by season)

- Single axis tracking

Horizontal axis

Vertical axis

- Two or Dual axis tracking

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 Horizontal Single Axis Tracking

Vertical Single Axis Tracking

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 Dual Axis Tracking

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Sun Flower
a prototype of a solar "Sunflower" that can concentrate the sun’s radiation 2,000 times
and generate 12 kilowatts of electrical power and 20 kilowatts of heat on a sunny day
enough to power several average homes. They hope to bring it to the market in 2017 at
half to one-third of the cost of comparable solar converters today.

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 Solar Tree

The solar tree consists of mainly five parts to design:

" Solar panels, Long tower, LDEs , Batteries, and Stems for connecting the panels "

TREE stands for:

T = TREE GENERATING
R =RENEWABLE
E =ENERGY
E =ELECTRICITY

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 Advantages and disadvantages of PV system

Advantages Disadvantages

Environment friendly Impact on power system planning

Abundant source of energy Impact on power flow and power quality

Flexible installation High storage cost

Reduces electrical losses Increase the losses when convert DC-AC

Reduced sound pollution Variability of available solar radiation

No moving parts High manufacturing cost

Safety In-efficient / Low generation capacity

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Design of PV Systems

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 # Basic Principles to Follow When Designing a Quality PV System

1. Select a packaged system that meets the owner's needs. Customer criteria for a
system may include reduction in monthly electricity bill, environmental benefits,
desire for backup power, size and orient the PV array to provide the expected
electrical power and energy.

2. Ensure the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling the desired
system size.
3. Locate the array to minimize the shading.
4. Design the system in compliance with all electrical codes.
5. Design the system with a minimum of electrical losses due to wiring, fuses,
switches, and inverters.
6. Ensure the design meets local utility interconnection requirements.
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Design of On grid PV
systems

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 Steps to design on grid PV systems
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and
energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system.

1. Calculate total needed monthly power

the monthly needed power for the appliances = the average energy per month
divided by the PSH for month (4.5 h x 30 day).

Needed power = needed energy / 135

2. Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the result in 1.1 by the rated output Wp of the PV modules available to
you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and
that will be the number of PV modules required.

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these panel will be connected to the inverter, so we should determine how to
connected the panel (series/parallel) for each inverter.

1. Calculate the number of PV panels connected in series

The open circuit voltage (Voc) of each PV string (series connected PV
modules) in the PV array should not be higher than maximum allowed DC
voltage at the input of the inverter to avoid over-voltage at the input of the
inverter.

Number of series (Ns) x Voc ≤ Vmax

2. Calculate the number of PV panels connected in parallel

The short circuit current (Isc) of PV array (parallel connected PV string)
should not be higher than maximum allowed DC current at the input of the
inverter to avoid over-current at the input of the inverter.

Number of parallel (Np) x Isc ≤ Imax

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3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The output
rating of the inverter (1 phase or 3 phase) should never be lower than the total
watt of appliances. For grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter
should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation. The
inverter’s input voltage must have minimum and maximum range values since
the variance in production.

To calculate the number of inverter, divided the total number of system panel
by the max number of panel for each inverter.

No. of inverter = No. of total panel / (No. of series x No. of parallel)

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 4. Active area
Active area = number of panels x length x width

5. Initial Cost
Usually, the cost of on grid system approximately between (1000 – 1200 JD) per
1 Kw / year. The cost of the system = the total Kw multiply by the approximate
cost in the year.

6. Pay Back period

On of the important issues when design on grid system, calculate the period (in
year) to restore the initial cost paid to build the system.

Pay back period = initial cost / average bill in each year

average bill in each year = average bill in each month x 12

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 7. Circuit breaker size
In on grid system we have 3 CB, 1 DC circuit breaker between the panel and
inverter. And 2 AC circuit breaker one between inverter and grid and the other
between the inverter (grid) and the load.

1. DC circuit breaker size

IDC,CB = total current x safety factor (25%)
= Np x Isc x 1.25.

2. AC circuit breaker size

IAC,CB = maximum AC current of inverter x safety factor(25%)
= Imax x 1.25.

After that, the selected circuit breaker size depend on the standard available
values in the market. So, we choose the nearer highest value of the calculated
values.

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Design of stand alone PV
systems

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 Steps to design off grid PV systems
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and
energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system.

1. Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.

Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total watt-hours
per day which must be delivered to the appliances.

Pow Qty. Sub-total Power UseHours EnergyConsumption

No. Load
er (W) (h/day) (kWh/day)
(W)
1 Lamp 20 5 100 8 0.8
2 TV 80 1 80 10 0.8
3 Receiver 30 1 30 10 0.3
4 Fridge 200 1 200 16 3.2
5 Computer 100 2 200 8 1.6

Total Power(W) 610 Total

Eng. EnergyAlmomani
Tamador Consumption(kWh/day) 6.7 88
2. Battery sizing

The number of amp-hours a battery can deliver, is simply the number of amps of current it
can discharge, multiplied by the number of hours it can deliver that current. Theoretically,
a 100 amp-hour battery should be able to deliver 100 amps for one hour.

System designers use amp-hour specifications to determine how long the system will
operate without any significant amount of sunlight to recharge the batteries. This measure
of "days of autonomy" is an important part of design procedures.

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep
cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapidly
recharged. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the
appliances at night and cloudy days.

Depth of discharge (DOD) is a measure of how much energy has been taken from a
battery. As an example, "shallow cycle" batteries are designed to discharge from 10% to
25% of their total amp-hour capacity during each cycle. In contrast, most "deep cycle"
batteries designed for photovoltaic applications are designed to discharge up to 80% of
their capacity without damage.

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 Number of Batteries

To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:

1. Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
2. Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by the nominal battery voltage..
3. multiply the answer obtained in item 2.2 by 1.2 (20% safety factor).
4. Multiply the Ah of our battery with DOD factor.
5. Divide the answer obtained in item 2.3 by the answer obtained in item 2.4

Number of Batteries = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x safety factor
(Ah x DOD x nominal battery voltage)

Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number

The series / parallel connection depend on the voltage of battery with respect to
the system voltage

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.3Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the
sizing of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp)
produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location. The climate
of site location is represented by Peak Sun Hours (PSH gnidrocca detceles si hcihw (
.noitacol eht ot

3.1 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system Calculate the total
Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules by divide the total (Wh /day) needed
from the PV modules by PSH to find the total peak power of the PV array. Divide
the result by the rated output Wp of the PV modules available to you. Increase any
fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the number
of PV modules required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are
installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV
modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life
will be shortened.

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4. Solar charge controller

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities.
Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then
identify which type of solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that
solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.

the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is delivered to the
controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).

1. find the number of panel should be connected to the each charge controller :
divided the charge controller current by the maximum current of each panel
(round down the Ans.).

2. the number of charge controllers: divided the total number of PV panel by the
answer in 4.1 (round up the Ans.)

The series / parallel connection depend on the voltage of battery with respect to the
charge controller.

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5. Inverter sizing

An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The output
rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances.
The inverter’s input voltage must have the same nominal voltage as the battery
bank.

For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total
amount of Watts you will be using at one time.

The capacity of the inverter must be greater than the load peak power, so as to take into
consideration:
1. Starting current of some loads (like motors).
2. Future expansion.

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The nominal Peak power of the PV array should match the maximum allowed
DC input power of the inverter. Increasing PV peak power above the allowed
level will yield to power loss in the PV produced power in case of high
irradiance levels as the inverter will limit maximum power to its rated power.
The designer should follow the PV inverter rules when selecting the number of
PV modules to avoid power loss due to over sizing.

To find the number of inverters :

1. find the total power of the whole panels, multiply the Wp of each panel by the
number of panels

2. divided the answer in 5.1 by the inverter rating (Round up).

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Technical Specifications - Nominal

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6. Active area
After selected the number of PV panels we needed in our system, we can
approximate the active area of the panels by multiply the number of panels
by the area of each one:

Active area = number of panels x length x width

7. System cost:
after we select all component of our system, the total cost is the summation
of the cost of all component.

Total cost = ∑ (price of each component x quantity)

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 The complete system structure

Charge Controller Inverter

= = Loads
PV = ~

Battery

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Example#1: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:

• One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
• One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.
• One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours
and off 12 hours.

The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

1. Determine power consumption demands

Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12hours)

= 1092 Wh/day

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2. Battery
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V, 100Ah, DOD=0.85.

Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12hours)

number of Batteries = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x1.2

(100 x 0.85 x 12)
= 1.28 ~= 2 Batt.

3. Size the PV panel

3.1 Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = 1092/ 4.5

= 242.67 Wp
3.2 Number of PV panels needed = 242.67 / 110
= 2.2 modules
Actual requirement = 3 modules

this system should be powered by at least 3 modules of 110 Wp PV module

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4. Solar charge controller sizing
Im = 6.6 A for the panel, Icc = 20 A

No. of panel of each charge controller = 3.03 ~= 3

No. of charge controller = 3/3 = 1

5. Inverter sizing
Pinv = 500 watt
No. of inverter = (3 x 110) / 500
= 0.66 ~= 1 inv

6. Active arae
PV size= 1.5 x 1.1 x 0.3 m
Active area = 3 x 1.5 x 1.1
= 4.95 m^2

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.2WIND ENERGY

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 I NTRODUCTION
Wind energy is considered the fastest growing clean energy source, however;
it is limited by variable natural wind. Highways can provide a considerable
amount of wind to drive a turbine due to high vehicle traffic. This energy is
required to determine the average velocity of the wind created by oncoming
vehicles.

The wind turbines will be placed on the medians therefore fluid flow from
both sides of the highway will be considered in the design. Using all of the
collected data, existing streetlights on the medians can be fitted with these
wind turbines. Additionally, since the wind source will fluctuate, a storage
system for the power generated will be designed to distribute and maintain a
constant source of power.

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  Concept of Wind Power Existed from almost 2000 Years

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 DEFINITION OF WIND ENERGY
Energy available in wind is basically the kinetic energy of large masses
of air moving over the earth’s surface. Blades of the wind turbine
receive this kinetic energy, which is then transformed to mechanical or
electrical forms, depending on our end use. The efficiency of
converting wind to other useful energy forms greatly depends on the
efficiency with which the rotor interacts with the wind stream.

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 E NERGY AVAILABLE IN THE WIND

Wind works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to

mechanical energy. The kinetic energy of a stream of air with mass m
and moving with a velocity V is given by

E = ½ m.𝑉^2 [ws]
The kinetic energy of the air stream available for the turbine can be
expressed as:
E= ½ ρ.v.𝑉^2
Where: ρ is the air density = 1.2 kg/m^2 and v is the volume of air
parcel available to the rotor , v = A x D.
A = area, D = distance
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 P OWER AVAILABLE IN THE WIND

The air parcel interacting with the rotor per unit time t, this produce
the power from the KE. Hence energy per unit time, that is power, can
be expressed as:
Pa = ½ ρ.area.distance.V^2
= ½ ρ.A.(D/t) V^2
= ½ ρ.A.V^3 [w]

This equation also tells us that power is proportional to air density,

area of the wind rotor , and small change in the wind speed lead to
large change in power, where the effect of the wind velocity its cubic
relationship with the power.

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 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind Vt curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamics
7. Local ecology
8. Distance to road and railways
9. Not suitable sites in highly populated residential areas.
10. Nature of ground
11. Favorable Land Cost
12. Other Conditions like icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust
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 WIND DIRECTION

 The directions of wind: {North, West, East, South, N.East,

S.East, N.West, S.West}. These 8 directions, experimentally; the
best directions to get maximum output power is the West.

 The data resources about the wind information are

1. Weather stations
2. Wind maps
3. Surface wind
4. Google earth maps

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 C LASSIFICATION OF WIND TURBINES

Wind turbine is a generic name given to the wind energy system that
converts the KE in wind into electrical energy.

Since the inception of the wind energy technology, machines of

several types and shapes were designed and developed around
different parts of the world. Although there are several ways to
categorize wind turbines, they are broadly classified into horizontal
axis wind turbines and vertical axis wind turbines, based on their
axis of rotation.

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 H ORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES (HAWT)

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 V ERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES (VAWT)

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 PARTS OF WIND TURBINE

1. A Tower that keeps the rotating blades at a sufficient height to increase

the exposure of the blades to the wind. Large wind turbines, in the
megawatt range, have towers as high as 250 m above the base.

2. Rotating Blades that capture the KE of the wind. They are normally
made of fiberglass- reinforced polyester or wood-epoxy material. The
length of the rotating blades ranges from 5 to over 60 m. More advanced
blade systems allow the blades to change their pitch angle to maximize
their absorption of the wind’s KE. Most wind turbines have three rotor
blades.

3. A Gearbox that is used to connect the low-speed rotating blades to the

high-speed generator. It also serves as a clutch.

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 PARTS OF WIND TURBINE / C ONT ..
4. A Yaw mechanism that allows the housing box to rotate and keeps the
blades perpendicular to the wind speed. Thus, it increases the exposure
of the blades to the wind.

5. A Controller that connects the utility system to the wind generator and
locks the blades when the wind speed is below the minimum generation
limit or when the wind speed exceeds the design limitations of the
system.

6. A Generator that used to convert mechanical energy to electrical

energy. Brushless DC (BLDC) generators, permanent magnet
synchronous generators (PMSGs), induction generators, and
synchronous generators are generally used in wind turbine applications.

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 MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OF HAWT .

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 E FFICIENCY OF W IND T URBINE
The blades of the wind turbine capture only part of the available wind
energy. The ratio of the power captured by the blades Pblade to the
available power from the wind Pwind is known as the power coefficient
Cp. The maximum theoretical value of the power coefficient is known
as Bet limit, which is 0.5926.
Cp = Pblade / Pwind

Part of the blade power entering the turbine is wasted as rotational

losses (frictional and windage) in the rotating blades and rotor
mechanism. The rest of the power Pgear enters the gearbox, where part of
it is wasted as gearbox rotational loss. The remaining power Pg enters
the generator where some gets wasted in the form of electrical losses in
the generator’s windings and core as well as the generator’s own
rotational losses. The remaining power is the output electric power Pout
delivered to the load. 111

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 T IP S P E E D
The linear velocity of the blade is known as the tip velocity Vtip.

The rotating speed of the blade ω (rad/s) is a function of its tip velocity Vtip
(m/s) and the length of the blade r (m).

Vtip = ω r = 2 π n r
where n is the number of revolutions the blade
makes in 1 s.

The wind turbine is often designed to

have its tip velocity faster than wind
speed to allow the turbine to generate
electricity at low wind speeds.

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 TIP S PE E D RATIO

The ratio of the tip velocity Vtip to the wind speed v is known as the tip speed
ratio (TSR).
TSR = Vtip / V

The TSR is an important parameter in the design of wind turbines. If the TSR
is too small, most of the wind passes through the open areas between the rotor
blades and little energy is captured by the blade. If it is too large, the fast-
moving blades appear like a solid wall to the wind.

The Figure below shows the relationship between the TSR and the efficiency of
the blades (power coefficient). This figure shows that the power coefficient is
substantially reduced when we deviate from an ideal value of the TSR
(TSRideal).

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In some advanced types of wind machines, the value of TSR can be adjusted
by changing the pitch angle of the blades. At light wind speeds, the pitch angle
is set to increase the TSR; therefore, more energy can be extracted. At high
wind speeds, the pitch angle is adjusted to reduce the TSR and maintain the
rotor speed of the generator within its design limits. The velocity divided into
three values: cut in velocity Vc, rated velocity Vr, and cut off speed Vf.

In some systems, the TSR can be reduced to almost zero to lock the blades at
excessive wind conditions. Variable TSR wind turbines operate for wider ranges
of wind speeds; thus, they produce more energy as they operate for a longer
time than fixed pitch turbines.

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 WIND FARM PERFORMANCE
When a group of wind turbines is installed at one site, the site is called a wind
farm. The amount of energy generated by these farms depends on several
factors:

1. Wind speed and length of wind season.

2. Diameter of the rotating blades.
3. Efficiency of wind turbine components
4. Pitch control
5. Yaw control
6. Arrangement of the turbines in the farm
7. Reliability and maintenance

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 WIND ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

wind turbines have two main technical drawbacks:

1) Voltage Fluctuations
Most of wind turbines use induction machines, This machine operates as a
generator when its speed is higher than the synchronous speed.

Since the induction machine has no field circuit, it demands a significant amount
of reactive power from the utility. In some cases, the magnitude of the reactive
power imported from the utility exceeds the magnitude of the real power
generated.

Since the speed of wind changes continuously, the reactive power consumed by
the farm also changes continuously. The voltage at the wind farm is dependent on
the reactive power consumed; the higher the reactive power, the lower the
voltage. Thus, the voltage at the site is a mirror image of the reactive power, but
at a different scale.

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 WIND ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
1)

2) Variability of Wind
Most of the electric loads peak in the certain period of time, renewable energy
can play a great role during these periods by supplying the extra energy.

However, because wind is not reliable, energy from wind farms is not always
synchronized with the increase in demands. There are no clear criteria for
choosing a particular machine to work as a wind generator. The selection of
the wind generator will depend on the installed power, site of the turbine, load
type, and simplicity of control.

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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages of wind energy system:
1. • Renewable source of energy
2. • Pollution free and clean
3. • Can supply the power to remote areas
4. • Avoid fuel provision and transport
5. • Less costly power generation

Dis-advantages of wind energy system:

1. • Fluctuating in nature
2. • Needs storage capacity
3. • Noisy in operation
4. • Complex designs
5. • Large areas are required
6. • High capital cost.
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119 123
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