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Optical Metrology

Chapter · October 2004

DOI: 10.1002/3527600434.eap638

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 2085

Optical Metrology

Peter deGroot
Zygo Corporation, Middlefield, Connecticut 06455, USA
Phone: 860 347 8506 ×2308; Fax: 860 347 7717; e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The article reviews the optical measurement of shape, texture, geometric dimensions,
and position of objects, with applications ranging from stage metrology to optical com-
parators. An emphasis is placed on mechanical and geometric metrology, as opposed
to remote sensing. The underlying technologies rely therefore on interferometry, trian-
gulation, and time of flight to determine distances and lengths, as well as those object
features accessible to length measurement, including, for example, form and roughness.

Keywords
metrology; measurement; optics; optical testing; microscopy; interferometry.

1 Introduction 2086
2 Length Standards 2087
2.1 Optics and the Definition of the Meter 2087
2.2 Gage Block Interferometers 2088
3 Long and Short Distances 2089
3.1 Multiple-wavelength Laser Radar 2089
3.2 Fiber Sensors 2090
3.3 Chirp Laser Radar 2090
3.4 Large-scale Structures 2091
3.5 Narrow Gaps 2092
4 Stage Metrology 2092
4.1 Optical Encoders 2092
4.2 Multiaxis Laser Heterodyne Stage Metrology 2093
2086 Optical Metrology

4.3 Heterodyne Laser Sources and Detectors 2095

4.4 Uncertainty Analysis 2096
4.5 Environmental Compensation 2096
5 Surface Form and Optical Testing 2097
5.1 Geometric Slope Testing 2097
5.2 Optical Flat and Laser Fizeau Interferometers 2098
5.3 Phase Estimation for Surface Profiling 2100
5.4 Advanced Techniques and Alternative Geometries 2101
5.5 Grazing Incidence 2102
5.6 Geometrically Desensitized Interferometry 2103
6 Object Shape and Geometric Dimensions 2103
6.1 Cylinders, Torics and Arbitrary Shapes 2103
6.2 Holographic Shape Recording 2104
6.3 Scanning Single-point Optical Probe 2105
6.4 Relational Measurements and Part Geometry 2105
6.5 Structured Light 2106
7 Microscopic Surface Form and Roughness 2107
7.1 Interference Microscopy 2107
7.2 Scanning White-light Interferometry 2108
7.3 Advanced Techniques and Geometries 2109
8 Lateral Metrology 2110
8.1 Micrometry 2110
8.2 Optical Comparators 2111
8.3 Laser Micrometers 2111
9 Conclusion 2111
Glossary 2112
References 2114
Further Reading 2117

1 its modern representation in countless

Introduction instruments today, from the surveyor’s
theodolite to the carpenter’s laser straight-
Among its many fundamental properties, edge. With the assistance of refractive
light is characterized by its propagation and reflective optical components, essen-
properties, wavelength, and speed. tially the same idea is the foundation
From an historical perspective, optical for optical comparators, autocollimators,
metrology began at a time when it was lateral-measuring microscopes, and wave
first realized that one could measure the front sensors based on the measurement
breadth and height of an inaccessible ob- of ray slope.
ject by line of site triangulation. This The modern age of optical metrology
basic principle of the nearly linear geomet- dates from the invention of interferometry,
ric properties of light and shadow finds which provides access to the wavelength of
 Optical Metrology 2087

light as a precise dividing marker of length. the dimensions of the earth in 1799 by
By extension to area measurements, inter- successive visual triangulations along the
ferometry also measures form, roughness, meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona, us-
and shape measurement. ing what was at the time high-precision
The speed of light today defines the surveying equipment [1].
international standard of length, the meter, The original meter was meant as a pri-
as the distance traversed in 1/299 792 458 mary standard, the international prototype
of a second. Time of flight is therefore a for which has been the Mètre des Archives,
traceable distance marker, when provided kept in Paris under carefully controlled
a reliable clock. environmental conditions. The nonporta-
Given these fundamental properties bility of this etalon meant that national
of light, one could scarcely recommend standards laboratories established their
a better foundation for noncontacting own copies by comparison with the proto-
metrology of form, texture, geometric type etalon.
dimensions, displacement, and position Morley and Michelson recognized the
of objects. Optical metrology is a rich disadvantages of etalon standards and
area of technology development that proposed to calibrate the wavelength of
has fostered great innovation in applied cadmium light with respect to the inter-
optics. national prototype using interferometry,
This article covers some exemplary introducing a highly portable transfer
instrumentation for optical metrology, mechanism accessible to anyone with
broadly arranged according to application. a cadmium lamp [2]. Although Lamont
For the fundamental principles of many made a similar proposal for a wavelength
of these instruments, the reader is encour- standard in 1823, it was not until the in-
aged to refer to related articles in the Op- vention of Michelson’s interferometer in
tics Encyclopedia, including in particular the late nineteenth century that an accu-
FIBER OPTICS; HOLOGRAPHY; INTERFEROME-
rate calibration of light waves with respect
to the meter was feasible.
TRY; LIDAR (LASER RADAR); MICROSCOPY; and
The Michelson interferometer of Fig. 1
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION.
has an intensity measured at the output
that is sinusoidal, with a phase
2 4πL
Length Standards θ= (1)
λ
2.1 where λ is the source wavelength. Inver-
Optics and the Definition of the Meter sion of Eq. (1) caries with it a fringe order
uncertainty or ambiguity interval of λ/2,
Precision engineering and metrology has because of the cyclic nature of the inter-
for the point of departure the establish- ference pattern. Thus the measurement at
ment of international, certified standards the simplest level consists of observing the
of length. The meter as originally defined passage of interference fringes from the
is 1/10 000 of the distance from the pole beginning to the end of a length standard,
to the equator – a distance that was estab- each fringe corresponding to a complete
lished by optical metrology from the very 2π-phase cycle. One can interpolate to
start. Delambre and Méchain determined fractional fringes visually to about 1/40
2088 Optical Metrology

Reference meter, the wavelength of this laser be-

mirror L ing 632.99139822 nm with an estimated
relative standard uncertainty 2.5 × 10−11 .

2.2
Gage Block Interferometers
Source
Object Precision machine shops rely extensively
mirror
on gage blocks, introduced during the in-
Beam Detector dustrial revolution as a means to guarantee
splitter
Intensity

interchangeability of manufactured parts,

to calibrate thickness and length gages
Sinusoidal signal: and assure accurate machining [4]. Mod-
period L /2 Distance L
ern gage blocks are made of ceramic or
Fig. 1 Michelson interferometer for measuring
hardened steel, have parallel, flat surfaces
lengths
and are smooth enough for repeatable
wringing to a mirrorlike baseplate that
of a fringe, and with electronic detection, acts as a physical simulation of a datum
1/1000 is common practice today, yield- surface when certifying length.
ing resolution at the nanometer level. The Traditional optical gage block certifica-
first measurement of the meter relied on tion involves multiple-wavelength inter-
a series of etalons of increasing length
ferometry and the fractional fringe tech-
to accommodate the limited range acces-
nique [5]. Instruments of the type shown
sible with a cadmium light source, and
in Fig. 2 offer reliable comparison and
to reduce the chance of error in count-
verification of length by means of the si-
ing 1 553 163.5 fringes during a complete
multaneous red, green, blue, and violet
one-meter displacement [3].
emissions from a cadmium hot-cathode
Although there has been a role rever-
discharge lamp. The differences in phase
sal in recent times, with the meter having
been redefined with respect to the speed for each wavelength in this interferome-
of light in 1983, variations on Michelson’s ter, selected in sequence using the prism,
interferometer are still very much in use remove the fringe order uncertainty in the
for comparing and calibrating local etalon length measurement, often by means of
standards. Perhaps most significantly, the tabulated values or special slide rules [6].
nineteenth-century proposal of a truly Table 1 is an example. The difference
portable standard accessible through in- in the rate of change of phase allows
terferometry has been achieved. There is one to distinguish between the lengths
today a formal list, provided by the Bu- that give, for this example, the identical
reau International des Poids et Mesures, 0.82 fractional fringe for the green wave-
of accepted radiations and known un- length.
certainties whose frequency and vacuum The routine comparison of gage block
wavelength are acceptable definitions of standards today most often proceeds by
the meter worldwide. In particular, the io- means of mechanical comparators, with
dine stabilized Helium–Neon laser is a optical instruments playing a role chiefly
recommended radiation for realizing the in national standards laboratories. Modern
 Optical Metrology 2089

Tab. 1 Fractional fringe technique A closely related task is the certi-

fication of line scales, photo masks,
Cadmium semiconductor structures, linear encoders,
Red 643.8472 nm and secondary standards. This often in-
Green 508.5824 volves optical interferometry combined
Blue 479.9911 with microscopy [8].
Violet 467.8152
Fractional fringes
Green Red Blue Distance
3
(µm)
Long and Short Distances
0.82 0.70 0.06 9995.35
0.82 0.97 0.40 9995.67 3.1
0.82 0.23 0.74 9995.99
Multiple-wavelength Laser Radar
0.82 0.50 0.08 9996.31
0.82 0.76 0.42 9996.64
0.82 0.03 0.76 9996.96 The benefits of multiple-wavelength inter-
ferometry extend beyond the optical certi-
fication of gage blocks to the more direct
measurements of distances. An example
is the double-heterodyne interferometer
of Fig. 3. Here, instead of measuring the
Viewpoint distance with a sequence of wavelengths
selected by a prism as in Fig. 2, double
l-selection or ‘‘super’’ heterodyning techniques allow
prism for simultaneous measurement of phase
and phase difference for two wavelengths
traveling together through the interferom-
eter [9]. In Fig. 3, acousto-optic modulators
(AOMs) and polarization encoding of the
Optical reference and measurement beams pro-
flat vide continuous, heterodyne optical sig-
Gauge block
nals at frequencies ν1 , ν2 corresponding
Baseplate to wavelengths λ1 , λ2 . The optical signals
Fig. 2 Gage block interferometer employing a are allowed to interfere incoherently on
multiple-wavelength source and visual fringe a common detector, resulting in an elec-
interpolation (after Barnes, D. C., Puttock, M. J.
tronic signal I as a function of time t of
(1953), Engineer 196, 763 [6])
the form

I(t) = 1 + cos(2πν1 t + θ1 )
gage block certification by optics still em-
ploys multiple-wavelength interferometry + cos(2πν2 t + θ2 ) (2)
to remove fringe order uncertainty, often
relying on lasers and high-precision, au- where the phases θ1 , θ2 correspond to λ1 ,
tomated interference phase analysis. The λ2 . This signal can be rewritten as
relative uncertainty of calibration of 1-m
I(t) = 1 + cos(2πFt + )
blocks is of the order 10−8 after compen-
sation for temperature [7]. × cos(2πνavg t + θavg ), (3)
2090 Optical Metrology

Reference Amplitude Output

signal demodulation signal

Laser PBS
AOM
Polarizers
l1 n1 Test object
l1, n1,
l2, n2,
PBS PBS
AOM QWP

l2 n2 Reference

PBS Polarizing beam splitter

QWP Quarter wave plate
AOM Acousto-optic modulator
Fig. 3 Superheterodyne dual-wavelength distance-measuring interferometer (after
..
Dandliker, R., Thalmann, R., Prongue, D. (1988), Opt. Lett. 13, 339–341 [9])

which follows an average phase and removing the uncertainty in the fringe or-
average heterodyne frequency der of one of the more precise average
ν1 + ν2 phase θavg .
νavg = (4)
2
3.2
θ1 + θ2
θavg = (5) Fiber Sensors
2
but is modulated in amplitude by a more The principle of multiple and synthetic
slowly varying envelope at a difference wavelengths applies not only to free-space
frequency: measurements but also to optical waveg-
uides, such as in the single-mode optical
ν1 − ν2
F= . (6) fiber sensor of Fig. 4. The distance trav-
2
eled by the light through the measurement
The difference or synthetic phase leg is proportional to an environmental
parameter of interest, for example, tem-
θ1 − θ2
= (7) perature and pressure, now accessible to
2
interferometric measurement by means
corresponds to a synthetic wavelength of the extension and contraction of the
sensing transducer [10]. Also common to-
λ1 λ2
= (8) day are optical fiber sensors using Bragg
λ1 − λ2
grating technology [11].
that can be very much larger than ei-
ther of the two basic wavelengths λ1 , 3.3
λ2 . One can use this synthetic wave- Chirp Laser Radar
length directly for distance measurement
within the increased ambiguity inter- As an alternative to multiple wavelengths,
val /2, or indirectly as a means of frequency-modulated interferometry or
 Optical Metrology 2091

Fiber-coupled carefully controlled conditions, this same

laser diodes Transducing basic principle establishes 1-m lengths
Fiber coupler element Detector
with a relative uncertainty of 5 × 10−6 [13].
l1
3.4
l2
Large-scale Structures
Single-mode
fiber Reference arm In the general category of very large
Fig. 4 Dual-wavelength fiber-optic sensor (after structures requiring metrology, one finds
Kersey, A. D., Dandridge, A. (1987), Proc. Soc. large machine tools, radio telescopes,
Phot. Opt. Eng. 798, 176–181 [10]) automotive and aircraft construction,
civil engineering projects, shipbuilding,
chirp laser radar in analogy with con- and geophysical features and dimen-
ventional radar, involves a continuous sions [14].
modulation of the source frequency. Wave- For many of these structures, a 3D
length modulation permits a convenient metrology system known as a laser tracker
length measurement based on the rate of is ideal. This instrument comprises an
change of phase with wave number k: interferometer, a precision, automated
angle-measuring telescope such as a
1 dθ theodolite with drive motors, and a mo-
L= (9)
2 dk bile retroreflector. The working principle
where the wave number is relies on the portability of the retroreflec-
tor, housed in a precision steel sphere,
2π
k= (10) the center of which coincides with the
λ retroreflector apex. An operator performs
The simplified range-measurement sys- the measurements by manually moving
tem in Fig. 5 relies on a laser diode, which the retroreflector to a sequence of points
chirps readily by current modulation. Such on the object. The tracker follows the
a system provides rapid range measure- lateral displacement of the retroreflec-
ments and even 3D vision [12]. Under tor and the interferometer counts the

Modulated Reference
power mirror
supply
Test object

Laser diode

Detector
db

MHz

Spectrum analyzer
Fig. 5 Chirp laser radar for range measurement using continuous wavelength tuning
2092 Optical Metrology

accumulation and reduction of fringes as Large-scale metrology also encompasses

the retroreflector moves closer and fur- photogrammetry, which uses cameras at
ther from the instrument. Modern laser two or more perspectives to determine
trackers can report 1000 three-axis coor- the shape, size, and position of objects
dinates per second with an uncertainty of by optical triangulation, and a wide range
10 microns. of conventional and digital holographic
As an alternative to interferometry, a systems for deformation measurement.
long-established technique for optical dis-
tance metrology is intensity modulation. 3.5
In pulsed laser radar, distance is the prod- Narrow Gaps
uct of the speed of light and the time of
flight for the pulse. Such techniques mea- At the other dimensional extreme for
sure, for example, the distances to orbiting distance measurement, one finds optical
satellites and to the moon with millimeter metrology of small gaps. An illustrative
accuracy [15]. example is the determination of the 10-
In many cases, chirped radio frequency to 20-nm fly height of read–write heads
intensity modulation can be just as or sliders used for computer rigid disk
accurate as interferometric chirp laser storage. Optical fly height testers employ
ranging [16]. The key benefit of intensity a 100-mm diameter glass disk in place of
modulation is that the temporal and spatial the actual magnetic media and thin-film
coherence properties of the laser are interference provides information about
unimportant. Intensity-modulated laser the orientation and flying height of the
radar has been integrated into theodolites slider [18]. One way to measure flying
for high-precision metrology of large-scale height is by high-speed analysis of the
structures and coordinate measurement intensity and polarization state of the
systems for, for example, determining reflected light, in what amounts to a high-
absolute x, y, z position of targets without speed, dynamic ellipsometric analysis of
the air gap between the glass disk and
the need of the mobile retroreflector
the slider surface (Fig. 6). This approach
that is essential for a laser tracker.
allows for simultaneous determination
In one implementation [17], a steering
of the optical constants of the slider
mechanism directs the beam in sequence
material [19]. Alternatively, three or more
to small target objects directly attached
wavelengths of light at normal incidence
to a structure at distances that may
establish the gap by a variation on the
range from 0 to 12 m. Three intensity
theme of fractional fringes [20].
modulation frequencies of 7.0, 7.012,
and 7.3 GHz for a 7-mW, 1.3-µm laser
diode provide a base wavelength of 5 cm
4
and synthetic wavelengths of 1 m and
Stage Metrology
25 m. Fourier analysis yields phase data
to one thousandth of a cycle, sufficient 4.1
for absolute distance measurements using Optical Encoders
a succession of wavelengths to a final
accuracy of 25 µm. Such systems are Optical stage metrology provides position
currently in use for aircraft production. data for high-end stages, and is often
 Optical Metrology 2093

250-kHz interferometric engineering and the machine tool

Laser diode polarization analyzer
industry [22]. A familiar type of optical
Detectors
encoder shown in Fig. 7 employs a
light-emitting diode source (LED) and
a fine scale that essentially acts as a
Beam shaping diffraction grating. After recombination
optics
via the beam splitter, the two first-order
diffracted beams interfere at the detector,
generating a signal with a sinusoidal
Rotating glass disk dependency on the lateral position of the
Slider
scale. The period of the signal is equal
Gap to the distance between two successive
Fig. 6 Optical fly height tester for read–write reflecting lines on the scale. Rotary
sliders based on high-speed interferometric and multiaxis encoders are common
polarization analysis to determine the air gap variants. Detailed comparison of scales
(after de Groot, P., Dergevorkian, A.,
Erickson, T., Pavlat, R. (1998), Appl. Opt. 37, and laser interferometers show benefits
5116–5125 [19]) to each approach to stage metrology,
with encoders generally the less expensive
option [23].
Detector
Beam 4.2
splitter Multiaxis Laser Heterodyne Stage
Metrology
LED
Interferometry with free-space beam prop-
agation offers a significant reduction in
Mirror
off-axis Abbé errors compared to encoders,
in addition to improved resolution. Be-
cause stage metrology most often involves
a smooth, continuous displacement, it is
an ideal application for a single-wavelength
Scale system: fringe uncertainty is easily re-
moved by counting fringes as they pass.
Modern heterodyne systems for displace-
ment measuring interferometry (DMI)
Stage
interpolate between fringes to achieve a
resolution better than 1 nm at data rates
Fig. 7 Optical encoder for stage metrology
of several MHz along multiple measure-
ment axes.
engaged in servomechanisms for con- DMI is the foundation for calibra-
trolled displacements [21]. tion and servo control of mechanical
Optical encoders – based on rulers or stage motions in high-technology appli-
grating structures having an optical cations such as microlithography, e-beam
readout – are common stage metrology mask writing, mask inspection, diamond
elements, particularly in precision turning, coordinate measuring machines,
2094 Optical Metrology

Mask
Measurement
beams

Wafer

Heterodyne
laser head

Measurement
beams

Fig. 8 Stage metrology system for microlithography based on heterodyne

laser displacement interferometers (courtesy of Mark Foersch, Zygo
Corporation)

Reference mirror
p polarization
(measurement leg)
s polarization Polarizing Wave plate
(reference leg) beam splitter

Heterodyne
laser head
Stage
Relative frequency shift
between polarizations = f

Polarizer Retroreflector
at 45°
Intensity

f = beat signal

Time
Fig. 9 Plane mirror geometry of a heterodyne laser displacement interferometer (after
Zanoni, C. (1989), VDI Berichte 749, 93–106 [25])
 Optical Metrology 2095

and scanning electron microscopy. A mirrors to maintain an orthogonal rela-

typical high-performance stage metrology tionship between the measurement beam
system (Fig. 8) employs multiple axes and the stage mirror [26]. This approach
of measurement based on heterodyne makes possible a single-pass operation
DMI technology. that reduces the size of the stage mirror,
The interferometer design for hetero- an important consideration in high-speed
dyne DMI has evolved considerably from stage design, while suppressing several
the simple Michelson design of Fig. 1. The error sources characteristic of standard in-
DMI interferometer optics of Fig. 9 moni- terferometer optics.
tor the linear displacement of a stage. The
modulated laser head provides a collimated 4.3
beam with a frequency split f between the Heterodyne Laser Sources and Detectors
orthogonal polarizations so as to generate
a heterodyne beat signal when combined. A suitable source for heterodyne DMI
The interferometer optics separate the po- generates orthogonally polarized, col-
larizations and direct them to the object linear, copropagating measurement and
and reference mirrors in a double-pass reference beams with a relative frequency
configuration such that the beams recom- shift. A natural light source is a Zeeman-
bine at the detector without tilt fringes, split He–Ne laser with a waveplate to con-
independent of small-angle variations in vert circular to linear polarization. Com-
the stage mirror orientation [24]. pact systems with a 3- to 5-MHz frequency
Stage motions can be complex, involving split are common for industrial metrology
six degrees of freedom, all of which may and high-technology applications requir-
need to be monitored within a metrology ing stage speeds up to 0.5 m s−1 [27].
frame. Interferometer design has evolved Laser heterodyne sources based on
to accommodate both linear and angu- acousto-optic modulation generate a
lar measurements, often within the same higher frequency separation, providing
optical subassembly, and both local and the necessary bandwidth to accommodate
remote reference surfaces [25]. Evolving Doppler shifts with stage speeds up to
concepts for heterodyne optics include 2.35 m s−1 in a double-pass geometry.
moving elements such as internal steering The 20-MHz AOM in Fig. 10 imparts

Birefringent
+1 order prism Beam
Input block
beam s polarization,
AOM +20 MHz

Zero
20-MHz order p polarization
oscillator

Fig. 10 Acousto-optic modulator (AOM) technique for generating

collinear, orthogonally polarized reference and measurement beams
with a frequency difference for heterodyning (after
Sommargren, G. E. (1987), Precision Eng. 93, 179–184 [28])
2096 Optical Metrology

a frequency shift between two divergent are readily detected from the spurious
beams, and a birefringent prism that heterodyne signals visible on a frequency-
transforms the output into a single, domain analysis of the output signal
polarization-encoded beam [28]. More from a continuously changing the path
advanced systems integrate these two steps length [34]. Many of these can be traced
to provide high purity in the separation to the imperfections in the interferometer
of the two optical frequencies (−70 dB) system by a detailed Jones-matrix analysis
and high optimal efficiency (>90%), while (see POLARIZED LIGHT, BASIC CONCEPTS OF
isolating the laser source from back and [35, 36]).
reflections [29].
Electronic DMI processing employs 4.5
advanced zero-crossing algorithms de- Environmental Compensation
signed to optimize resolution at high
speed [30]. High-performance, sliding- DMI systems have achieved an uncertainty
window Fourier transform phase inter- such that natural variations in the refrac-
polation is now available commercially, tive index of the air are today the primary
specified to 0.15-nm resolution with a data performance limitation. Changes in index
age uncertainty of 0.1 ns [31]. result from fluctuations in temperature
and pressure, both extrinsic properties
4.4 of a gas that depend on environmental
Uncertainty Analysis conditions. A common approach to com-
pensating for environmental changes is
The demanding requirements of stage by measuring the ambient temperature,
metrology systems, which are approaching pressure, and humidity and a formula
0.1 nm resolution for EUV microlithog- relating these parameters to refractive
raphy, require a detailed analysis of the index [37]. Alternatives include a highly
sources of uncertainty and means to re- stable reference interferometer, which di-
duce them. rectly monitors changes in the effective
The most common uncertainty sources source wavelength in air over time.
fall into the categories of atmospheric A more advanced method of environ-
effects, mechanical misalignment, geo- mental compensation uses the wavelength
metric Abbé and cosine errors, insufficient dependence of the index of refraction to
polarization orthogonality, ellipticity in the detect measurement errors attributable to
source polarization, additive synchronous air density. This technique, sometimes re-
noise, wave front shearing at the detector, ferred to as dispersion interferometry, has
noncommon path optics, thermal sensi- the significant advantage that the compen-
tivity, electronic noises, and polarization sation can follow even rapid fluctuations
mixing in the interferometer optics. These or turbulence in the air path. Figure 11 il-
insufficiencies have been analyzed in an lustrates with experimental data the basic
effort to understand and minimize uncer- principle. The optical path L2 measured
tainties of measurement [32]. at a visible wavelength depends more
Of particular interest for system design strongly on the air pressure than the cor-
are cyclic errors, that is, errors that have responding path L1 measured in the UV.
a periodicity that relates harmonically to To correct for this effect, one calculates
the wavelength of the light [33]. These a new length L that is independent of
 Optical Metrology 2097

5 scenario, two-wavelength superheterodyn-

L2 ing combines with dispersion interferom-
4 L1
etry and electronic or optical doubling to
compensate for Doppler shifting [40]. As
Distance (µm)

3 a further refinement, a monitor tracks

the inverse dispersive power to directly
2
compensate for variations in the intrinsic
properties of the medium attributable to
the gas composition [41].
1 Corrected

0
0 1 5
Air pressure (atm)
Surface Form and Optical Testing
Fig. 11 Atmospheric compensation using
optical length measurements at two different 5.1
wavelengths (dispersion interferometry, Geometric Slope Testing
wavelengths 633 nm and 317 nm). The corrected
distance measurement is independent of air
pressure (courtesy of Leslie Deck, Zygo For generations, amateur telescope mak-
Corporation) ers (among others) have relied on simple
geometric ray mapping as a way to test the
quality of their optical systems [42]. The
pressure, using
most popular method of visualization of
L = L1 − (L1 − L2 ) (11) surface imperfections has been the Fou-
cault test, because of its great simplicity
where the multiplicative constant and effectiveness. The apparatus consists
only of a small-diameter or pointlike light
n1
= (12) source and a blade or knife-edge. The optic
n1 − n2
under test is arranged to make an image
is the net inverse dispersive power of the of the point source at a position for which
constituent gases in the atmosphere. Note perfect imaging is expected, and the eye is
that  is an intrinsic property of the gas, placed so as to capture the diverging light
independent of temperature and pressure. while focusing on the optic itself. Bring-
Dispersion interferometry was origi- ing the knife-edge in from the side, one
nally established for geophysical measure- observes shadows on the surface of the
ments, where interferometry is employed optic that reveal rays that have been mis-
over very long distances (>1 km) through directed away from the correct imaging
the atmosphere, for example, using a point. With a perfect optic, the entire im-
He–Ne laser (0.63 µm) and He–Cd laser age becomes dark everywhere at the same
(0.44 µm) designed for <1 ppm (parts instant. The visual effect is remarkable,
per million) performance [38]. There has one perceives hills and valleys on the optic
been considerable interest in applying surface that mimic the deviations from the
two-wavelength dispersion techniques to ideal form, with a sensitivity that can reach
a microlithography stage interferometer, a hundredth of a micron. The addition of
which requires much lower uncertainty a precision micrometer for translating the
than a geophysical instrument [39]. In one knife-edge along the optical axis converts
2098 Optical Metrology

this qualitative tool into a quantitative mea- contact with a nominally flat test object, in-
sure of surface form. terference fringes or bands appear that are
The Foucault test is essentially an optical contours of equal height for the object sur-
ray-mapping tool. Modern versions of face [46]. A light box with a narrow spectral
this basic idea include the variations band filter optimizes fringe contrast and
of the Hartmann test, usually involving range of measurement. This is a reliable
an electronic camera and a screen or and useful test, but one that can be damag-
lenslet array to define and image narrow ing to the optical flat because of repeated
ray bundles [43]. The same slope-testing contact with test samples.
principle has found wide application in The invention of the laser made possible
wave front testing, the principal benefits an immensely useful extension of the basic
being that a reference surface is not ideas underlying the optical flat. The laser
required, and in principle one need not Fizeau interferometer is fundamentally
have access to the light source. Thus an optical flat test with a large and
a Hartmann sensor can determine the convenient air gap. The high spatial and
optical properties of the atmosphere by temporal coherence of the laser obviates
viewing the transmitted wave front from a the requirement for short optical path
star, providing feedback for adaptive optic length differences.
correction of atmospheric effects. The modern laser Fizeau instrument is
A local slope sensor with a precision a flexible tool [47]. As shown in Fig. 12,
long-trace scanning stage is effective for a filtered source such as a He–Ne laser
certain types of unconventional surfaces, illuminates the Fizeau cavity comprised
such as those used in grazing incidence X- of the optical flat, now referred to as
ray applications, that are nearly impossible the transmission flat, and the test object.
to test by conventional means [44]. An The reflected light images onto a rotating
even more ambitious and flexible approach glass diffuser disk, which reduces the
is to perform a local measurement of spatial coherence of the image to prevent
curvature, using, for example, a small, further unwanted interference effects. An
mobile imaging interferometer on a swing electronic camera records the image after
arm, to map the second-order rate of change selective magnification by a zoom lens.
in slope. Double integration yields the final A secondary imaging system simplifies
surface shape, nearly independently of the alignment of the transmission flat and
quality of the swing arm [45]. object surfaces by imaging the pupil plane
or system focus images of the laser
5.2 beam as spots on the camera. Proper
Optical Flat and Laser Fizeau calibration of the transmission flat, often
Interferometers by self-calibration or comparison to a
certified master, offers an exceptionally
An inexpensive optical test for flatness low uncertainty of measurement [48].
of a polished surface relies on a single The large and flexible air gap in a Fizeau
piece of nominally plane-parallel glass cer- interferometer facilitates the testing of
tified for flatness on one side. Optical nonflat optics, as well as prisms, diffrac-
flats are common features of many high- tion gratings, and other components [49].
precision machine shops as well as optical Figure 13 illustrates some common con-
shops. Upon placing the optical flat in near figurations, many involving transmission
 Optical Metrology 2099

CCD

Zoom
Rotating ground
glass disk

Spatial
filter Transmission
flat
Alignment HeNe Laser
screen

Object

PZT
Fig. 12 Common configurations for optical testing using a laser Fizeau interferometer
(courtesy of Zygo Corporation)

Transmission flat Object

(a)

PZT
Reference flat

(b) Object

(c)

Transmission sphere
Fig. 13 Geometry for a commercial laser Fizeau interferometer.
(a) for testing a flat object; (b) for testing the transmitted wave front of
a flat object; and (c) for testing the deviation from spherical of a
concave object (courtesy of Zygo Corporation)
2100 Optical Metrology

spheres for creating converging and di- w(t) is

verging wave fronts with a concave refer-
∞
ence surface. G(θ, ν) = g(θ, t)w(t) exp(−i2πνt) dt.
−∞
(15)
5.3
Phase Estimation for Surface Profiling The phase θ may then be extracted by
comparing the imaginary and real parts
In the Fizeau interferometer of Fig. 12, of the strongest coefficient G(θ, ν = ν0 )
a piezo-electric transducer (PZT) for in- in the frequency-domain representation of
troducing precise motion of the reference the interference signal [50]:
surface over a range of about one mi- Im{G(θ, ν0 )}
cron is shown. The same computer that tan(θ) = (16)
Re{G(θ, ν0 )}
stores images from the electronic camera
controls the motion of the reference sur- The surface height by inversion of Eq. (1)
face, introducing a precise linear motion is then
4πL
of the reference surface during a sequence θ= (17)
of camera frames. This motion shifts the λ
phase offset of the interference pattern In common practice, the phase shift fre-
generated by the Fizeau cavity. quency ν0 is known in advance to sufficient
This combination of precise shifting of accuracy to avoid transforming the signal
the interference phase offset and electronic over a range of frequencies. Rather, one
data acquisition is the basis for phase shift- constructs a PSI algorithm by evaluating a
ing interferometry (PSI), a powerful phase single-frequency digital Fourier transform
interpolation technique for surface profil- involving only a sparse data sampling,
ing. PSI is equivalent to heterodyning, with from as few as three camera snapshots
the beat frequency generated by a Doppler of g(θ, t) to half a dozen or more, de-
shift of the reference beam. As such, one pending on the application. Because of the
can apply frequency and phase estimation sparse sampling and the assumption of
techniques such as Fourier transforming a know frequency, the choice of length
to analyze the signal. and form of the window function w(t) is
The central task of PSI is to estimate very important to avoid spectral leakage.
the interference phase θ across the sample Table 2 provides a few example algorithms
image by inspection of the time-dependent that are tolerant of misidentification of the
periodic signal g(θ, t) for each image pixel. phase shift frequency ν0 . The properties
The signal is of such algorithms, including their design
and resistance to various sources of mea-
g(θ, t) = Q(1 + V cos(θ + φ(t))), (13) surement uncertainty, have been studied
extensively [51, 52].
where V is the fringe visibility, Q is a
One of the potential weaknesses of
constant and φ(t) is a linear phase shift at
PSI is sensitivity to mechanical vibration.
a frequency ν0
Fig. 14 shows the error sensitivity of a 7-
φ(t) = 2πν0 t. (14) camera frame algorithm as a function of
vibrational frequency [53]. One approach
The transform of g(θ, t) into the frequency to overcoming this limitation is the spa-
domain for a sampling window function tial carrier fringe technique, in which a
 Optical Metrology 2101

Tab. 2 Example PSI algorithms for a π /2 phase shift between frames (see
e.g. Ref. [52])

Data samples tan (θ)

g2 − g1
3
g0 − g1
g1 − g3
4
g2 − g0
2(g2 − g4 )
5
−(g1 + g5 ) + 2g3
(g0 − g5 ) − 3(g1 − g4 ) − 4(g2 − g3 )
6
(g0 + g5 ) + 3(g1 + g4 ) − 4(g2 + g3 )
(g0 − g6 ) − 7(g2 − g4 )
7
4 · (g1 + g5 ) − 8 · g3
(g0 − g10 ) − 8(g2 − g8 ) + 15(g4 − g6 )
11
4(g1 + g9 ) − 12(g3 + g7 ) + 16g5
(g0 − g14 ) − 9(g2 − g12 ) + 21(g4 − g10 ) − 29(g6 − g8 )
15
4(g1 + g13 ) − 15(g3 + g11 ) + 26(g5 + g9 ) − 30g7

4 5.4
Advanced Techniques and Alternative
Geometries
3
RMS error (nm)

Improvements in electronic processing

technology mean that it is no longer a com-
2
putational requirement that we assume a
specific phase-shift frequency and a sparse
1 sampling in time. A full Fourier transform
is now practical even for several hundred
frames of camera data. These advances
0 make it possible to analyze complex, mul-
0 1 2 3 4
tisurface optical systems while filtering
Vibrational frequency/camera rate
out noise. This approach is particularly
Fig. 14 Sensitivity of the 7-frame algorithm of effective when using wavelength shifting
Table 2 to mechanical disturbances as a function
of vibrational frequency, normalized to the
in place of a mechanical heterodyning in
camera frame rate (after de Groot, P. (1995), a laser Fizeau [55]. The wavelength shift-
J. Opt. Soc. Am. A. 12, 354–365 [53]) ing generates a beat signal proportional to
object distance, providing a frequency bin-
tilt between the reference and test object ning that separates the contributing wave
surfaces generates a dense array of nearly fronts and surface profiles. A mathemat-
parallel fringes. A video pipeline proces- ical transform to the frequency domain
sor interprets the pattern in real time, for based on a reference cavity, known as
a highly robust measurement even in the the OPD transform, sidesteps errors that
presence of vibrations and moderate air might otherwise enter into the calcula-
turbulence [54]. tion resulting from imperfections in the
2102 Optical Metrology

wavelength scan [56]. Figure 15 illustrates More revolutionary interferometer ge-

simultaneous measurement of surface flat- ometries for optical testing include the
ness and material index inhomogeneity. point diffraction interferometer, a design
Although the laser Fizeau dominates that dispenses with the reference surface
commercial applications of interferometry entirely in favor of a nearly perfect diverg-
for optical testing, there is an important ing wave front generated by diffraction
role for the traditional Twymann–Green from the output of an optical fiber [59].
in advanced applications [57]. The
Twymann–Green, similar to a Michelson 5.5
with imaging properties for localizing Grazing Incidence
fringes on the image of the test object,
has the advantage of a separated reference Conventional laser Fizeau interferometry
leg at the expense of more demanding at visible wavelengths is ideally suited
requirements on the optical quality to the highly polished surface textures
of the components. An application of of lenses and mirrors characteristic of
interest is instantaneous phase shifting, optical testing. When the surfaces are
in which polarization differences between manufactured by machining or grinding,
the reference and measurement legs as in precision engineering of metals,
combine with waveplates to effect the the surface finish is often too rough
equivalent of PSI instantaneously via for conventional interferometry. The light
three or more cameras operating in scatters from the surface with an optical
parallel [58]. An additional beneficial phase that is essentially random, resulting
feature of the Twymann–Green is the in a complex speckle pattern that is difficult
ability to adjust for near equal path to interpret by fringe analysis.
with large working distance, an important Illumination of the test piece at an angle
feature for short coherence sources, for far from the perpendicular desensitizes the
example, multiline lasers. reflected wave front to the microscopic sur-
face height details that characterize rough
Ref Object Ref surfaces. In such a grazing incidence ge-
ometry, the equivalent wavelength for an
angle of incidence γ becomes
λ
= (18)
cos(γ )
At 80◦ , for example, the equivalent wave-
length is six times the visible wavelength
or nearly 4 µm for He–Ne 0.633-µm il-
lumination. A surface having a 0.5-µm
roughness actually appears to be specular
Front Homogeneity Back
at this angle.
Fig. 15 Illustration of simultaneous front and Grazing incidence interferometry is pos-
back surface profilometry and refractive index sible with a conventional Fizeau in a
inhomogeneity using wavelength-tuned Fourier
Transform phase shifting interferometry (see double-pass configuration [60]. However,
Deck, L. (2002), Proc. Soc. Phot. Opt. Eng. 4778, the most well known and practical exam-
218–226 [56]) ple of a grazing incidence interferometer is
 Optical Metrology 2103

Test object is geometrically desensitized interferome-

Thin air gap Prism try. Here the instrument illuminates the
test surface with two beams at slightly
different angles of incidence near nor-
mal incidence. The slight difference in
Camera Laser sensitivity to surface height creates a large-
equivalent wavelength interference fringes
when the two beams are recombined at the
camera [65].
Object
The grating-based optical geometry of
Fig. 17 accommodates surface areas on
the order of 100-mm diameter, with an
Prism equivalent wavelength given by

Fig. 16 Abramson-type grazing incidence 1

interferometer (after Abramson, N. (1969), Optik = (19)
2N sin(γ )
30, 56–71 [61])
where γ is the angle of incidence onto
the prism-based Abramson interferoscope the first grating, N is the spatial fre-
shown in Fig. 16 [61], there being many quency of the first grating G1, and the
commercial versions of this interferome- second grating G2 has a spatial frequency
ter in use today. Alternative geometries 2N. As an example, for γ = 10◦ and
include diffractive optics for directing the N = 300 mm−1 ,  = 9.6 µm. To achieve
beams to opposing sides of a plate [62]. the same equivalent wavelength using the
Grazing incidence has additional ben-
grazing incidence technique with 633-nm
efits beyond desensitization of the wave-
light, the angle of incidence would be 86◦ .
length. In semiconductor wafer measure-
The reduced angle of incidence can be a
ment, a high angle of incidence results in a
benefit for working distance and access to
high reflectivity for otherwise transparent
recessed areas. From Eq. (19), we see that
thin films on the processed wafer. In the
fringe formation in a geometrically desen-
1930s and 40s, Linnik in the Soviet Union
sitized interferometer is independent of
pioneered the use of grazing incidence in-
the spectrum of the source light, relaxing
terferometry for the metrology of large, flat
requirements on the source coherence of
surfaces using small-aperture optics [63].
instrument.
In combination with the Ritchy–Common
configuration, which relies on spherical
wave fronts to measure flat surfaces, non- 6
normal incidence provides a means of Object Shape and Geometric Dimensions
separating multiple reflections, for exam-
ple, from a plane-parallel plate [64]. 6.1
Cylinders, Torics and Arbitrary Shapes
5.6
Geometrically Desensitized Interferometry Historically, most of optical form metrol-
ogy has applied to relatively simple, single
An alternative to grazing incidence that surfaces such as flats, portions of a sphere,
allows for comparable roughness tolerance or small deviations from spherical. Most of
2104 Optical Metrology

Fiber bundle
680-nm laser diode

Camera

Linear diffraction
gratings
G1

G2

Collimator pair

Grating translation
for phase shifting
Object field of view
Fig. 17 Geometrically desensitized grating interferometer for flatness testing (after
Colonna de Lega, X., Biegen, J. F., Stephenson, D., de Groot, P. J. (1998), Proc. Soc.
Phot. Opt. Eng. 3520, 284–292 [65])

the world, however, is not made up of these Axicon Axicon

simple shapes. Manufactured products are grating grating
in the great majority more complex but
nonetheless require precision metrology.
Cylinders provide a good example of
an object shape that is not a natural fit Cylindrical
to the diverging and converging spher- test object
ical wave fronts of conventional optics. Fig. 18 Cylinder measurement using diffractive
One approach is to use more flexible opti- axicons (after Schwider, J. (1972), German patent
cal elements, such as diffractive optics, in WP 106 769 [66])
place of conventional lenses and mirrors.
The cylindrical symmetry of the axicon 6.2
gratings in Fig. 18 is ideal for generating Holographic Shape Recording
grazing incidence rays along the outer sur-
face of a cylinder [66]. An additional benefit Long known for its astonishing ability to
of this approach, apart from the unusual create three-dimensional images, hologra-
shape measuring geometry, is the increase phy is also a powerful measurement tool.
in equivalent wavelength that comes with Holographic interferometry compares a
grazing incidence illumination [67]. One first image with a slightly altered second
can extend the same principle to more image, resulting in interference fringes
complex shapes, including arbitrary cross that reveal the differences between the
sections [68], torics [69] and aspheric op- images on the subwavelength scale of in-
tics [70]. terferometry [71].
 Optical Metrology 2105

One application of this technology and determines its lateral location essen-
extends the concept of internationally tially by triangulation, with a deflection
recognized standard artifacts from gage resolution of 3 nm [76]. Such systems are
blocks to more general object types [72]. in use, for example, for measuring the inte-
The approach employs the equivalent of a rior profiles of fuel injector nozzles, which
coherent mask, generated by digital holog- have a diameter of approximately 0.1 mm
raphy of a master or standard artifact. and therefore require the extremely fine
Projection of this mask to a test sample probe diameter provided by such a fiber-
results in a detailed comparison map of optic microprobe.
even a complex object shape. In that the
coherent image of the artifact is stored in 6.4
digital format, one can store it indefinitely Relational Measurements and Part
for later retrieval or for transmission to Geometry
distant standards laboratories via telecom-
munication networks. Optical form measuring tools have tradi-
tionally analyzed one surface at a time for
6.3 overall deviation from a flat or spherical
Scanning Single-point Optical Probe reference shape. Manufactured parts, how-
ever, are most often toleranced by referenc-
A general solution path for optical map-
ing to at least one datum surface that may
ping of complex shapes is the combina-
lie at a distance from or even on the oppos-
tion of an optical single-point distance-
ing side of a test object. These geometric
measuring probe with a mechanical sys-
tolerancing requirements are consistent
tem for scanning the surface of the test
with the function of most engineered parts,
piece. A multiple-wavelength system with
which is to form part of a larger assembly
a fiber-optic delivery and a translation stage
of several interacting parts that need to fit
can scan both smooth and rough sur-
faces to generate profiles of almost any together precisely. A class of optical indus-
shape [73]. trial metrology instruments concentrates
Perhaps the most promising extension therefore on the relation between surfaces
of this technology is to rotational form- in addition to the surface form, including
metrology tools, offering higher speed, thickness, parallelism, and orthogonality.
better resolution, and potentially better One approach to relational measure-
probe accessibility for narrow internal sur- ments is to combine interferometric sur-
faces [74]. A combination of optics and face profiling with heterodyne DMI. The
mechanics is a general solution to the profiler may be of the white-light type to
problem of measuring interior conical and properly identify fringe order, in a man-
cylindrical shapes [75], a difficult task for ner reminiscent of optical measurements
conventional optical form-metrology tools. of length standards [77] but in this case
An interesting hybrid approach now in offering full surface profiles and the rela-
commercial use for microsystem metrol- tionship between them. Figure 19 shows a
ogy employs a tactile micro probe with Twymann–Green geometry in which two
optical deflection detection. Light traveling opposing surfaces of an object are im-
through an optical fiber–based probe illu- aged onto the same camera by means
minates the probe tip. An imaging system of fold mirrors. The roof mirrors in the
with electronic camera views the probe tip figure are on mechanical stages that effect
2106 Optical Metrology

Sample area

Laser
displacement
Fold mirror for
interferometer beam paths
broadband illumination

Reference
mirror

Beam splitter
to imaging system

Length-adjustment
roof mirror

Fig. 19 Double-sided interferometer for measuring the flatness,

thickness and parallelism simultaneously of machined parts (courtesy of
Zygo Corporation)

the equivalent of a translation of the two to mechanical probes for coordinate

profiling fields of view orthogonally with measuring machines, proximity sensing,
respect to the test object surfaces. The dual and distance measurement.
laser DMI beams monitor these motions Form metrology based on triangulation
for measurement of thickness and paral- often involves the projection of a pattern
lelism, overcoming imperfections related onto the object, viewed at a perspective
to thermal and mechanical instability as different from that of the illumination.
well as imperfect stage motion [78]. An The apparent distortions of the pattern
alternative to the DMI for some applica- relate to the surface form. Several types
tions can be a gage block or similar artifact of pattern demodulation and analysis are
sharing the same field of view as the test available, one of the best known of which
object itself. is moiré, which involves projection of a
grid pattern and reimaging through a
6.5 similar grid, resulting in superposition
Structured Light fringes [80]. Moiré systems can be con-
figured to be sensitive to surface slope or
Athough interferometry provides high to surface form, depending on the location
resolution, there is a significant cost of the grids.
and simplicity advantage to general Another approach is to employ a
shape sensors based on the geometry detection system with sufficient lateral
of light propagation rather than resolution to properly resolve the projected
interference [79]. Optical triangulation pattern, in which case the analysis
sensors are an established alternative proceeds entirely in software and a second
 Optical Metrology 2107

limits of a conventional laser Fizeau in-

strument such as that shown in Fig. 12. In
this regime, we need to consider a differ-
ent optical geometry, one more similar to
a microscope.
The simplest form of interference mi-
croscope requires no modification of a
conventional microscope at all. Instead,
in analogy to the traditional optical flat
test, one places a transparent plate in
near contact with the test object. With
moderately filtered light, Fizeau fringes
Fig. 20 Three-dimensional image generated appear, representing contours of equal
from structured light metrology of a complex
form (courtesy of 3D Shape GmbH) height. Variations on this theme are the
foundation of traditional visual interfer-
moiré grid is not required. In all cases, ence microscopes [82].
modulating the pattern and synchronous For higher resolution, modern phase
detection, for example, using phase shift- shifting microscopy leverage the advances
ing techniques, significantly improves the in phase interpolation and algorithm de-
uncertainty of measurement by eliminat- velopment made possible by electronic
ing surface reflectivity and illumination imaging and computer technology. Just
variations from the range calculation. Such as the case for the laser Fizeau, an elec-
systems, combined with computer 3D im- tronic camera and storage device acquire
age reconstruction, are employed today a series of phase-shifted images during
for applications as diverse as orthodontics, a mechanical scan, usually activated by a
printed circuit inspection, car body design, piezo-electric transducer. A phase shifting
art preservation, and reverse engineer- algorithm (Table 2) converts these images
ing [81]. Figure 20 illustrates the ability into phase maps that are proportional to
of structured light sensing to measure surface height. Measuring instruments of
complex object shapes inaccessible to con- this kind revolutionized surface roughness
ventional optical interferometry. and form measurement in the 1980s, lead-
ing to the development and installation
of thousands of instruments for on-line
7 process control.
Microscopic Surface Form and Roughness Microscopes for interferometry can have
7.1 either the conventional laser Fizeau ge-
Interference Microscopy ometry with specialized optics for a re-
duced aperture [83], or more commonly
In interferometry, test objects are gen- today, a moderately filtered white-light
erally considered microscopic when the source that illuminates a near equal path
numerical aperture of the instrument be- interferometer built into the objective [84].
comes a significant factor in resolving Thus the general design of an interference
surface features. Measurements of surface microscope parallels that of a conventional
roughness, for example, are usually microscope, the principal difference being
considered to be beyond the resolution the cluster of interference objectives in a
2108 Optical Metrology

turret, each objective optimized for a par- fringe order uncertainty in the interfer-
ticular magnification, numerical aperture ence pattern. Broadband illumination with
and field of view. Common interference either a visual identification of the cen-
objectives include the Michelson, in which tral fringe or spectral analysis has been a
a beam splitter directs a portion of the illu- common technique for much of the past
mination to a reference mirror orthogonal century [85].
to the test surface, and the Mirau, in which The breakthrough in automated white-
the reference mirror is a subaperture metal light interference microscopy followed ad-
film parallel to the test surface and the vances in computer technology combined
same size as the field of view (Fig. 21). with the realization that even optically
rough surfaces that generate seemingly
7.2 random speckle are accessible to white-
Scanning White-light Interferometry light interference surface profiling [86].
Unlike PSI, data acquisition for scanning
Just as is the case with larger objects, white-light interferometry or scanning
small surface structures present a problem white light interferometry (SWLI) covers
to interferometric microscopes when the several microns of scan, sometimes sev-
variation in surface height approaches the eral millimeters, to explore the full volume
scale of the illumination wavelength. The of the test surface. Interference effects are
solution to this problem is to take advan- localized by the limited coherence of the
tage once again of multiple wavelengths light source. In one SWLI technique, rem-
or broadband illumination to remove the iniscent of confocal microscopy, surface
heights are related directly to the peak con-
trast position in the interference pattern
for each image pixel to construct a 3D im-
Camera age [87]. This fringe-contrast approach has
led to advanced nonlinear algorithms for
envelope detection, including methods for
recovery of the carrier phase information
without fringe order ambiguity [88].
Another approach is to decompose
mathematically the broadband interfer-
ence effect into constituent single-wave-
length components by Fourier trans-
forms, into what amounts to a multiple-
PZT wavelength measurement [89]. Figure 22
scanner illustrates this frequency-domain ap-
proach to SWLI. Each constituent fringe
Interference
objective pattern has a unique spatial frequency
or wave number k. When the phases
of these constituent patterns agree, the
superposition results in a peak fringe con-
Test object trast, corresponding to zero group-velocity
Fig. 21 Interference microscope equipped with OPD. The Fourier decomposition allows
a Mirau interference objective for a direct measurement of the relative
 Optical Metrology 2109

phases of the patterns [90]. The local sur-

White-light interference = Incoherent superposition

face height follows from the derivative of

k −1
+ Eq. (1):
1 dθ
L= (20)
k0 2 dk
where the wave number is nominally
+
2π
k +1
k= . (21)
λ
To minimize the number of unnecessary
= Fourier transform calculations, data acqui-
1 sition algorithms capture and store only
those camera frames for which there is a
strong interference signal [91]. The result
is a highly detailed image (Fig. 23).
0
0 10 7.3
Scan (µm) Advanced Techniques and Geometries
Fig. 22 Illustration of Fourier decomposition of
white-light interference For highest resolution, one can integrate
the equivalent of PSI into the SWLI

Fig. 23 Interference microscope profile of a read–write slider (courtesy of Zygo

Corporation)
2110 Optical Metrology

technique. The result is an interference locations and lateral dimensions of objects

microscope with an uncertainty on the or- and surfaces features. Recalling the cen-
der of 0.1 nm that accommodates a very tral role of length standards in industry,
wide range of surface types, textures, and the comparison of national standard me-
features. Combining SWLI with phase in- ter lengths to the prototype meter required
formation requires a robust strategy for a precision microscope to examine the rel-
dealing with the inconsistencies between ative positions of engraved marks for the
these two measurement techniques. The critical length dimension [96].
SWLI measurement is highly sensitive to Traditional measuring microscopy or
any wavelength-dependent effect in the micrometry relies on microscopic line
interferometer or on the surface itself, scales or reticules and calibrated x-y stag-
including chromatic dispersion and thin- ing to find locations in magnified images.
film effects. These difficulties can be han- Both visual inspection and electronic im-
dled by analysis of the differences between age analysis and machine vision play
the two measurement techniques [92, 93]. roles in modern measuring microscopes
A further extension of the concept of (Fig. 24). Computerized systems often in-
an extended scan length and broadband clude pattern matching, image segmenta-
illumination is infrared scanning interfer- tion, edge finding, defect detection, and
ometry. By designing an optical system feature counting [97].
and light source to operate in the mid Perhaps the highest resolution level with
infrared (e.g., 10 µm), the speckle effects optical microscopy is achieved in critical
common in with visible wavelengths on dimension analysis for semiconductor
a rough machined surface are obviated. manufacturing. For this application, it
The recovery of useful phase information is not uncommon to have electronic
in infrared scanning interferometry im-
proves the uncertainty of measurement
on technical surfaces while increasing
measurement speed and tolerance for vari-
ations in surface texture [94].
Finally, one notes the development of en-
doscopic interferometers based on SWLI,
for difficult to access areas. The appli-
cations here include in particular, crit-
ical sealing surfaces inside deep bore
holes [95].

8
Lateral Metrology

8.1 Fig. 24 Microscope lateral metrology.

Micrometry Computer software fits a circle by finding edges
(crosses) in this image of a micromachined
deformable mirror device and determines the
In addition to surface profiling, micro- diameter to be 513.05 µm (courtesy of Zygo
scopes have long served to determine Corporation)
 Optical Metrology 2111

imaging combined with UV illumination, concentricity [100]. The optical system in

for example, at 248 nm [98]. The still- either case may comprise a telecentric mi-
developing field of optical near field cro or macro lens system with additional
microscopy is another path to enhanced relay optics and mirrors for correctly ori-
lateral resolution [99]. enting and additionally magnifying the
image onto a screen that may have dimen-
8.2 sions of a meter or more. An alternative
Optical Comparators geometry is a fully electronic video sys-
tem, using either electronic magnification
A measuring microscope with a large for screen projection or full computer im-
image projection screen is a convenient age analysis.
platform to directly compare images with
semitransparent part drawings or tem- 8.3
plates laid on the screen. This straight- Laser Micrometers
forward concept underlies the optical
comparator, a class of instrument that As a final example of lateral metrology,
has for generations been a foundation the linear propagation of a high spatial-
of optical metrology for industrial man- coherence, collimated laser beam is an
ufacturing. Machined parts with a series ideal starting point for measuring cross
of tightly controlled lateral and cross- sections. In Fig. 25, a laser beam scans ver-
sectional dimensions are ideal candidates tically across a cylindrical object to project
for comparators. a side view of the cylinder onto a receiver
Although many comparator measure- that resolves the diameter in the time do-
ments still rely on grid patterns and other main. With analog or digital interpolation
standard templates for visual compari- and proper compensation for group delay,
son, modern optical comparators more the resulting laser micrometer can oper-
often have some form of electronic dig- ate at very high speed, for example, 1000
ital readout to indicate, for example, scans per second, with submicron resolu-
lateral coordinates, angle, radius, inter- tion [101].
section and width, as well as higher-level
characteristics such as straightness and
9
Conclusion
Receiver Shaped or scanned
laser beam
This necessarily brief and incomplete
Object review of several categories of optical
Sender metrology tools offers a glimpse into the
wide range of established and emerging
optical technologies applied to the science
of measurement. One may conclude that
the properties of light are ideally suited
to the task of measuring the dimensions,
Diameter textures, and locations of objects. Also
Fig. 25Principle of the laser micrometer for accessible to optical metrology are the less
measuring a diameter tangible characteristics such as chemical
2112 Optical Metrology

composition, temperature, and stress; Fiber-optic Sensing Interferometer: Sensor

technology areas too vast to be included for, for example, environmental condi-
here. Consideration of what could not be tions, stress or strain based on the inter-
covered in this article provides a good ferometrically resolved optical path length
perspective on the width and breadth of through a fiber-optic waveguide.
optical metrology and the opportunities
for further development. Fourier Transform Phase Shifting Interfero-
meter: Unequal-path form-metrology tool
in which heterodyning is effected by wave-
length tuning and data analysis proceeds
Glossary by analysis in the frequency domain of the
resultant frequency-resolved beat signals,
Bragg Grating Sensor: An integrated fiber- which may be several in the presence of
optic or waveguide device with a periodic multiple reflecting surfaces.
variation in refractive index which detects
small changes in its length by its spectral Fractional Fringe Analysis: A classical
response. multiple-wavelength length measuring
strategy in which the phase dependence
Chirp Laser Radar: Distance-measuring on wavelength removes the uncertainty in
unequal-path interferometer in which the the fringe order.
laser frequency is swept in a piecewise con-
tinuous manner, resulting in a beat signal Geometric Slope Testing: Foucault, screen
frequency proportional to object distance. test and other types of form metrology that
rely on the detection of the propagation
Diffractive Optics: Holographically or digi- direction of rays rather than, for example,
tally generated optical elements that gener- optical path length.
ate shaped wave fronts by diffraction rather
than refraction or reflection. Geometrically Desensitized Interferometer:
Optical form-metrology tool in which both
Dispersion Interferometry: Use of the the reference and test beams are directed
wavelength dependence of the index of to the test surface, but under slightly
refraction to detect measurement errors different angles of incidence, resulting in
attributable to air density. Often this is a a long-equivalent wavelength interference
two-wavelength interferometer with very pattern.
high resolution relative phase detection.
Grazing Incidence Interferometer: Optical
DMI: Displacement measuring interfer- form-metrology tool in which the illu-
ometry – the modern equivalent of the mination is at an angle far from the
Michelson interferometer, with stage perpendicular, to desensitize the reflected
metrology as most common application. wave front to surface roughness.

Etalon: Object that provides or embodies Heterodyne Detection: In the context of

a reference standard, for example the interferometers, a phase-measuring tech-
prototype platinum–iridium bar used to nique consisting of creating a beat fre-
establish the meter as the standard of quency signal by mixing the reference
length. and test beams, these beams having an
 Optical Metrology 2113

imparted frequency shift between them specific length with respect to international
that is small compared to the mean fre- standards.
quency of light. The frequency shift may
Micrometry: In the context of optical
be generated by, for example, the Zeeman
effect in a gas laser or by acousto-optic metrology, a lateral metrology technique
modulation. using a microscope with a graticule and/or
calibrated x-y stage to determine the
Holography: Image recording and recov- locations and lateral dimensions of objects
ery technique in which the phase and and surfaces features.
intensity data for the unfocused wave front
reflected from a test object is generated Mirau Objective: Type of interference mi-
and stored by interference with a refer- croscope objective in which the reference
ence wave front. mirror is a subaperture metal film parallel
to the test surface and the same size as the
Laser Fizeau Interferometer: Unequal-path field of view.
interferometer in which the interference
pattern results from reflections within Near Field Optical Microscope: Imaging
a cavity comprised of a reference and microscope in which the evanescent waves
test surface, usually with no optical from a subwavelength aperture, for ex-
elements between them. More generally, ample, a tapered fiber, are the basis for
the most common form of optical testing surface imaging, usually at lateral resolu-
interferometer available today. tions normally considered inaccessible to
conventional optical microscopy.
Laser Micrometer: Lateral metrology tool
that determines the dimensions of an OPD: Optical path difference – difference
object by scanning a collimated laser in the distance traveled by light, for
beam over the part and detecting the example, via the reference and measure-
time-resolved obscuration of the beam by ment legs of a two-beam interferometer.
the part.
Optical Comparator: A measuring micro-
Laser Ranging: Pulsed, modulated, or in- scope with a large image projection screen
terferometric determination of distance. to directly compare magnified images of
object cross sections with semitranspar-
Laser Tracker: Large-scale metrology in- ent part drawings or templates on the
strument employing a mobile retroreflec- screen.
tor as a manual touch sensor, with an
automated tracking theodolite and laser Optical Encoder: Ruler or grating structure
DMI to determine the relative x, y, z coor- having an optical reader and analog or
dinates of the retroreflector. digital readout, often for stage metrology.

Lateral Metrology: In-plane dimension and Optical Flat: An optical component of

position metrology of features, sometimes nominally plane-parallel glass certified for
referred to as x-y metrology. flatness on at least one side, often used to
verify the flatness of test surfaces.
Length Standard: A precision engineered
part, for example, a gage block, calibrated Optical Probe or Optical Stylus: Single-
by a recognized authority as having a point distance-measuring interferometer
2114 Optical Metrology

for use with a mechanical scanning interferometers operating colinearly re-

mechanism to measure object form by sults in a third beat frequency representing
point-by-point scanning of the surface the difference in phase between the two
contours. interferometers.
Optical Testing: Usually, the testing of SWLI: Scanning white-light interferome-
optical components. try – also called vertical scanning interfer-
ometry or coherence scanning – surface
PSI: Phase shifting interferometry – form metrology in which data are acquired
Phase interpolation technique for surface during a scan of the optical path length of
profiling, usually by means of a mechan- an interferometer illuminated with spec-
ical or wavelength-shift heterodyning and trally broadband illumination.
a simplified algorithm for Fourier analy-
sis at the predetermined heterodyne beat Synthetic Wavelength: Equivalent wave-
frequency. length corresponding to the spatial pe-
riodicity in the difference between the
Prototype Meter: The primary length stan- phase data between two interferome-
dard for the metric system, stored under ters having slightly different sensitiv-
carefully controlled conditions at Paris. ity to the same optical path difference,
First made in the form of a rectangular for example, because of a difference in
platinum bar in 1799, later in 1889 an X-
wavelength.
shaped cross section of platinum–iridium,
it became the effective definition of the Theodolite: Optical device, often equipped
meter in 1872 but lost this honor to the with a telescope and precision angle
wavelength of light in 1960. adjustments, for measuring dimensions
and locations of distant objects by means
Pulsed or Intensity Modulated Laser
of triangulation.
Radar: Distance-measuring technique
based on time of flight or equivalent detec-
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