Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

Lateral Earth Pressure

Content
1. Introduction.
2. Rankine Theory.
2.1. Active Earth Pressure.
2.2. Passive Earth Pressure.
2.3. Active and Passive Forces.
2.3.1.Surcharge Effect or Two Layers of Soil.
2.3.2.Water Table.
2.4. Inclined Soil Surface.
2.5. Retaining Wall Applications.
3. Coulomb Theory of Lateral Earth Pressure.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

1. Introduction:
The pressure at any point in a fluid such as water is the same in all directions (why?). Thus
the lateral pressure on a vertical surface retaining water is equal to (γw.h), where h = the
height of water above the point considered. Figure (1) shows the lateral pressure diagram on
a wall of height H retaining water.
The total force P per unit length of wall will be equal to the area of the pressure diagram.
(P= ½ γw.H²) and this force will act at the centroid of the diagram, i.e. at (2H/3) from the
surface.

Figure (1) Lateral Pressure Diagram for wall applied by water.

In the case of soil, unlike water, possesses resistance to shearing, the lateral pressure at any
point will not be the same as the vertical pressure at that point Figure (2).
In a homogeneous natural soil deposit, the ratio (σh/ σv ) is a constant known as coefficient of
earth pressure at rest (K0).
For normally consolidated clays and granular soils,

– ……………………………………….. (1)

σz=γz
Z

σx=Koσz

Figure (2) Vertical and Lateral Pressure at Soil Element.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

2. Rankine Theory (1857):

Hypothesis: the ground surface is horizontal and there is no friction between the wall and the
soil. Consider a sheet pile wall (Figure (3)), the soil elements A and B during the wall
movement caused by the earth pressures at the right of the wall.

2.1. Active Earth Pressure:

In Figure (3) Element (A), the earth pressure is called "active", because the soil in (A)
is responsible of the wall movement.

Figure (3) Active Soil Pressure.

Initially, there is no lateral movement, thus, at this time, the Mohr circle (Figure 4)
has two principal stresses:
………………………………………… (2)
…………………………….. (3)
As the wall moves away from the soil, σ’v remains the same and σ’h decreases till
failure occurs. The Mohr circle changes thus during the movement and at failure, it is
tangent to the Mohr-Coulomb failure line (Figure 4).
As Seen in Figure (4), Rankine coefficient of active earth pressure could be
determined as follows:

√
( )
√ √
( )
√ √

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

( ) √

…………………………. (4)
√ ………………………………. (5)
When the horizontal stress equal to active stress it is active Rankine state, see Figure
(5) which presents failure surfaces of this state.

τ Plastic Equilibrium (At Failure

Mohr-Coulomb
Active Limit State)
Failure Line

(σz-σx)/2

Elastic Equilibrium
(Initially Rest State)
C Ø 90+Ø
σ
σv=σ1= σz=γz
C.cotØ
σh=σa= σx= σ3

(σz+σx)/2

Figure (4) Mohr Circle at Rankine Active State.

90+Ø

45+Ø/2

Figure (5) Failure Surfaces of Rankine Active State.

2.2. Passive Earth Pressure:

Consider soil element B (Figure 3), during the wall movement caused by the earth
pressures at the right of the wall. The soil in B resists to the wall movement, thus the

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

earth pressure in B is called "passive". Initially, there is no lateral movement, thus

the Mohr circle (Figure 6) has two principal stresses:
As the wall moves away from the soil,
σz remains the same and
σx increases till failure occurs.
At failure, the Mohr circle is tangent to the Mohr-Coulomb failure line (Figure 6).

Mohr-Coulomb
Failure Line

τ Plastic Equilibrium (At Failure

Elastic Equilibrium Passive Limit State)
(Initially Rest State)
(σx-σz)/2

C Ø 90-Ø
σ
C.cotØ σh=σp= σx= σ1

σv=σ3= σz=γz

(σz+σx)/2

Figure (6) Mohr Circle at Rankine Passive State.

When the horizontal stress becomes equal to passive pressure the soil is in passive
Rankine state, see Figure (7) shows the failure surfaces of this state. As Seen in
Figure (6), Rankine coefficient of passive earth pressure could be determined as
follows:

( )

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

√
( )
√ √
( )
√ √

( ) √

…………………………. (6)
√ ………………………………. (7)

90-Ø

45-Ø/2

Figure (7) Failure Surfaces of Rankine Passive State.

2.3. Active and Passive Forces:
It is obvious from Equations (5&7) that the lateral earth pressure is increasing linearly
with the depth. In cohesive soils when c>0 the active pressure equal to zero at depth
zo as shown in following equations:
√ ………………………………. (5)
………………………………………………….. (8)
√
This means that there is a tension stress from soil surface to depth zo. However this
tension stress or force is not affected on the wall, while tension cracks will appear
along zo depth. Figure (8) shows both active and passive earth forces affecting on
wall. Following Equations shows the active and passive forces acting on wall:
……… (9)

√ ( ) ( ) …… (10)

2.3.1. Surcharge Effect or Two Layers of Soil:

In case of surcharge (q) uniformly distributed, the vertical stresses at some
depth equal to (γZ+q), causes additional pressure equal to (Kaq or Kpq) both
of them are constant with depth, and they act at (H/2).
In the case of two soil layers with different shear characteristics, the weight of
the above soil layer could be considered as discharge acting on the lower soil
layer. Discontinuity of lateral soil pressure chart shall occur.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

2.3.2. Water Table:

Soil under the groundwater table shall be treated as follow:
1. Fully Drained Condition:
Bothe active and passive lateral earth pressures shall be calculated by
using the effective weight of soil and using ́ and ́ , for example:
́ ́ √ ………………. (11)
́
…………………... (12)
The passive earth pressure shall be calculated with the same way,
while the pore water pressure shall be considered in addition to both
active and passive earth pressures.
2. Undrained Condition:
Both active and passive pressures shall be obtained using and
with (i.e. the pore water pressure is considered implicitly).
2c√(Ka)

Zo

H
Pp

H/2
Pa
H/3
1/3(H-Zo)

γHKa
2c√(Ka) γHKp

(A) Passive State Force (B) Active State Force

Figure (8) Passive and Active earth Forces.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

2.4. Inclined Soil Surface:

For sandy soils (i.e with Ø only, C=0), Rankine theory could be applied to inclined
soil surface, angle of inclination with horizon is β.
Consider the Figure (9) , assuming that both active and passive pressures are acting
parallel to inclined soil surface, while both σz and σx are not perpendicular to element
surface, so they are not principals stresses.
Active lateral earth pressure Coefficients shall be calculated as follow See Table
(E1):
√
………………………………. (13)
√
The active earth pressure and active force shall be expressed as follow respectively.
Both are acting parallel to inclined soil surface:
……………………………………. (14)
………………………………... (15)
H represents the height of retaining wall.
Passive lateral earth pressure Coefficients shall be calculated as follow, see Table
(E2):
√
………………………………. (16)
√
The passive earth pressure and passive force shall be expressed as follow
respectively. Both are acting parallel to inclined soil surface:
……………………………………. (17)
……………………………….... (18)

β β

σz
σz
Z Z
σa σp

Movement Movement
Direction Direction

Active State Passive State

Figure (9) Inclined soil surface active and passive states.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

2.5. Retaining Wall Applications (Rankine Theory):

Due to the assumption of Rankine theory, there is no friction between the wall and
the soil, the results will be larger than the real in active state and lower than actual in
passive state, which make the results of both states are in safe side.
See Figure (10), presents the both active and passive states against retaining
structures.

Figure (10) Active and Passive Earth Pressure against Retaining Structures.

Example (1):

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

Calculate the active lateral force for retaining structure shown in Figure (Ex. 1), for
two cases:
a) No water table.
b) Water table is 2 m below the ground surface, use γs=20 kN/m3, γw=10 kN/m3.

2m ɣd=18 kN/m3
ɣd=18 kN/m3 c
5m Ø=35 deg. 5m
ɣs=20 kN/m3
δ=0 deg.
b

Case (a) Case (b)

Figure (Ex. 1)

Solution:
a) Finding Active Earth Coefficient:
( )

b) Finding the active pressure at both points (c&b) as shown in Figure (Ex.1-1):

See Figure (Ex.1- 2) presents the pressure diagram along the retaining
structure.
Summation of the forces from the two pressure diagrams of soil and water
shall be made to produce the total force on the retaining structure:
( ) ( )

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

2m

9.72 KN/m2

3m

17.82 KN/m2
30 KN/m2
Soil Lateral Pressure Water Pressure

Figure (Ex.1- 2).

Example (2):
Draw active earth pressure distribution along retaining wall shown in Figure (Ex.2-1)
below:
Solution:
a) First layer of Soil:
( )

b) Second Layer of Soil:

( )
√ √

See Figure (Ex. 2-2) for stress distribution along retaining wall.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

q=50 kN/m2

d
Ɣt=18 kN/m3
Ø=38 deg.
6m C=0
δ=0

Ɣt=20 kN/m3
Ø=28 deg.
3m C=10 kN/m3
δ=0
c
Figure (Ex.2-1).

12 kN/m2

37.9 kN/m2

44.9 kN/m2

66.5 kN/m2

Figure (Ex. 2-2). Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution.

Example (3):
Determine the Passive Earth Force for the following case shown in Figure (Ex. 3-1),
by using Rankine Theory.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

20 deg

ɣ=18 kN/m3
Ø=40 deg.
c=0
6m

Figure (Ex. 3-1).

Solution:
Calculate the passive earth pressure coefficient,
√
√

The force is per meter length of wall.

3. Coulomb’s Theory of Lateral Earth Pressure (1776):

Coulomb’s theory of lateral earth pressure based on the following assumptions:
1. Soil is isotropic and homogenous and has both internal friction and cohesion>
2. The rupture surface is plane surface and the backfill surface is planner, (it may
slop but is not irregularly shaped).
3. The friction resistance is disturbed uniformly along the rupture surface and the
soil to soil friction coefficient f=tanØ.
4. The failure wedge is a rigid body undergoing translation.
5. There is a wall friction, with friction angle is usually termed δ.
6. Failure is strain problem.
Consider the following Figure (11) which present the active wedge of Coulomb theory
for sandy soil, (c=0), lateral active earth force could be expressed as following:

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

α+β
W

H
+δ Ø
R
180-α- ρ
Pa

α ρa

Figure (11) Active State of Coulomb Theory.

……………………….. (19)
[ √ ]

…………………………… (20)
[ √ ]

If the same conditions (assumptions) of Rankine theory was used, (i.e. a smooth
vertical retaining wall with horizontal backfill), which means β=δ=0o, and α=90o
shall be substituted in Equation (19), it will become:
(Prove it as H.W.)
Which is the same Equation of active earth force of Rankine theory.
Consider the Figure (12), which presents the passive wedge of Coulomb theory of
sandy soil, (c=0), lateral passive earth force could be expressed as following:

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

α+β
W

Pp
+δ
H R
Ø
180-α- ρ

α ρp

Figure (12) Passive State of Coulomb Theory.

………………………. (21)
[ √ ]

………………………… (22)
[ √ ]

If the same conditions (assumptions) of Rankine theory was used, (i.e. a smooth
vertical retaining wall with horizontal backfill), which means β=δ=0o, and α=90o
shall be substituted in Equation (21), it will become:
(Prove it as H.W.)
Which is the same Equation of passive earth force of Rankine theory.
Equations (20&22) are used to calculate the active and passive earth pressure
coefficients according to Coulomb theory. Tables (E3&E4) could be used instead to
calculate the active and passive earth pressure coefficients.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

Example (4):
Find the total active earth force for the shown retaining wall by Figure (Ex 4-1), by
both Rankine and Coulomb theories.
10 deg

ɣ=18.86 kN/m3
Ø=35 deg.
6.1 m
c=0

85 deg

Figure (Ex 4-1).

Solution:
a. Rankine Method: while Rankine theory does not consider the slope of
retaining wall, some modifications shall be made on the problem to be solved
by Rankine approach, see Figure (Ex 4-2):
10 deg

b
a
Pv
W Pa’

10 deg
H’ Ph

85 deg Imaginary Cut

A
Figure (Ex. 4-2).
Using Equation (13) the coefficient of active earth pressure shall be
calculated as follows:
√ √
√ √
Finding the lengths of imaginary cuts:

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

̅̅̅
̅̅̅
́
Using Equation (15) to calculate the active earth force on the imaginary cut
line (Ac):

́ ̅̅̅
∑
∑

√∑ ∑

b. Coulomb Method:
Use δ=2/3*Ø =23.3o, β=10o, α=85o.
Use Equation (20) , Ka=0.319
To calculate the active force use Equation (19) as follow:

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

4. Design of Retaining Walls:

There are two types of retaining walls depending on the stability principle:
4.1. Gravity Retaining Walls:
Consider the Figure (13), the stability of gravity wall is due to its own weight and the
possibility of passive resistance in front of wall.

W Pa
+δ

+δ
Pp
B
Figure (13) Gravity Retaining Walls.

4.2. Cantilever Retaining Walls:

In addition to the wall own weight and passive resistance in front of wall, cantilever
walls uses the weight of soil behind the wall to form the major stability force, which
make these types of walls more economic than gravity walls, consider Figure (14).

Wc Ws

Pa

Pp

B
Figure (14) Cantilever Retaining Wall.
4.3. Stability of Retaining Walls:
Both types of retaining walls are subjected to two possibilities of failure as follow, also both
methods Rankine and Coulomb are used to estimate lateral pressures:

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

1. Sliding Failure.
2. Overturning Failure.
4.3.1. Sliding Failure:
Sliding Failure could be expressed by Factor of Safety against sliding, see Figures
(13&14):
………..…………… (23)
………………………………..………….. (24)
Where
B: base width of the wall,
Rv: vertical component of resultant,
Ø & c are the under wall soil properties.
The Factor of Safety should be at least (1.5), so the wall is safe against sliding. A key
shall be added at the base of the wall to increase the resistance against sliding, by
increasing the shear resistance of the base and increasing passive resistance, if needed,
see Figure (15).

Wc Ws

Pa

Pp
Pp
key

Figure (15) Key against sliding.

4.3.2. Overturning Failure:

Overturning Failure could be expressed by Factor of Safety against overturning, see
Figures (16):

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

lw W Pa

la
Pp
lp
a
Possible overturning point
Figure (16) Overturning Forces analysis.

………………… (25)
Passive Resistance shall be neglected in Equation (25) above to increase the Factor of
Safety and due to uncertainty of existence of front soil.
……………………….. (26)
To ensure that no tension will develop between the base of the wall and soil, the resultant
should pass through the middle third of the wall base, just like spread footing, i.e.
(e≤B/6).

Example (5):
Check the stability of gravity retaining wall shown in Figure (Ex5-1), and draw the earth
pressure on the base of the retaining wall. (use Rankine theory and γ concrete=24 kN/m3).

0.6 m

ɣd=17.5 kN/m3
5m Ø=30 deg.
δ=0 deg.

1m

2.6m

Ø=45 deg.
δ=35 deg.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

Figure (Ex. 5-1).

Solution:
( ) ⁄

Weight of the Wall

Finding the location of the Weight of Wall Rv, by taking ∑ moment at the toe of wall, to
increase the safety neglect the passive resistance:
̅
̅
Factor of Safety against overturning:

O.K. the wall is safe against overturning.

Factor of Safety against Sliding:

O.K. the wall is safe against sliding.

Soil Pressure on base of the wall;

( )
,
Zero pressure zone will be existed in the base of wall; maximum pressure shall be
computed as followed:

See Figure (Ex. 5-2), present the soil pressure distribution.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

B/2

e
196.92

(B-2e)

Figure (Ex. 5-2).

5. Sheet Pile Walls:

The sheet pile walls depend on their support to develop passive resistance on the soil; its
weight is neglected in stability computations. Two types of sheet pile walls shall be
considered:
A. Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls.
B. Anchored Sheet Pile Walls.
5.1. Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall:
Consider the Figure (16), this kind of sheet piles are mainly used for:
a. Cohesion less soil.
b. Shallow depths cuts.
c. Temporary structures.
The stability of this type of sheet pile depends on the passive resistance developed at
front of the wall. The sheet pile wall will fail by rotating about point (c) as shown in
Figure (16).
Active Thrust
………………………………………. (27)
Passive Force
……………………………………………… (28)
∑
…………………………………………… (29)

√ ⁄

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

√ ⁄
…………………………………………… (30)
√ ⁄

The calculated depth (d) of sheet pile from Equation (30), must be increased by at least
(20%) due to uncertainty involved in the solution.
The Factor of Safety in Equation (30) is taken as unity (1), a suitable Factor of Safety (2),
it shall introduce in the equation (28) by dividing the passive resistance to F.S.
In this analysis, the effect of wall friction on the earth pressure has not been taken into
account. The effect of wall friction is decreasing the active earth pressure, and increasing
the passive earth pressure. Since active pressure tend to cause overturning, while passive
pressure provide the stability moment, omission of wall friction lead to safer results on
both count.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

H
Active

B
Pa
Passive
Pp d

C R

Pp

H
Active

B
Pa
Passive
Pp d

C R

Figure (16) Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

5.1. Anchored Sheet Pile (Bulk Head):

An anchored sheet pile is similar to cantilever sheet pile with difference that it is support
near its top by means of anchor roads, consider Figure (17). The deformation of anchored
sheet pile depends on the rigidity of the sheet pile section and the depth of embedment.
Two types of approaches are available to deal with the anchored sheet pile as follow, see
Figure (17):
a. Free earth support. (only free earth support shall be studied herein).
b. Fixed earth support.

Free Earth Support Frixed Earth Support

Figure (17) Anchored Sheet Pile, Free earth Support and Fixed Earth Support.

5.1.1. Free Earth Support:

It is assumed that the wall is free to rotate. The conditions of stability are obtained
from statics as shown in Figure (18), see the following:
i. Sum of all horizontal forces are equal to zero.
…………………………………… (31)
……………………………….. (32)
………………………… (33)
ii. Sum of all moments about any point equal to zero.
∑
[ ] [ ] ……………. (34)
 Solution Equation (33) gives value of (D), “the depth of embedment”.
Substituting the value of (D) in Equation (30), the value of Anchor Pull out
force (T) shall be determined.

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

 The factor of safety of Equation (34) is a unity. In order to provide a factor

of safety, the value of passive pressure in Equation (32) shall be divided by
suitable value of factor of safety (2).
 T represents the anchor pull out unit length of the (anchored sheet pile). The
total force in the anchor rod will be obtained by multiplying the value per
unit length by the distance between adjacent anchor rods.
 When δ≠0, (i.e. there is a friction between wall and soil), Pa and Pp will be
calculated by using Coulomb’s theory.

H1

A T

H
Active

F
Pa
Passive
Pp D

D C

Kp γD Ka γ(H+D)

Figure (18) Free Earth Support.

Example (7):
Calculate the percentage of mobilized passive strength to available passive strength using
free earth support theory for the sheet pile wall shown in Figure (Ex. 7-1):
Solution:
( )

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

Take ∑ , to find the mobilized passive resistance:

( ) ́ ( )
́ (Mobilized Passive Resistance)
Finding the available passive resistance:

́
⁄

H1

A T
Ɣt=18.62 kN/m3
Ø=30 deg.
6m C=0
δ=0

Pa

Pp 3.75 m

Figure (Ex. 7-1).

Example (8):
Find the Factor of Safety against failure for the anchored sheet pile shown in Figure (Ex.
8-1):

Solution:

A. Active Side pressure:

( )
( )

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 Lecturer Nadher Al-Baghdadi

Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures University of Kufa

( )

a
Ɣt=18 kN/m3 0.9m
Ø=30 deg.
2m A C=0
T 2m
Pa1
δ=0
4m 12
b
Ɣt=20 kN/m3
Ø=30 deg. Pa2
C=0 4m
Ɣt=19 kN/m3 δ=0 Pw
Ø=40 deg. Pa3
2m
C=0
δ=0
c 38.67 40

Figure (Ex. 8-1).

Moment arm @ A is (

Moment arm @ A is { }

Moment arm @ A is ( )

Moment arm @ A is ( )
B. Passive Side Pressure:
( )

Moment arm @ A is

30