RB CAGMAT

REVIEW CENTER

PPT PRESENTATIONS OF
Jimae Faith B. Magnaye
Lecturer
RB CAGMAT REVIEW CENTER
PREPARATION OF
PLANTING
MATERIALS

Jimae Faith B. Magnaye

Lecturer
RB CAGMAT REVIEW CENTER
 Seed Propagation
Sexual Method of Producing Seedlings

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Seeds for Perennial Crops
•Applicable to fruit crops like
•Papaya
•Pili
•Jackfruit
•Mangosteen
•Atis
•guyabano
•Plantation crops like
•Coconut
•Oil palm
•Cacao
 Disadvantage with seed propagation
• Plants take longer to bear fruit
• Resulting plants do not retain parental characteristics
specially for cross pollinated species
• Plants tend to grow into large trees
• Result in productiveness variability-quality
characteristics of the fruit products regularity of
bearing, growth habit and floral behavior such as the
appearance of distinct maleness as in ipil-ipil, papaya
and rambutan

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 Advantages
• Strong anchorage making the tree resistant to strong
winds
• Lifespan
• Apomictic seeds

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 Seed Viability
• Recalcitrant seeds- whose moisture content when reduce to critical
level through dessication will result to rapid loss of variability.
• Example-rambutan, lanzones, durian, mangosteen, santol, jackfruit, cacao, citrus,
rubber, oil palm
• To prolong its variability, seeds are stored in moistened saw-dust or charcoal(@10%) in
polyethylene bags at 27C or refrigerated condition-variability from one week or two-weeks
to one month

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 Seed Viability
• Orthodox seeds- where MC is lower to prevent respiration and stored in
airtight container to exclude oxygen to prolong variability.
• Example- atis, balimbing, chico, guyabano, passion fruit, tamarind, and coffee
• Refrigeration or use of dessicant ( silica, charcoal,, calcium chloride) in ordinary room
temperature will prolong variability form more than one year

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 Seed Propagation
• Scarification
• Soaking in water until seedcoat swells. Done on mango, chico seeds
• Rubbing with sand paper
• Removal of seedcoat; mango germinated in one week after removal of
seedcoat as compared to one month if not removed

• Hot Water Treatment

• Dipping in boiling water for 5 minutes as in guava

• Chemical Treatment
• Dipping in solvents or sulfuric acids, nitric acids, HCL for 30 minutes.
Germination of abaca seeds is enhanced by dipping in 2% HCL for 30
minutes
• Removal of mucilages by applying rubbing pressure on the seeds like papaya,
cacao, and santol or allow them to ferment for 3 to 5 days for easy removal

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 Asexual Propagation
of Seedlings

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Advantages of the use of asexually propagated
materials
• The resulting plants breed true-to-type
• Applicable to species that do not produce seeds or
those may produce seeds but are hard to germinate
• Trees are usually smaller and bear fruits earlier
• Useful for species with distinct maleness and
femaleness as in pili and rambutan.
 Kinds of Vegetative Propagules
Runners Slips
• Runners – are specialized growing stem • Slips—are leafy shoots which arises from
structures which rise from the leaf axils auxillary buds which are produced at the
of the plant and form roots of their own base of the plant or peduncle of the fruit as
that render them excellent propagating in pineapple
materials. Examples- strawberry and
black pepper

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 Kinds of Vegetative Propagules
Suckers Corms
• Suckers- which are adventitious shoots • Corms- which are underground solid stems
structures which contain nodes and
that arise from underground stems internodes. The corm may be divided into
below the ground. Examples- banana several seed species. Examples are banana and
and abaca abaca and Colocasia spp

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 Kinds of Vegetative Propagules
Root Cuttings Leaf Bud Cuttings
• Root cuttings- which are used in the • Leaf bud cuttings- which are derived from
auxillary buds in stems and leaf. The stems
propagation of breadfruit bearing the buds are cut into pieces and
inserted in a rooting medium. Examples- black
pepper and vanilla (below is a Kiwi)

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 Kinds of Vegetative Propagules
Stem Cuttings Micropropagated
• Stem cuttings-which can be used in • Micropropagated – Plantlets produced by
propagating sineguelas, macopa, grapes, culturing somatic plant cells or tissue
blackpeppers, vanilla and kapok

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 Kinds of Vegetative
Propagules
Asexual materials
resulting from:
• Layerage
• Graftage
• Budding

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 NURSERY
OPERATIONS

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 NURSERY
• This is a place where starting materials are grown, cared and maintained until
the plants are ready for transfer to permanent commercial growing

• Use of germination of rooting beds in a confined area intended solely seed

and seednut or rooting of cuttings(sand, garden soil, and OM)
• Potting or transferring of young seedling to individual containers
• Size and age of seedlings at transplanting:
• seedlings attained at least 30cm length and 3 to 4 developed leaves
• Balling- the digging of seedlings with the ball of soil intact. The seedling is
placed in plastic bags or wrapped in burlap bag material.

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 Shade Management in Nursery
• This could be provided by natural shade trees or artificial structures and
materials like nets, bamboo slats coconut fronds or plastics

• Important for newly “pricked” seedlings that need 25 to 50% shade like coffee,
cacao, rambutan mangosteen, lanzones, grafted and budded planting
materials

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 Shade Management in Nursery
• Shading
• The quantity of light that plants received in the field can be regulated indirectly by varying
the density of plants or providing some amount of shades.
• Shading is a function of seeding rate, distance between hills and distance
between rows.
• Thus heavier seeding rates and reduced distance between row and hills
result in shading among plants, thereby reducing the amounts of light
that reaches each plant.
• Shade tolerant plants can effectively utilize low amounts of light, a heavy
seeding rate for such plants grown under full sunlight can results in high
yields, provided that moisture and nutrients in the soil can adequately
support the crop

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 Shade Management in Nursery
• In the early establishments of coffee, cacao, lanzones, mangosteen and
in the production of anthurium and some orchids, as well as in nurseries
of grafted and budded plants, shading has to be done if the enterprise
is an open area.
• Shading of coconut seedlings has been found to reduce die-back and
shoot-rot disease, and increase plant height, leaf production and
growth of stem; however, more scale insects have been observed as a
result of shading
• In mangosteen, shading is necessary on newly transplanted seedlings
to have better survival under field conditions.
• Planting under trees will, in general achieve the same purpose as
artificial shading. Coffee and cacao which are low trees, can be planted
under tall trees.
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 Shade Management in Nursery
• In intercropping with coconut or other tall trees, provisions can be
made so that rows are oriented with respect to the path of the sun, and
this would regulate sunshine. As east-west orientation can give
maximum sunlight; whereas a north-south orientation can minimize
sunshine depending on the kind of crop and its response to shading.
• For abaca, it has been shown that 33-66 percent shade is necessary for
its growth.

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 Wind Protection
• Windbreak
•Composed of living and nonliving materials
• Shelterbelt
•Composed of plants

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 Shelterbelts
• Shelterbelts are very advantageous in orchards and plantations. This is
particularly important for such crops as abaca and banana for they are very
susceptible to string winds on account of their shallow root system and
succulent vegetative parts.
• Plants used as shelterbelts should be well adapted to the soil and climate
of the area. Trees should be fast-growing and have tops that are not easily
damaged by strong winds and root systems that are deep and well-spaced so
they are not easily uprooted and are resistant to drought. The canopy should
not be too dense and the trees should be fest growers.

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 Shelterbelts
• It is best that 35-50 percent wind can penetrate through the canopy in order to
provide protection for a distance equivalent to 20 times the height of the trees.
This means that for a large area there should be row of windbreaks every 200 m. If the
windbreak is too dense, there would be turbulence on the leeward side of the
windbreak, which reduced its effectiveness. If it is too sparse, there is very little wind
resistance offered.
• A single row of trees with a height of 11 m could provide adequate protection for
horticultural trees against strong winds on the leeward side and about 50 m on the
windward side on hillsides. An impenetrable windbreaks is estimated to give
protection for a distance equivalent to 6-8 times its height. The trees can be planted
close to one another and thinned as they grow larger.
• In hilly areas, a windbreak serves also as a buffer strip to minimize erosion. Along
rivers, creeks and streams, it serves as a bank protection. It would be advantageous
if windbreaks can serve other purpose, aside from wind protection or erosion control,
such as producing a crop of its own, as source of firewood or green manure or as a
living fence .

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 Shelterbelts
• It is best that 35-50 percent wind can penetrate through the canopy in order to
provide protection for a distance equivalent to 20 times the height of the trees.
This means that for a large area there should be row of windbreaks every 200 m. If the
windbreak is too dense, there would be turbulence on the leeward side of the
windbreak, which reduced its effectiveness. If it is too sparse, there is very little wind
resistance offered.
• A single row of trees with a height of 11 m could provide adequate protection for
horticultural trees against strong winds on the leeward side and about 50 m on the
windward side on hillsides. An impenetrable windbreaks is estimated to give
protection for a distance equivalent to 6-8 times its height. The trees can be planted
close to one another and thinned as they grow larger.
• In hilly areas, a windbreak serves also as a buffer strip to minimize erosion. Along
rivers, creeks and streams, it serves as a bank protection. It would be advantageous
if windbreaks can serve other purpose, aside from wind protection or erosion control,
such as producing a crop of its own, as source of firewood or green manure or as a
living fence .

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 Shelterbelts
• Windbreaks should be planted at right angles to the direction of prevailing
winds in order to be effective. On sloping land, the windbreaks should follow
the contour. Roads should not be in line with the direction of the prevailing
wind where the road crosses the line of windbreaks, to minimize gaps in the
windbreaks.
• If the farm grows annuals or trees that are newly established, hedges should
be planted between the row of trees used as windbreaks. Hedges for
windbreaks should be easy to propagate and maintain and can regenerate
easily after heavy pruning . Katuray and ipil-ipil , when pruned to 4 m height
regularly can be used for this purpose. The trimmings can be used as mulch for
the crops.

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 Shelterbelts
• In places frequently visited by typhoons, 2 to 5 rows of windbreaks (
combination of tall and medium trees and hedges) have to be planted for
added protection, depending on the areas that could be spared for
windbreaks, frequency of typhoons and windbreaks used. The lower parts
of the shelterbelts provided with hedges should be more dense than the
middle and upper parts. The upper parts should allow the wind to pass but
reduces its velocity. Shelterbelts of this nature should have 65 percent shrubs,
20 percent medium- sized trees and 15 percent tall trees.
• Shelterbelts exhaust the soil of moisture and nutrients and can cast shade
in their immediate vicinity, thereby reducing considerably the total crop
area. To minimize root competition, cultivate deeply near the trees to prevent
the development of long shallow laterals and encourage deep rootings. The
space adjacent to the trees can be used as a lane. If the orchard is large, it
may be desirable to divide the area into blocks, with each block protected by
windbreaks. The effect of windbreaks may extend to a distance of 100 m
beyond this edge.

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 Example of Horticultural Species for Windbreaks
• Tall Trees • Shrubs
• Java Plum – Syzgium cumini • Bougainvillea – Bougainvillea
• Pili – Canarium ovatum spectabilis
• Santol- Sandoricum koetjape • Pigeon pea- Cajanus cajan
• Starapple- Chrysophyllum cainito
• Tamarind- Tamarindus indica

• Medium-Size Trees
• Jackfruit- Artocarpus
heterophyllus
• Kamachile- Pithecellobium dulce

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 Example of Non-Horticultural Species for
Windbreaks
• Tall Tees • Dapdap- Erythrina spp.
• Agoho- Casuarina equisefolia • Ficus- Ficus benjamina
• Antipolo- Artocarpus blancoi • Ipil-ipil- Leucaena leucocephala
• Eucalyptus- Eucalyptus botryoides • Kakawate- Gliricidia sepium
• Molave- Vitex parviflora • Kamagong- Diospyros philippinensis
• Narra- Pterocarpus indicus • Neem- Azadirachta indica
• Teak- Tectona grandis
• Shrubs and Bamboos
• Medium-Size Trees • Aroma- Acacia farnesiana
• Akleng Parang- Albizia procera • Boho- Schizostachyum lumampao
• Banaba- Lagerstroemia speciose • Kawayan- Bambusa sp.
• Cassia- Cassia siamea

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 PLANTATION
ESTABLISHMENT

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 Site Selection
• Topography/Relief
• Level to nearly level (0 to 3% slope)
• Gently sloping to undulating (3 to 8%)
• Moderately sloping (8 to 15%)

• Areas could be:

• Alienable or disposable with 2nd growth forest
• Open grassland
• Those already under cultivation or existing plantations that need
replanting
• Agricultural areas
• Backyards

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 Important Terms
• Location – refers to the geographical position or the place
where the enterprise is located in relation to a city, town or
highway or another point of designation
• Site- refers to the actual place where any given crop is
produced. Site is associated with microclimatic influences
and a particular soil type within a specific location.
Microclimate is the climate within a small area.
• Topography- or relief refers to the flatness or steepness of
the land and other features of the ground.

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 Establishment of Orchard or Plantation
• If a new orchard or plantation is to be started in a forested area, clearing has
to be done first. This may be done by total clearing or selective clearing
• In total clearing, all standing vegetation in the area is cut down.
While this facilitates planting and future operations of the orchard/
plantation, this is ecologically unfavorable as well as probably illegal.
• In selective clearing, the low-growing plants are cut first, then the
trees are selectively cut to allow some shade for initial establishment
of the new seedlings.
• If the area to be developed is cogonal, plowing and harrowing
alternately several times becomes necessary. Drainage canals have
to be laid out if necessary

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 Establishment of Orchard or Plantation
• In establishing an orchard or plantation, a planting plan has to be made for the
following reasons :
To aid in determining the number of trees to order or to prepare
To have a record of varieties and replacements
To help in planning irrigation and use of equipment in orchard or
plantations
To pinpoint turning areas of machines.

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 Establishment of Orchard or Plantation
Areas on slope that is prone to erosion, the following should be done:
1. Do selective clearing not total clearing
2. Contour cultivation and terracing
3. Flat areas where drainage problem will be encountered, drainage canal
should be provided
4. Clearing the area could be done thru mowing using tractor, grass cutter
or the use of herbicides for flat areas. Clearing is necessary to carryout
planting and straight-row planting
5. Sloping areas, clearing is done only to areas where the seedlings are to
be planted and in portion where vegetation stands in a way making
row alignment

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 PLANTING
SYSTEMS

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Planting Distance
• In orchards and plantations where water is available or rainfall is evenly distributed throughout
the year and capital is not a limiting factor, it is possible to decrease the distance of planting
two to ten times and get a higher yield per unit area and maximize utilization of the land. The
very close planting is called HIGH DENSITY PLANTING. This is practiced in mango, citrus,
rambutan, coffee and durian.
• In mango, planting at 4-5 m distance is practiced. During the first 2-3 years, training of trees is
done to from good canopies. This is achieved by regular removal of the terminal bud of the
shoot by pinching to initiate the development of lateral buds. In addition, when the trees reach
a height of 2-2.5m, their tops are cut to control height.
Planting Distance
• Planting distances must be determined by the area occupied by the canopy
when the tree is mature. In addition this depends on the following
• Fertility and depth of the soil
• Planting materials; seed or asexually propagated
• Variety
• Available moisture
• Whether filler trees are to be used.
• Planting distance can be decreased when the soil is fertile and deep and water
is sufficient. In shallow, infertile and moisture-stressed soils, plants especially
perennials require a wider area in which to extend their roots to obtain
adequate nutrients and moisture.
• Asexually propagated plants can be generally by planted at narrow spacing
because they tend to be smaller than those raised from seeds.
SQUARE SYSTEM
• The most common system of planting that one can observe in an orchard or
plantation because it is the simplest to lay out and makes operations easy be
mechanical means.
• If filler trees are to be added, one may be set between every two trees in a
row and another row of fillers set between each two permanent rows.
• If the permanent trees are 10 m x 10 m apart, then with filler trees, the
distance becomes 5 x 5 m. the number of trees that can be planted in an area
can be computed by using the following formula :

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 =
𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝐴
𝑁𝑃 = 2
𝑆
 RECTANGULAR SYSTEM
• If the rows are wider than the distance between trees in row, then the resultant
arrangement is a rectangle. The only modification in the formula is that S2
becomes distance between trees multiplied by distance between rows.

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝑹𝒐𝒘𝒔 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝑯𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝐴
𝑁𝑃 =
𝐷𝐵𝑅 × 𝐷𝐵𝐻

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 QUINCUNX OR DIAGONAL SYSTEM
• The quincunx or diagonal system makes use of a square with and additional (5th) tree in the center.
• Thus, a square system can be made into quincunx by placing a tree in the middle of the square. There
will be maximum utilization of the area during early growing and fruiting years.
• However, when the trees become large and start crowding one another, removal of the 5th trees may
become necessary. Furthermore, a larger tree population can be planted in an area using the
quincunx system compared with the square system. However, carrying out of different cultural
operations mechanically on the diagonal system is difficult, especially if the land is not flat. The
number of plants needed for an area can be calculated as follows :

Np= A/S2 + ( L/S-1) ( W / S-1)

• Where :
L= Length of the area W= Width of the area
S2= square of planting distance A= Area Np= Number of plants

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 HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR SYSTEM
• Trees are planted equidistant to one another from every direction to form an
equilateral triangle. This arrangement results in a greater number of trees per
unit area than the square system. Use of land is maximized by this method.
However, it does not lend itself well to the use of filler trees.
• The number of plants to a unit area can be calculated as follows :

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 =
𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔

𝐴
𝑁𝑃 = 2
𝑆 × 0.866

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 CONTOUR OR TERRACE SYSTEM
• Applied in the hillsides; Its main purpose is to prevent or reduce erosion and in
some instances to conserve moisture between the tree rows.
• It is a system of cultivation in which tillage is made across the slope following
the contour lines. The rows or plants along a contour lines occupies a common
or the same elevation. Different rows occupies different elevations.
• For better water conservation and to make even more effective the control of
water flow and erosion, strip planting with closely spaced plants of a
appropriate species can be done. Such planting will constitute a hedgerow. A
strip may be one or two hedgerows of ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala),
Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), Albacia falcataria and Parkia roxburghii, and
vitever grass (Viteveria zizanioides)

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 PLANTING
• Fruits and plantation crops are planted first in individual containers and later
transplanted in the field. One should be careful to prevent the soil form crumblings.
Transplanting should be done in a short period of time to prevent drying up.
• In areas that have a long dry season, trees should be planted immediately before or at
the start of the wet season so as to take advantage of the longest possible period of
growth with adequate moisture. The root system is then covered with the top soil all
around and packed closely by thumping to insure that no large spaces are left. For
best results, some amount of fertilizer or organic matter should be placed at the
bottom of the planting hole and covered with a thin layer of soil before setting the
seedling in it. If large planting materials are used, the tree should be set 2.5-5 cm
deeper than it stood in the container. However, this should not be done for grafted
plants with low point of union, especially citrus.
• Watering should be done after planting. Pruning of the top portion can be done to
prevent too much loss of water from the plants. The amount to be pruned depends on
the amount of roots lost during planting, the amount of water available and climatic
conditions prevailing in the area

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 PLANTING
• Prior to planting banana, the basal suckers can either be soaked in water from
a few hours to a day before planting or wrapped in plastic sheets for a few
days. This results in faster development of roots after planting during the dry
season
• For crops needing shade trees such as abaca, lanzones , black pepper, coffee
and cacao, a temporary shade crops such as pigeon pea or banana can be
planted. Pigeon pea is fast growing and has added advantage of being and has
the added advantage of being able to fix nitrogen. Gliricidia is a popular
support and shade tree of black pepper. It is always advisable to plant shade
crops way ahead of the desired crop in order to provide adequate shade
during the growing period.
• Direct planting could be done to some whose seeds germinate easily. Ex.
Papaya

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 PLANTING
• Transplanting
• For those seeds take longer time to germinate
and may need scarification- pili, rambutan, chico,
• Those seeds are expensive
• Those which are asexually propagated-mango,
citrus etc
• Providing shade to seedling
• Provide temporary shade like pigeon pea to lanzones, rambutan, durian, and
cacao. Later permanent shade like madre de cacao can be provided. However,
only lanzones among mentioned that need shade at maturity

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 High Density planting of fruits and
plantation trees
• High density planting is accompanied by high management inputs
which include some important operations like:
• Regular pinching of the terminal bud of the shoot to promote the
development of lateral buds; cutting of the top when the plant reaches
2 to 2.5 m in height
• Pruning terminal shoots several weeks after completing the first
harvest.
• Application of fertilizer and the irrigation water immediately after
pruning to induce the development of new shoots as potential bearers
for the next season.
• Induction of flowering whenever as possible
• Pruning of crown to maintain a height of 6 to 7 m and prevent
overlapping of canopies of adjacent mangoes.

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SOIL MANAGEMENT
CROPPING SYSTEM
 CROPPING SYSTEM
• Monocropping is generally used in large commercial
production of crops like pineapple, rubber, oil palm, citrus
and others.
• This system usually results in higher yields , but higher inputs
are also needed for crop protection, irrigation and
fertilization, among others.
• It concentrates the risk of loss or economic fluctuation on
one crop alone. For a small farmers, taking such as a risk may
not be appropriate unless he has other sources of income

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
• Multiple cropping- in the Philippines, the system of land
inheritance results in fragmentation of land areas; hence
landholding are small.
• Multiple cropping has grown out of necessity. It makes
more efficient use of the land area and sunlight; this
increases the yield/ unit area and controls erosions in hilly
lands, especially if it is accompanied by proper fertilization
and irrigation. Harvest is also spread over the year and makes
available over an extended period.

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
• Disadvantage of Multiple Cropping
• Increased labor component
• Large amounts of nutrients and moisture needed
• Great difficulty in eradicating insect pests and diseases,
in the sense that different control measures will have to
be used for the different crops involved.

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
Types of Multiple Cropping Systems
• Succession cropping- growing two or more crops one after
another
• If there is a regular succession of such crops being followed for
two or more years, it is specifically termed as Crop Rotation.
• Example- the growing of garlic or watermelon after
harvesting rice in Central and Northern Luzon is an
example of crop rotation.
• Pechay followed by green onions
• Cabbage followed by snap beans
• Potato followed by cabbage

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
Types of Multiple Cropping Systems
• Relay Cropping- planting a crop in the same piece of land as
another crop is about to be harvested.
• Examples- planting of sitao near the hills of corn before
harvesting the ears.
• Intercropping, Companion Cropping or Mixed Cropping- the
growing of two or more crops together on the same piece of land.
• If the different crops are grown in alternate rows the system is
called intercropping or companion cropping
• If they are grown without definite arrangement , the term is
mixed cropping.

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
• Factors to consider in intercropping
• The intercrop should not retard the growth of the main crop
• It should not harbor disease or insect pest that would affect the main
crop.
• It should not draw labor or resources required for the main crop
• Harvesting the intercrop should not affect the roots or another part
of the main crop
• Fertilizers applied should be sufficient for both the main crop and
intercrop.

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 CROPPING SYSTEM
• Coconut is an ideal crop to combine with other crops. Its leaf arrangement
and the narrow elongated shape of its leaflets allow sufficient light to pass
through to support a satisfactory growth of crops. Intercropping with coconut
results in increased yields of nuts owing to more careful attention given to
weeding , cultivation and fertilization of the intercrops.
• Multi-storey intercropping pattern under coconut. This is exemplified by
planting pineapple under papaya; cacao, coffee, black pepper, lanzones ,
jackfruit, or banana in between rows of coconut.
• Banana is another valuable crop used in intercropping scheme of
horticultural perennials. Aside from giving early income to the farmer it
provides shade at the initial stage of the establishment of coffee, cacao,
lanzones, and rambutan while the main crop is still small.
• Other horticultural crops can be profitably grown under coconut are bush and
pole sitao (longbeans), cowpea, ginger, gabi (taro), eggplant and patola.

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FERTILIZATION
 FERTILIZER PROGRAM
• The fertility of the soil can be built up in four ways:
1. The soil can be rested for one year every 7-8 years and the necessary
soil ameliorants ( fertilizer, lime, some organic and inorganic
additives) are applied
2. Plant nutrients can be replenished once in each cropping system
adding an extra amount of fertilizer
3. Individual crops can be fertilized in amounts that will increase the
supply of nutrients to high level, and
4. Green manuring

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS
• Are either inorganic or organic.
• Chemicals that contain carbon is called organic fertilizer in a
chemical sense. Example is urea.
• Natural organic fertilizer on the other hand, also contains
carbon but derived from living organisms
• Inorganic fertilizers release great quantities of nutrient
elements that can be easily absorbed by the roots. The
results of application can be seen within a few days in annual
crops but a much longer time in perennial crops

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS
•Nitrogen
•Phosphorus
•Potassium
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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS:
Organic Fertilizers
• The real value of organic fertilizer lies predominantly in its favorable
action on the physical structure of the soil. The soil is enriched with
humus by the decomposing organic matter. It becomes loosened and
aerated , improving its capacity to retain water and nutrient. It thus
enable the crop to survive dry season better.
• Natural organics are difficult to obtain in large quantities and are bulky,
messy and costly to store or to transport over long distance.
• For example 25-50 kg of cattle manure or compost is recommended
per coconut tree per year.
• In addition, the growth-promoting effects of natural organics can be
seen over a longer period of time than those of the inorganic
fertilizers.

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS:
Organic Fertilizers
• The most common natural organic fertilizer in the Philippines are chicken
manure, hog manure and guano (bats or seabirds manure)
• Chicken manure is used extensively in the province of Benguet for vegetable
production. It is brought from the lowlands where poultry raising is common.
The farmers usually apply 20-30 tons of chicken manure per ha in addition to
chemical fertilizers.
• Hog manure is getting popular for growing ornamentals, especially in southern
Tagalog area. Water mixed with a small amount of well-decomposed hog
manure is being used to water orchids and anthuriums with good results.
• Guano can be found in may areas of the Philippines and is used for vegetable
and ornamental production to a limited extent as a source of nitrogen or
phosphorus. It contains about 8% N and 5-30% phosphorus as P2O5.

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS:
Organic Fertilizers
• The by-product of the commercial extraction of oil from copra (copra meal)
castor (castor pumace) and lumbang (lumbang meal) are also high in N and can
be used as fertilizer.
• Although rice straw abound, it has not been utilized extensively. It contains
only 0.74%N
• Peat -abundant in the lakeshores of Cotabato, Samar, and Cagayan, is another
organic fertilizer that is yet to be tapped. Peat is organic matter accumulated in
the soil due to absence of favorable conditions for complete decomposition.
Nutrient content varies from 5 to 20% N with some amount of P and K.
• Rubber bowl sludge, the sludge precipitate that forms in the preparation of
concentrated latex, has 7.54%N, 37.43% P2O5, 2.49% K2O and 20.11% MgO.

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS:
Organic Fertilizers
• For farm wastes, many weed seeds that might have been incorporated are
killed by the heat liberated during the composting process
• Toxins, if any, are liberated during the decomposing process. Toxic water-
soluble substances from sugar can bagasse are no longer present in bagasse
that has been left by itself for 5 months or more.
• Decomposed materials do not rob plants of N.
• Heat liberated during the process of decomposition increases soils temperature
thereby affecting the root system.

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 KINDS OF FERTILIZERS:
Organic Fertilizers
• The process of allowing organic residues to decompose first before their
application is called composting.
• One alternative to composting for horticultural tree seedlings at transplanting
time is to put plants wastes and manure in a hole a mater and half deep, then
cover with some soil before planting the seedlings.

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 Determining Fertilizer Needs
• Theoretically, if the soil is fertile, the grower must replace whatever amounts
of nutrients the plants absorbed from the soil in order to maintain the high
level of fertility of the soil.
• The amount absorbed varies with the climate, age of the plant, stage of plant
development, soil fertility, method of growing the plant and yield.
• If the soil is not fertile, then the amounts necessary for the growth of the
crops should be supplied.
• A healthy, vigorous, growth of weeds is indicative of a fertile soil. If the growth
is rather poor, definitely the soil is not fertile.
• The color of the soil might also give a clue to the fertility of the soil, although
not always.

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 Application of Fertilizer
• Fertilizer should be applied as close as possible but not touching the roots or seeds so as not to
physically adversely affect root growth or germination. It should be supplied when the nutrients
are most needed, usually at early vegetative stage and at flowering or fruiting time.
• For rainfed areas, application of fertilizer is done when there is still moisture in the soil. For
established perennial crops grown in areas with uniform distribution of rainfall during the year or in
sandy soils, or where there is irrigation, the required fertilizer dosage can be applied in three to
four applications at 3-4 months interval.
• In areas where distinct wet and dry seasons occur, application of fertilizer is done twice a year. The
first application is done at the start of the rainy season and the other half near the end of the rainy
season.
• The usual practice in applying chemical fertilizer at planting time for direct-seeded annual
vegetables and ornamentals is to place half-or 1/3 of the fertilizer at the bottom of the furrows,
cover it slightly with soil and then plant the seed. During the growing stage of the crop, the
fertilizer can be applied on the surface of the soil between rows with shallow cultivation

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 Application of Fertilizer
• The rest of the fertilizer can be applied during vegetative growth, before,
flowering or during fruit development. The area must be free from weeds so
as to limit crop and weed competition for the nutrients. For transplanted
crops, a starter solution will enable the plant to get established quickly.
• For established trees, easily dissolved fertilizers like urea and ammonium
sulfate can be broadcast, i.e. scattered uniformly around the tree..
• For big trees, fertilizers are best applied in pockets or holes spaced regularly
around the tree, as the circumference of the trench around the tree would be
necessary be large, and it would be more difficult to distribute the fertilizer
uniformly in a trench.

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 Application of Fertilizer
• The extent of the root system in perennial crops provides information on where to place the
fertilizer. In mature lanzones, the greatest concentration of feeder roots occurs in an area 1.5m
away from the trunk of the trees ; whereas in cacao and citrus, most of the feeler roots are 0.6-0.9
m away from the trunk.
• In young abaca, most of the root occur within the first 0.3 m radius from the trunk; in mature abaca
and banana, the greatest concentration of roots is found in the 0.6 m radius. These areas are well
within the canopy of the plant.
• Cashew has very wide lateral spread of roots. At maximum bearing stage, the lateral extent of the
roots has been shown to be two times greater than its canopy, but the concentration of the feeder
roots is more important.
• In other horticultural trees, where the concentration of feeder roots is not known, apply well within
the area covered by the canopy. For abaca and banana, there is no need to bury the fertilizer
because it is not exposed to extreme volatilization from too much sunlight. In addition, the roots of
the crops are shallow. .

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 Application of Fertilizer
• Direct contact of fertilizer to the plant parts should be avoided, unless the
chemicals is diluted. Watering of the whole plant immediately follows the
application of fertilizers.
• Fertilizers in diluted amounts can be applied to the leaves as foliar sprays,
especially when there are symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies. Urea or
ammonium sulfate in very diluted amounts (0.5 tsp/gal) can be sprayed to
orchids every week during their vegetative stage.
• When fertilizing potted plants, it is best to incorporated the fertilizer into the
soil at some distance from the stem of the plant.

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 COMPOSTING
• The composting process involves the decomposition of organic materials to
form small bits of organic matter called compost.
• The whole process is done by organisms that use organic matter principally as
a source of carbon and secondarily as a source of nitrogen and other elements
for their growth and reproduction.
• Therefore, the two requirements for the process to occur are (1) composting
materials and (2) decomposers.

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 COMPOSTING
• Trichoderma harzianum is a locally available fungus that shortens the composting process
from not less than 4 months to only 3-5 weeks
• Microorganisms need adequate water, C, N and small amounts of other elements. Most
microorganisms also need adequate oxygen. If there is too much water in a compost pile,
such as what happens during the rainy season, oxygen becomes limiting.
• The higher the temperature within certain limits , the faster is the activity of
microorganism. Thus composting in the lowlands proceed at a much faster rate than in the
highlands.
• A 10-cm layer of soil all over a compost pile is very effective in keeping off the odor of the
decomposing pile.

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 GREEN MANURING
• If the source of organic matter comes from plant grown at the site where it is
needed and then plowed under before flowering and allowed to decompose,
the practice is called green manuring.
• If it is decomposed away from the site where it is needed and added to the site
at planting later, then the practice is more specifically called composting.
• If the plant to be incorporated is not grown at the site where it is needed, the
practice is called green leaf manuring.
• The success of green manuring depends on the absence of competition with the
main crop for water. At the start of the dry season, the green manure plants
should be cut down and hoed in, if there is no supply of irrigation water. Growing
it in the site where it is needed should not results in a loss of a season’s economic
crop but rather utilization of a site that is not ordinarily cropped.

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GREEN MANURING
• An ideal green manure crop is fast-growing, produces large amounts of
organic matter even on poor soil, contains a high amount of N, is easily
decomposed , self-seeding, disease-resistant and has an extensive root system
• Fertilizing the green manure crop to improve its vegetative yield results in
higher yield of the crop which the green manure is applied. However, the
addition of fertilizer has to be economically profitable. For faster effect, a
green manure crop has to be turned under flowering when it has produced
maximum vegetative growth and when it is most succulent.

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WATER
MANAGEMENT
The application of water a proper time and removal of excess supply
through proper drainage in order to sustain crop production.
Factors Determining Suitable Irrigation Programs
• Soil factors
• The main soil factors involved are soil structure, texture and depth.
• Soils of different textures vary in their ability to hold water and in the percolation (downward movement) of
water through the soil.
• Sandy soils can hold lesser amounts of water than loamy and clayey soils and allow a faster percolation.
Deeper soils can hold more water than shallow soils.
• Crumbly soils can absorb more water than compact soils.
• Climatic Factors
• The climatic factors for consideration are temperature, hours and intensity of sunshine, RH , wind
movement and rainfall.
• Any climatic factors that increases transpiration and evaporation of water such as hot, dry and windy
conditions essentially increase the need for irrigation.
• Intensity of sunshine can be indirectly managed by multiple cropping. Wind movement can also be
indirectly managed by the use of windbreaks. Likewise , rainfall can be indirectly managed by increasing the
waterholding capacity of the soil through the addition of organic matter.
Factors Determining Suitable Irrigation Programs
• Rooting Characteristics
• The capacity for absorption of water depends on the depth and proliferation of the root
system. Shallow-rooted or few-rooted plants by nature or due to management practices can
absorb only the water that is near the surface.
• The deeper the root system of a plant, the better it can utilize water at the lower depths of the soil
and the longer it can thrive without addition of water.
• As a general rule, vegetables, annual ornamentals, and newly planted horticultural trees need
more frequent irrigation tan established horticultural trees because of their shallow roots.
• Examples of shallow-rooted crops – cabbage, onion, garlic, gladiolus, African daisy, rose,
strawberry and black pepper.
• While it is generally assumed that the horticultural trees are deep-rooted at optimum bearing
stage, most of their feeder roots are in the top 60 cm of soil such as lanzones, coffee, and cacao.
Critical Growth Stages When Irrigation is Most Needed
• Plants use small quantities of water during the early stages of growth and reach the peak in
water demand at flowering up to early fruiting stage. The demand decreases toward maturation.
Any considerable stress when flowers, fruit or seed formation commences will result in fewer and
small-sized fruits or seeds. Tomato is most sensitive to water deficit at fruiting stage than at any
other stage.
• For established horticultural trees, application of supplemental water when it is lacking is
beneficial during flashes of new growth before blossom break ( appearance of flower buds), after
the blooming period, and when the fruit is rapidly increasing in size. In most tree species (e.g.
mango, rambutan, durian and citrus) such a practice induces a heavy fruit set and an early vegetative
flush which is important for next year’s flowering and fruiting. In coconut grown in sandy soil,
irrigation during the dry months arrest button (flower) shedding and premature nut fall and improves
female flower production and fruit set, resulting in increased yields.
• Irrigation after a dry spell of more than one month has been observed to induce early flowering in
lanzones, citrus, durian, lychee, anonas, rambutan, coffee, and citrus.

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Critical Growth Stages When Irrigation is Most Needed
• Adequate supply of water, however, is needed for the flowers to develop. It seems that the flower
buds remain dormant during water stress and application of water would break the dormancy. It also
appears that a period of water stress even for a short period of time is necessary for coffee and
lanzones trees before irrigation to induce heavy flowering.
• Without water stress, the flowers, the flowers will emerged at the regular flowering season, but
fail to develop, seemingly entering a secondary dormancy state. Eventually, the flower buds will
open when the flower buds are soaked on a rain shower
• For banana, irrigation water is applied to compensate for any deficiency in rainfall requirement
of 12-18cm a month for optimum production. Reduction in the amount of water available results in
smaller bunch size , fewer number of hands and fingers, and shorter fingers.

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Determination of Irrigation Schedules
• Irrigation schedules based on soil and water measurements
• The level of soil water supply is measured by gravimetry, tensiometer or electrical resistance
blocks.
• In gravimetric measurement, samples are taken with a soil collecting instrument like an
auger or soil probe, form a depth where most of the roots are located. The moisture content
of the soil is obtained by oven-drying and getting the percentage of water in the sample
• A tensiometer is a device which measures the amount of force that the plant root exerts to
remove moisture from the soil particles at a depth of maximum root activity
• An electrical resistance block determines moisture content by measuring the electrical
conductance or resistance between electrodes inserted in the blocks

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Determination of Irrigation Schedules
• Irrigation schedule based on evapotranspiration rate
• The method must provide accurate values of evapotranspiration over short-time intervals.
Evaporative devices can be installed in a centrally located place for daily reporting to farmers in
an irrigation project or to those concerned in a large farm.
• The amount lost by the crop through transpiration is also measured by weighing samples or by a
device called photometer.
• A budget sheet is usually used to calculate the amount necessary to be added. The daily
requirement of the crop is subtracted from the amount of rain that fall is added. Thus the
amount of moisture left is calculated and since the amount to be maintained is known, the
amount to be added is the difference between the two.

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Determination of Irrigation Schedules
• Irrigation schedule based on calculations
• This necessitates knowledge of the field capacity, permanent wilting percentage, bulk/ specific gravity
and effective depth of rooting, all of which requires measurement.
• Field capacity- is the amount of water that is held by the soil at maximum capacity after excess
water has drained
• Permanent wilting percentage- is the percentage of water held when the plant wilts
permanently, even when additional water is supplied.
• Available water-calculated as the amount of water held between field capacity and permanent
wilting point divided by 100, and the whole is multiplied by the bulk density/ specific gravity of
the soil and depth of effective rooting.
• The depth of water, which can be depleted before the crop is adversely affected , is then computed.
The actual evapotranspiration rate has to be known also for the calculation of the irrigation intervals.

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 Other Determinants:
•Temporary Wilting
•Color of Foliage
•Rate of Plant Growth
•Feel of the Soil

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Methods of Irrigation
• Surface Irrigation
• In furrow or channel irrigation, water is applied in small channels or furrows, which are low areas formed
between ridges or beds on which the crops are grown. From these furrows , the water percolates
horizontally into the soil. For greater effectivity , the furrows should run directly down uniform , relatively
flat slopes of not more than 3% (3m increase height of the land per 100 m distance).
• Overhead Irrigation
• In overhead irrigation, water is applied either in the form of fine mist (spraying ) or spray stimulating
(sprinkling). Water may be manually applied by the use of a watering can mechanically applied under
pressure and predetermined intervals.
• Sprinkler irrigation requires a series of pipes with nozzles. It could use automaitic rotary sprinklers,
oscillators or a perforated pipe system. .
• Drip Irrigation
• Drip or trickle irrigation is a popular method of irrigation in developed countries where in areas where
surface water is scarce, or saline, or where soil is coarse-textured. The system moves the water in plastic
piping by pumping through a main to laterals, then sub-laterals and eventually through a very fine tube to
each individual plants where it releases a continuous drip or mini-spray through a microsprinkler when
irrigation is needed. The areas between rows of plants remain dry.

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