ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A MEDIUM

DUCTILE G+10 APARTMENT BUILDING
WITH COMMENTARY

A Thesis in Civil and Environmental Engineering

July 2, 2018 G.C.

Addis Ababa

A Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
The undersigned have examined the thesis entitled ‘Structural Design of a Medium

Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary’ presented by

1. Anbesu Brhanu (Section 03) ATR/3999/06

2. Eden Binega (Section 01) ATR/4546/06
3. Eleni Araya (Section 01) ATR/2049/06
4. Firaol Chalchisa (Section 04) ATR/3635/06

Candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Science and hereby certify that it is worthy of

acceptance.

Ato. Firesenay Zerabruk

Advisor Signature Date

Internal Examiner Signature Date

External Examiner Signature Date

Chair person Signature Date

iii
 UNDERTAKING

We certify that research work titled “Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10
Apartment Building with Commentary” is our own work. The work has not been
presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material has been used from other sources it
has been properly acknowledged / referred.

Name Signature
Anbesu Brhanu
Eden Binega
Eleni Araya
Firaol Chalchisa

iv
 ABSTRACT

This final year project paper covers the design of G+10 apartment building with medium
ductility class according to ES-EN. The building is located in Addis Ababa with a story
height of 3.2 m. Design an economical & structurally adequate building and enhance our
knowledge on medium ductility class buildings ae the main goals of this project. The
paper starts with a summary about basic design criteria outlined in ES-EN 1990:2015.
Then the preliminary design check and cover design have been covered in chapter two of
this paper. Slab design and stair design have been designed in accordance with ES-EN
1992:2015. Solid slab was selected since the building is a medium ductility class. The
analysis used for slab was coefficient method of analysis. Beyond its simplicity in
calculation during supervision coefficient method is more conservative and simple when
placing slab reinforcement than other methods of slab analysis. Brief comparison of yield
line, coefficient and strip method of slab analysis has been done. Earthquake analysis and
design for a medium ductile building & why it is preferable than a low ductile building
was discussed on the succeeding chapters. At the commencement it includes a summary
of fundamental principles of earthquake, damage limit state & serviceability limit state,
method of analysis, criteria for selection of the analysis method, evaluation of regularity
in plan & elevation and design for Ductility Class Medium (DCM). In the linear elastic
analysis, lateral force method of analysis was selected. Calculation of base shear force,
center of mass, distribution of the horizontal seismic force and accidental torsional
effects have been performed using ES-EN 1998:2015. Beam and column design was
done based on capacity design philosophy in accordance to ES-EN 1998:2015. At last
the design of foundation was done. Isolated footing was selected due to the rigid ground
condition. At the end, to see the design of steel structures a roof system of a warehouse
has been designed.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, we wish to express our gratitude to the almighty GOD for giving us strength to
work on this final year graduation project.

We are deeply indebted to our advisor Engineer Firesenay Zerabruk, Professional

Structural Engineer and Instructor at Addis Ababa institute of Technology (AAiT), for
his whole-hearted supervision. He has provided a huge amount of his precious time and
effort for us. We feel really lucky to be able to experience his guidance and support.

Engineer Firesenay Zerabruk has been extraordinarily tolerant and supportive for every
topic raised on the project without any restriction of time and day. The insightful
comments and suggestions he gave made us challenge ourselves to work hard. Most of
all, his deep concern for us to be fair, thoughtful and realistic future Civil Engineers is
extremely admirable.

We are overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge our previous

Civil Engineering Department instructors and seniors for their willingness to make our
project journey fruitful.

We would like to also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to Addis
Ababa institute of Technology (AAiT) for arranging and following up the project.

At last we would like to thank our family, friends and work colleagues.

The group members,

July 2018 G.C.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNDERTAKING ........................................................................................................... IV

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... V

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................. VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. VII

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ XII

LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................XIV

ACRONYM .............................................................................................................. XVIII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Uncertainty ................................................................................................... 1

1.1.2 Reliability ..................................................................................................... 3

1.1.3 Limit State design ......................................................................................... 4

1.2 Objective of the thesis .......................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN................................................................ 10

2.1 Evaluation of the architectural drawing ............................................................. 10

2.2 Concrete cover design ........................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 Concrete cover design for slab ................................................................... 11

2.2.2 Concrete cover design for beam ................................................................. 14

2.2.3 Concrete cover design for stair ................................................................... 14

2.2.4 Concrete cover design for foundation......................................................... 14

2.2.5 Concrete cover design for column .............................................................. 14

CHAPTER 3 SLAB ANLYSIS AND DESIGN ...................................................... 15

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 15

3.2 Criteria for using coefficient method of slab analysis ....................................... 22
3.3 Slab depth determination ................................................................................... 24
3.4 Load calculation ................................................................................................. 26
3.4.1 Live (imposed) load .................................................................................... 26

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 3.4.2 Dead load .................................................................................................... 26

3.4.3 Total design load......................................................................................... 28

3.5 Bending Moment calculation ............................................................................. 29

3.6 Bending moment adjustment ............................................................................. 30
3.7 Design of slab for flexure................................................................................... 34
3.8 Checking for shear ............................................................................................. 36
3.9 Load transfer to beam ........................................................................................ 37
CHAPTER 4 STAIR CASE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ...................................... 41

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 41

4.2 Model of the stair ............................................................................................... 42
4.3 Stair depth determination ................................................................................... 43
4.4 Loading .............................................................................................................. 44
4.4.1 Flight 1 and 2 .............................................................................................. 45

4.4.2 Landing ....................................................................................................... 47

4.5 Analysis .............................................................................................................. 49

4.5.1 Flight 1 Analysis ......................................................................................... 49

4.5.2 Flight 2 Analysis ......................................................................................... 50

4.6 Design ................................................................................................................ 51

4.6.1 Design of Flight 1 ....................................................................................... 51

4.6.2 Design of flight 2 ........................................................................................ 54

4.7 Crack control for stair ........................................................................................ 55

4.8 Load transfer to beams from stair ...................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS FOR EATHQUAKE RESISTANCE .......................... 63

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 63

5.2 Fundamental principles of seismic design ......................................................... 63
5.3 Reliability differentiation ................................................................................... 68
5.4 Compliance criteria ............................................................................................ 69
5.5 Earthquake analysis............................................................................................ 72
5.5.1 Criteria for selection of the analysis method .............................................. 73

5.5.2 Verifying regularity in plan and elevation .................................................. 73

5.5.3 Determination of base shear force .............................................................. 77

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 5.5.4 Distribution of base shear or horizontal seismic force ............................... 88

5.5.5 Accidental torsional effects ........................................................................ 92

CHAPTER 6 BASIC CONCEPT OF CAPACITY DESIGN ............................... 93

6.1.1 Design concepts .......................................................................................... 93

6.1.2 Design criteria ............................................................................................. 95

6.1.3 Conceptual design ..................................................................................... 102

6.1.4 Frames design for DCM ........................................................................... 102

6.1.5 Advantage of DCM over DCL ................................................................. 111

CHAPTER 7 FRAME ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 112

7.1 ETABS model description ............................................................................... 112

7.1.1 Material and section property ................................................................... 112

7.1.2 Property/stiffness modification factors ..................................................... 113

7.1.3 Diaphragm assigning ................................................................................ 113

7.1.4 ETABS model ........................................................................................... 114

7.1.5 Load combinations.................................................................................... 115

7.2 Imperfections ................................................................................................... 123

7.3 Safety verification ............................................................................................ 127
7.3.1 Ultimate limit state (no collapse requirement) ......................................... 127

7.3.2 Serviceability limit state (damage limitation requirement) ...................... 130

7.4 How to assign imperfection in ETABS............................................................ 132

CHAPTER 8 BEAM DESIGN ............................................................................... 134

8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 134

8.2 Flexural design of beam ................................................................................... 135
8.3 Shear design of beam ....................................................................................... 148
8.4 Detailing of beam ............................................................................................. 156
CHAPTER 9 COLUMN DESIGN ........................................................................ 159

9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 159

9.1.1 Classification of columns ......................................................................... 159

9.2 Design of column ............................................................................................. 161

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 9.2.1 Cover Design ............................................................................................ 161

9.2.2 Column capacity ....................................................................................... 164

9.2.3 Design of the column (Column at the first floor) ..................................... 165

9.2.4 Confinement for the base column ............................................................. 171

CHAPTER 10 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ................................ 174

10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 174

10.1.1 Shallow Foundation .................................................................................. 174

10.1.2 Deep Foundation ....................................................................................... 175

10.2 Design Philosophy ........................................................................................... 175

10.2.1 Load Resistance Factored Design (LRFD) ............................................... 175

10.2.2 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) ............................................................... 176

10.3 Design Combination for Isolated Footing ........................................................ 176

10.3.1 Design of Isolated Footing Eccentrically Loaded Pad base ..................... 176

CHAPTER 11 ROOF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ................................................ 191

11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 191

11.2 Dimensions of the roof ..................................................................................... 192
11.3 Design of EGA sheet........................................................................................ 192
11.3.1 Loading ..................................................................................................... 192

11.3.2 Selection of EGA sheet ............................................................................. 202

11.4 Analysis and design of purlin........................................................................... 202

11.4.1 Load Transfer to Purlin ............................................................................. 203

11.4.2 Load Combination .................................................................................... 204

11.4.3 Analysis and design using SAP ................................................................ 206

11.4.4 Comparison between Lattice Purlin, Standard RHS and I beam .............. 206

11.5 Analysis and design of truss............................................................................. 208

11.5.1 Optimized truss section............................................................................. 208

11.5.2 Loads on the node of the truss .................................................................. 209

11.5.3 Load combination ..................................................................................... 210

11.5.4 Analysis and design of the truss using SAP ............................................. 212

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 11.5.5 Design verification using hand calculation............................................... 213

11.6 Connections ...................................................................................................... 217

CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................. 220

12.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 220

12.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................. 220
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 221

APPENDIX A (RIGOROUS CRACK &DEFLECTION CALCULATION USING

OUR SOFTWARE ‘SLS’) ........................................................................................... 223

APPENDIX B (CENTER OF MASS CALCULATION) .......................................... 231

APPENDIX C (FLOWCHART OF EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS) ........................ 233

APPENDIX D (ITALIAN AND ETHIOPIAN EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE

HISTORY)..................................................................................................................... 235

APPENDIX E (SIMPLE BEAM DESIGN FOR DCL AND DCM)......................... 236

APPENDIX F (SWAY COLUMN VERIFICATION) .............................................. 239

APPENDIX G (SLENDER COLUMN VERIFICATION) ....................................... 243

APPENDIX H (SWAY FRAME VERIFICATION) ................................................. 244

APPENDIX I (ROOF SAP TRIALS) ......................................................................... 248

APPENDIX J (DETAILING) ...................................................................................... 250

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1: Checklist for evaluation criteria of the architectural drawing ......................... 10
Table 2-2: Summarized Concrete cover for structural members ...................................... 14
Table 3-1: Calculation of effective depth of each panel for deflection requirements ...... 25
Table 3-2: imposed load for category A building ............................................................. 26
Table 3-3 Loads from floor finish and own weight of the slab ........................................ 27
Table 3-4: loads from partitions on each panel ................................................................ 27
Table 3-5: Summary of design loads on each cantilever and slabs .................................. 28
Table 3-6: Bending Moment Calculation ......................................................................... 29
Table 3-7: Distribution factor calculation between panel 3 and 6 .................................... 31
Table 3-8: Adjusting moment at joint C panel 3 and 6..................................................... 31
Table 3-9: Distribution factor calculation between panel 1 and 2 .................................... 32
Table 3-10: Adjusting moment at joint C between panel 1 and 2 .................................... 32
Table 3-11: Distribution factor calculation between panel 4 and 7 ................................. 33
Table 3-12: Adjusting moment at joint between panel 4 and 7 ........................................ 33
Table 3-13: Summary of design reinforcement (Ast) calculation ................................... 35
Table 3-14: shear force coefficient for uniformly loaded rectangular panels supported on
four sides with provisions for torsion at corners .............................................................. 38
Table 3-15: Un-factored dead load transfer to beam .................................................... 38
Table 3-16: Un-factored live load transfer to beam.......................................................... 39
Table 3-17: Load transfer on the cantilever slab .............................................................. 39
Table 3-18: Load transfer from cantilever slabs on C2 and C6 ........................................ 40
Table 4-1 Stair section from architectural drawing .......................................................... 45
Table 4-2 Summarized result of flight 2 ........................................................................... 51
Table 5-1: Summary of the guiding principles of seismic design .................................... 64
Table 5-2: Consequences of structural regularity on seismic analysis and design (ES-EN
1998, Article 4.2.3.1 Table 4.1) ........................................................................................ 73
Table 5-3: Summary of center of mass and weight of each story .................................... 87
Table 5-4: Seismic weight calculation .............................................................................. 89
Table 5-5: Distribution of the horizontal seismic force .................................................... 90
Table 7-1: material and section properties used in the ETABs model ........................... 112
Table 7-2: Transverse forces due to geometric imperfection ......................................... 127

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Table 7-3: Inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient calculation ........................................ 129
Table 7-4:The calculation for the remaining story ......................................................... 132
Table 8-1: Area of reinforcement from hand calculation and ETABS ........................... 148
Table 8-2: VED from hand calculation and ETABS ........................................................ 152
Table 8-3: Summary of moment and reinforcement for Beam AB ................................ 158
Table 10-1 Applied Column Loads and Moments ......................................................... 178
Table 10-2: Punching shear checking in the critical periphery ...................................... 189
Table 11-1: Area of each zone for wind direction θ= 0 and θ= 90 ................................. 199
Table 11-2: External wind pressure for duo pitched roof with an angle of 15 ᵒ angle pitch
........................................................................................................................................ 200
Table 11-3: Net wind pressure for θ= 0 .......................................................................... 201
Table 11-4: Net wind pressure for θ= 90 ........................................................................ 201
Table 11-5: Summary of selected EGA sheet parameter values .................................... 202
Table 11-6: Summary of load on purlin ......................................................................... 204
Table 11-7: Line load calculation ................................................................................... 204
Table 11-8: Selected purlin section properties ............................................................... 208
Table 11-9 Horizontal and vertical components of the unfactored reactions at the purlin
........................................................................................................................................ 210
Table A-12-1: Summary of output ................................................................................. 230

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Classification of Actions .................................................................................. 4

Figure 1-2: Representative values of actions ...................................................................... 5
Figure 3-1: Two-way slab ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 3-2: Two-way slab bending in two directions ....................................................... 18
Figure 3-3: Model of slab system ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-4: Slab layout ..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-5: thickness of floor finish and slab ................................................................... 27
Figure 3-6: Design load on cantilever one ........................................................................ 28
Figure 3-7: Unadjusted moment distribution .................................................................... 30
Figure 3-8: Unbalanced moment between panel 3 and 6 ................................................. 31
Figure 3-9: Unbalanced moment between panel 1 and 2 ................................................. 32
Figure 3-10: Unbalanced moment between panel 4 and 7 ............................................... 32
Figure 3-11 Balanced moment distribution ...................................................................... 33
Figure 3-12: Dead Load on cantilever 1 ........................................................................... 40
Figure 3-13: Live load on cantilever 1 ............................................................................. 40
Figure 4-1 Stair model ...................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4-2 Projected load on flight 1 and landing ............................................................ 48
Figure 4-3 Projected load on flight 2 and landing ............................................................ 48
Figure 4-4 Projected loading on flight 1 and landing ....................................................... 49
Figure 4-5 Bending moment diagram for flight 1 ............................................................ 50
Figure 4-6 Projected loading on flight 2 and landing ....................................................... 50
Figure 4-7: Model of stair ................................................................................................. 60
Figure 4-8: Dead Load on flight one of the stair .............................................................. 61
Figure 4-9: Live load on flight one of the stair ................................................................. 61
Figure 4-10: Dead load on flight two of the stair ............................................................. 61
Figure 4-11: Live load on flight two of the stair .............................................................. 62
Figure 5-1: Comparison of no-collapse and damage limitation requirement ................... 63
Figure 5-2: Performance levels and Seismic excitation criteria ....................................... 66
Figure 5-3: Matrix coupling of three performance levels with three levels of seismic
excitation for new buildings ............................................................................................. 67

xiv
Figure 5-4: Relationship of importance factor and return period with various exponent k
.......................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 5-5: Difference between lateral resistance and energy-dissipation capacity......... 71
Figure 5-6: Methods of earthquake analysis ..................................................................... 72
Figure 5-7: Verification of compact shape (according to E. Booth and Z. Lubkowski,
Evaluating regularity in plan and elevation, 2009) ........................................................... 74
Figure 5-8: Base shear force on the building .................................................................... 77
Figure 5-9: Slab panel, beam, and column and shear wall naming .................................. 87
Figure 5-10: Distribution of base shear on the building ................................................... 91
Figure 5-11: Location of the eccentricity in X and Y from the center of mass ................ 92
Figure 6-1 Capacity design philosophy ............................................................................ 96
Figure 6-2: Chain analogy for ductile failure ................................................................... 97
Figure 6-3: Direct design described by chain analogy ..................................................... 97
Figure 6-4: Chain design described by chain analogy ...................................................... 97
Figure 6-5: Failure modes of a building (a-i) ................................................................... 98
Figure 6-6: Desirable failure mode for ductility class medium ........................................ 99
Figure 6-7: Concept of energy stored and energy dissipated ......................................... 100
Figure 6-8: Stress-Strain diagram for confined concrete ................................................ 101
Figure 6-9: Transverse reinforcement in beams, from ES-EN 1998 Part 1.................... 106
Figure 6-10: Medium Ductile Beam reinforcement (at Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
headquarter construction) ............................................................................................... 107
Figure 6-11: Typical column details – cross section ...................................................... 109
Figure 6-12: Ductile Column (at Commercial Bank of Ethiopia headquarter construction)
........................................................................................................................................ 109
Figure 7-1: Property/stiffness modifiers used in the model ............................................ 113
Figure 7-2: Diaphragm assigning on typical floor .......................................................... 114
Figure 7-3: 3D ETABS model ....................................................................................... 114
Figure 7-4: (a)Typical plan view of second floor and (b) Sample Elevation view of the
model .............................................................................................................................. 115
Figure 7-5: Diagram of sign convection for the seismic load application ...................... 116
Figure 7-6: Examples of different buckling modes and corresponding effective lengths
for isolated members....................................................................................................... 125
Figure 7-7: (a) Unbraced member and (b) Braced member ........................................... 125
Figure 7-8: (a)Braced system, (b) Floor diaphragm and (c) Roof diaphragm ................ 126
xv
Figure 8-1: Contribution of slab for actual beam capacity ............................................. 135
Figure 8-2: Beam ABC on the frame .............................................................................. 137
Figure 8-3: Bending moment diagram of Beam BC ....................................................... 138
Figure 8-4: Bending moment diagram of Beam AB ...................................................... 138
Figure 8-5: Longitudinal section of Beam ABC............................................................. 140
Figure 8-6: Effective width for T-beam.......................................................................... 140
Figure 8-7: Arrangement of reinforcement for tension in the beam ............................... 142
Figure 8-8: Arrangement of reinforcement..................................................................... 146
Figure 8-9 Shear effect due to gravity load and flexure ................................................. 148
Figure 8-10: Strain diagram for failure region 4 ............................................................ 150
Figure 8-11: Shear force diagram for beam BC ............................................................. 154
Figure 9-1: Deflected shape of braced and unbraced structures ..................................... 160
Figure 9-2: Sway Frame ................................................................................................. 160
Figure 9-3: Shear for columns ........................................................................................ 167
Figure 10-1 Side and Elevation of Footing..................................................................... 177
Figure 10-2 Base pressures about axis 2-2 ..................................................................... 179
Figure 10-3 Stress at the column face about axis 3-3 ..................................................... 180
Figure 10-4 Base pressures about axis 2-2 ..................................................................... 180
Figure 10-5 Stress at the column face about axis 2-2 ..................................................... 181
Figure 10-6 Stress at the d distance from column face about axis 2-2 ........................... 181
Figure 10-7 Punching shear perimeter ............................................................................ 185
Figure 10-8 Stress along punching perimeter ................................................................. 187
Figure 10-9 Punching perimeter .................................................................................. 187
Figure 11-1: Dimensions of the roof .............................................................................. 192
Figure 11-2: Obstruction height and upwind spacing (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-
4:2004, Figure A.5)......................................................................................................... 195
Figure 11-3: Positive internal pressure and external pressure ........................................ 197
Figure 11-4: Positive pitch angle truss dimensions ........................................................ 198
Figure 11-5: Zones for wind direction θ= 0 (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Figure
7.8(a)).............................................................................................................................. 198
Figure 11-6: Zones for wind direction θ= 90 (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004,
Figure 7.8(b)) .................................................................................................................. 199
Figure 11-7: Lattice purlin .............................................................................................. 203
Figure 11-8 Analysis and design of Purlin on SAP ........................................................ 206
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Figure 11-9 Optimized truss configuration..................................................................... 208
Figure 11-10 Optimized sections provided for the truss ................................................ 209
Figure 11-11 Load transferred from purlin to truss ........................................................ 209
Figure 11-12 Possible combination of wind load: (a)Left and right side under
compression; (b) Left and right side under suction; (c) Left side under compression and
right side under suction; (d) Left side under suction and right side under compression.
........................................................................................................................................ 210
Figure 11-13 Design check of the optimized section ..................................................... 212
Figure 11-14: Design check of trial 4 ............................................................................. 213
Figure 11-15 SAP analysis result of member to be verified .......................................... 213
Figure 11-16 Connection of truss to column: (a) pin connection; (b) Planar view of roller
connection ....................................................................................................................... 217
Figure 11-17: Connection of truss members: (a) Edge truss members; (b) interior truss
members; (c) truss members at the apex (Adopted from the fourth edition of The
Behavior and Design of Steel Structures to EC3 by N.S. Trahair, M.A. Bradford, D.A.
Nethercot, and L. Gardner .............................................................................................. 218
Figure 11-18 Connection for members with length greater than 6m .............................. 219
Figure 12-1: Comparison of cracked moment and yielded moment for DCL and DCM
........................................................................................................................................ 238

xvii
 ACRONYM

AAiT Addis Ababa institute of Technology

ACI American Concrete Institute

ASD Allowable Stress Design

CPR Collapse Prevention Requirement

DCH Ductility Class High

DCL Ductility Class Low

DCM Ductility class Medium

DL Dead Load

DLR Damage Limitation Requirement

EN European Code

EQ Earthquake

ES Ethiopian Standard

LL Live Load

LSD Limit State Design

NLR No Local-collapse Requirement

PGA Peak Ground Acceleration

RC Reinforced Concrete

RP Return Period

SLS Serviceability Limit State

ULS Ultimate Limit State

xviii
 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Structural design of a building is the process of estimating the actions which the building
experiences and designing it to sustain the load in a way that is economical, durable and
functional throughout its life time. The actions considered should include impact,
explosion and human error in addition to the permanent load which is applied to it during
its execution and use. In the case of accidental situations such as fire the building must
remain intact for the required period of time to minimize loss of life.

The design process involves selection of suitable material and appropriate section of each
member so that the resistance is greater than the action applied to it. In addition to this,
to prevent or minimize potential damage to a building a structural designer might try to
reduce or avoid the hazard the building is subjected to and/or avoid structural systems
that can collapse without warning.

During the analysis, design and construction it is inevitable to find situations in which
little is known about and result in deviation from the perceived value. These ambiguities
are called uncertainties and should be considered during design.

1.1.1 Uncertainty
Uncertainty commonly exists in engineering applications especially in a design process.
Quantifying and managing uncertainty is often a core consideration during the design
stage. The main uncertainties occur in;

• Load computation: Load computation is subjected to different degree of

uncertainty depending on the load type. Dead load which is permanent has a
small variation whereas imposed load can vary from time to time. In some cases,
there would be functional changes which bring high variation in the imposed
load. In the case of wind load and earthquake load high degree of uncertainty
arises due to natural randomness and the uncertainty in the frequency of loading

• Material Property: During production materials used for construction can have
significantly lower strength than expected if no quality control measures are
taken.
BSc Thesis Page 1
 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

• Dimensions: Deviation in dimensions on the floor plan and on the actual site
conditions can be expected during construction.

• Models: the design of a building involves using models which are

approximations and idealizations of the actual condition. For instance, support
conditions which are used for design are idealizations considering that it is
difficult to find an exact pin or fixed connection in reality.

Accounting all the uncertainties is uneconomical and not realistic due to its random
nature. Thus, probabilistic approach is used to control these uncertainties by assigning a
proper degree of reliability.

In another way uncertainty can be separated into two categories: Aleatory, related to luck
or chance, and epistemic, related to knowledge. Aleatory means dependent on luck or
chance. So, aleatory uncertainty arises from randomness inherent in nature. Epistemic
means dependent on human knowledge. Thus, epistemic uncertainty is uncertainty that
could, in theory, be reduced by increasing the profession’s knowledge about the area of
interest.

Causes of uncertainty

Uncertainty has a range of sources, the main sources are: time, statically limits, model
limits, randomness, and human error.

• Time: There is uncertainty in predicting the future and uncertainty in knowing

the past
• Statical limits: It is difficult to get enough data
• Model limits: The structural model used in the analysis and design leaves out or
simplifies many aspects of the structure, and it is possible that the model is not
conceptually correct
• Randomness: The structural properties (e.g., modulus of elasticity, concrete
strength) are not a single number but vary over some range. The properties are
random variables
• Human error: It is possible that an error was made during the design or the
construction

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

Uncertainty reduction

There are several ways that are used to reduce uncertainty even though it is difficult to
avoid it. Following are some of the ways to reduce uncertainty:

• Use load and resistance calculation techniques

• Use characteristic values (e.g., 5% exclusion values)

• Use prototypes where possible (reduces the impact of contingency)

• Check designs and inspect construction (quality control reduces human error)

• Make appropriately conservative assumptions in analysis (in complex analyses,

this technique can sometimes be difficult, e.g., leaving out nonstructural elements
is not always conservative)

• Check complex analyses with more simple methods where possible (reduces
model uncertainty and human error)

• Use one’s experience

1.1.2 Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the ability of a structure to fulfill the specified requirements
for which it is designed for. According to ES-EN1990:2001 reliability can be achieved
by

• Designing according to Euro code 1990 to 1999

• Appropriate execution of design

• Quality management measures

The degree of reliability depends on various factors such as the functional use of the
building meaning important structures such as hospitals are given higher margin of
safety compared with structures like storages considering the severity of the damage.
Mode of failure also plays an important role in selecting the degree of reliability. For
example, failure types which are brittle and give no warning are given higher reliability

BSc Thesis Page 3

 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

than ductile failure modes. Design is an optimization of cost and safety thus the expense
should also be taken into consideration.

The uncertainty which comes from the variation of the load and material can be
accounted by using representative value of actions and using factor of safety during
design. Depending on the design philosophy used in the code of standards the factor of
safety can be applied on the actions only, material only or both. Euro code uses Limit
state design which uses partial safety factors for both material and action. .

1.1.3 Limit State design

Limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the design
criteria. The resistance is compared with the action so that this limit state is not reached.
Limit state design can also be referred as load and resistance factor design since it
applies factor of safety on the characteristics value of actions and resistance to determine
the design value.

1.1.3.1 Characteristic and design values

A. Actions on a building
The determination of the characteristics value depends on the type of the load being
considered. Actions can be classified based on different factors such as variation with
time, origin, spatial variation…etc.

Figure 1-1: Classification of Actions

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Characteristic value

The characteristic value signifies the main representative value of an action which can be
mean, upper, lower or nominal value.

• For permanent actions

A single value may be used if variation is small. For instance, the self-weight of the
structure may be represented by a single characteristic value which can be calculated
using the nominal dimensions and mean unit masses. In the case where variation is not
small upper and lower values can be used.

• For Variable actions

Variable actions as the name indicates vary with time thus a single exact value is not
easy to quantify thus an upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded
or a lower value with an intended probability of being achieved, during some specific
reference period is used. Sometimes a statistical distribution might not be known thus a
nominal value is used.

• For accidental actions

For accidental actions the values to be used are different for individual projects.

Other representative values

Figure 1-2: Representative values of actions

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• Combination value (ψ0Qk); the combination value takes into account the
probability of simultaneous occurrence of load. The multiplying factor ψ 0 has a
value less than or equal to one.

• Frequent value (ψ1Qk); the frequent value is a value of an action in which it is

exceeded for only a short period of time. For buildings, for example, the frequent
value is chosen so that the time it is exceeded is 10% of the reference period.

• Quasi-permanent (ψ2Qk); ); the quasi-permanent value is a value of an action in

which it is exceeded for a considerable period of time. For loads on building
floors, the quasi-permanent value is usually chosen so that the proportion of the
time it is exceeded is 50 % of the reference period.

Design value

Design values should be obtained by using the characteristic, or other representative

values in combination with partial and other factors. Using Expression 6.1 a and 6.21 b
of article 6.3.1 in prES-EN 1990:2001 design value can be determined as follows,

Fd = 𝛶f Frep (1-1)
Frep = ψFk (1-2)

Where:
Fk Characteristic value of the action
Frep Relevant representative value of the action
𝛶f Partial factor for the action which takes account of the possibility of unfavorable
deviations of the action values from the representative values
Ψ Either 1 or ψ0, ψ1 or ψ2

B. Material and product used for design

Characteristic value

The material property can be subjected to variation during production thus characteristics
value in which 5% of the fractal value is used when low value is unfavorable and 95 %
of the fractal value is used where high value is unfavorable. The material properties are
first determined from standardized tests.

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Design value

The design value of a material or product property can be determined using expression
6.3 in article 6.3.3(1) of prES-EN 1990:
𝑿𝒌 (1-3)
Xd = η 𝜰𝒎

Where:
Xk Characteristic value of the material or product property
η Mean value of the conversion factor taking into account volume and scale effects, effects of
moisture and temperature and any other relevant parameters
𝛶m Partial factor for the material or product property to take account of the possibility of an
unfavorable deviation of a material or product property from its characteristic value and the
random part of the conversion factor.

C. Geometrical data
The geometrical data taken from drawing for design purposes have uncertainties due to
their deviation from the actual constructed building. When the deviation doesn’t have
significant effect the design value is taken to be the nominal value but for conditions
where the reliability is significantly affected expression 6.5 of article 6.3.4(2) of prES-
EN 1990:2001 can be used to determine the design value
ad = anom ± Δa (1-4)

Where:
Δa Takes account of the possibility of unfavorable deviations from the characteristic or
nominal values and the cumulative effect of a simultaneous occurrence of several
geometrical deviations.

1.1.3.2 Design situation

The design situations indicate the conditions at which the building experiences the
actions. Proper combinations of this situation should be used to design the building in a
safe and economical manner.
• Persistent design situation; it indicated the actions experienced by the building
during its normal and day to day use throughout the design life. It includes the
own weight of the building and live load.

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• Transient design situation; indicates the action which is experienced for a short
period of time but occurring regularly. Loads during maintenance and execution
can be taken as an example.

• Accidental design situations; Loads such as explosion, fire, impact...etc which

have a probability of occurrence, but the actual time and frequency cannot be
determined are categorized under this design situation.

• Seismic design situation; refers to the condition at which the building is

subjected to seismic actions. It can sometimes be included under accidental
design situation.

1.1.3.3 Type of limit state

The limit state of a building might either be related with the safety or with its ability to
remain fit or functional throughout its life time. Depending on this we can classify the
limit state into ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state.

• Ultimate limit state (ULS)

The main concern of the ultimate limit state is the safety of the occupants since reaching
this limit state entails the collapse of part or all of the building. In addition to collapse a
building is said to have reached its limit state when there is loss of equilibrium,
instability, rupture, fatigue failure and formation of a mechanism.

• Serviceability limit state (SLS)

The serviceability limit is mainly concerned with the comfort of the occupants,
appearance and whether the structure is giving the service it is constructed for. This limit
state is checked for deflection, excessive vibration and cracks.

In summary, the main objective of design is the selection of material and sections that
are economical, reliable and durable. For the selected design life, the building must
remain safe and functional. The design process includes identification of all possible
actions, selection of acceptable level of safety to account the uncertainties and checking
for the limit states that are concerning for that structure.

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1.2 Objective of the thesis

The objective of the report can be viewed in two forms:

• General Objective

• Specific Objective

1.2.1 General objective

The main objective of this project is the design of an economical and structurally
adequate G+10 building with a medium ductility class. This team has planned to work on
different disciplines that help in the sharpening & development of new skill for us and
also puts some tangible contribution for our profession.

1.2.2 Specific objective

The specific objectives are listed below;

• The design incorporates most of the courses in structural engineering we have
taken this far, thus it will enable us to gather our knowledge and integrate it into
one.

• The design of buildings is usually done using low ductility therefore by designing
a medium ductility building we will gain a new information which will help us on
our future careers.

• Strengthening and accomplishing different capacity of structural analysis and

design philosophy,

• Relating theoretical knowledge to the actual site condition,

• Development of new skills in regards with software usage such as AutoCAD &
ETABS

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CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

2.1 Evaluation of the architectural drawing

Before starting analysis and design of a structure, it is crucial to revise the architectural
drawing. The first criteria that need to be checked is the dimension of each structural
element like beam, column, wall, foundation and slab for the design. There might be
unfeasible dimensions specified in the architectural drawing which could be either large
or small for the structural design. The second criterion is to check the length of cantilever
structures. This is due to restrictions of the design code, material availability and skilled
manpower in construction. The third criterion is to check the center to center spacing of
the column. If the spacing is greater than 6 m, the beam section will be uneconomical.
Minimum spacing has to be allowed in order to provide enough accessibility. The fourth
criteria are to check the spacing of truss members. This criterion is considered in a sense
for economy. The last criterion is to check the availability of material used in the
architectural drawing. For the architectural drawing provided in this project, the
evaluation checklist is shown on Table 2-1

Table 2-1: Checklist for evaluation criteria of the architectural drawing

No. Evaluation Criteria Criteria Fulfillment Description

1. Dimension of structural element  The provided dimensions are
sufficient as a starting trial.
2. Length of cantilever structures  The maximum cantilever slab in the
architectural drawing is 2.1 m.
3. Spacing of columns  The maximum spacing of column in
the architectural drawing is 6 m.
4. Spacing of truss members - -
5. Availability of the material used  The provided materials are available.

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2.2 Concrete cover design

The concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement closest to the
nearest concrete surface (including links and stirrups and surface reinforcement where
relevant) and the nearest concrete surface

According to ES-EN1992-1-1 section 4.4(2)P the nominal concrete cover have to be

provided on the drawings and it is defined as a minimum cover cmin, plus an allowance
in design for deviation, Δcdev.

Cnom= cmin+ Δcdev (2-1)

Where:
Cnom Nominal concrete cover
Cmin Minimum cover
ΔCdev allowance in design for deviation

Minimum concrete cover, cmin, shall be provided in order to ensure:

• the safe transmission of bond forces

• the protection of the steel against corrosion (durability)

• an adequate fire resistance

Based on the three requirements mentioned above we designed concrete covers for the
following structural elements of the building. Step by Step design for cover is done for
Slab and using similar procedures the cover for the other structural elements is
summarized in Table 2-2

The assumed location of the building is in Addis Ababa. And also, the assumed concrete
grades used for different structural elements of the building are:

• Slab C-25/30

• Beam C-30/37

• Column and Foundation C-45/55

2.2.1 Concrete cover design for slab

2.2.1.1 Design for corrosion

For the design of concrete cover for slabs the exposure class of XC1 (grouped under the
carbonation induced corrosions) is assumed which is dry or permanently wet according

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to ES-EN1992-1-1, table 4.1. This assumption is made by the fact that the building is
constructed at Addis Ababa which has humid environment. This exposure class requires
a minimum indicative strength class of C-20/25 for corrosion according to EN 1992-
1:2004, Annex E, table E.1N. By this the provided grade of concrete for slab is C-25/30
which is greater than C-20/25.Thus the provided grade of concrete satisfies the minimum
requirement for corrosion.

2.2.1.2 Design for bond and durability

The concrete cover for bond and durability is done for the main reinforcement bar as
follows:

• Minimum Concrete Cover (Cmin)

Assume diameter of main reinforcement bar is 10mm.then Cmin is given by:

Cmin =Max {Cmin,b; Cmin,dur + ∆Cdur,γ - ∆Cdur,s-∆Cdur,add; 10 mm} (2-2)

Where:
Cmin Minimum cover
Cmin,b Minimum cover due to bond requirement=diameter of bar=10mm
Cmin,dur Minimum cover due to environmental conditions(depends on service life, structural
class and exposure class)
∆Cdur,γ Additive safety element (recommended value is 0mm based on EN1992-1-1 section
4.4.1.2,expression 6)
∆Cdur,st Reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel(recommended value is 0mm
based on EN1992-1-1, section 4.4.1.2,expression 7)

∆Cdur,add Reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection (recommended value is
0mm based on EN1992-1-1, section 4.4.1.2,expression 8)

Cmin,dur Determined from table 4.3N section 4.4.1.2 of EN1992-1-1 as follows:

Assumptions

• Service life of the building is 50 years (recommended service life of building by

section 4.4.1.2 of article 5, ES-EN1992-1-1)

• Structural class is 4(recommended structural class with 50 years’ service life for
the indicative concrete strengths given in Annex E of ES-EN1992-1-1).

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N.B from Table 4.3N of Section 4.4.1.2 of ES-EN1992-1-1 members with slab geometry
(position of reinforcement not affected by construction process) with exposure class
XC1, the structural class will be reduced by 1.

Then by referring table 4.4N of section 4.4.1.2 of ES-EN1992-1-1 for structural class of
3and exposure class of XC1, Cmin,dur=10mm. Then by substituting the values in
equation 2.3

Cmin=Max (10mm, 10mm) =10mm

• Δcdev
From section 4.4.1.3, article 5 of ES-EN1992-1-1the recommended value is 10mm.

• Cnom

From equation 2.1

Cnom= Cmin+ ΔCdev=10mm+10mm=20mm

Then the concrete cover for slab is 20mm.

2.2.1.3 Concrete cover for fire resistance

The time assumed for fire resistance is 2 hours (120min), since the building is G+10
which may require much time to escape the occupants from the building and the fire
brigade may take much time to arrive to the building during fire hazard.

Here in order to read the cover required for fire resistance from table 5.8 of ES-EN1992-
1-2:2004 𝑙𝑦/𝑙𝑥 is required, thus a two-way panel with maximum value of the ratio is
5.4m
taken which is panel 4(with ly=5.4m and lx=3m), which have 3m = 1.8.

𝑙𝑦
Then for = 1.8, and for REl120 (two-hours fire resistance) from table 5.8 ofES-
𝑙𝑥

EN1992-1-2:2004:

• The minimum slab thickness required for fire resistance is 120mm (this value
may be changed later after serviceability limit state is checked for deflection
requirement) and
• The value of minimum axis distance(anom)=25mm

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• Now the concrete cover for bond and durability and for fire resistance is
compared as follows:
diametr of bar
anom=clear concrete cover+ =25mm,
2

10mm
Then the clear cover required fire resistance is=25mm- =20mm, which is equal to
2

the clear cover required for bond and durability (as calculated in section 2.2.1.2). Thus,
the clear concrete cover for slab is 20mm.

2.2.2 Concrete cover design for beam

By similar procedure as done for slab the concrete cover for beam is tabulated in Table
2-2.

2.2.3 Concrete cover design for stair

By similar procedure as done for slab the concrete cover for stair is tabulated in Table
2-2.

2.2.4 Concrete cover design for foundation

According to ES-EN 1992, concrete cover for foundation has a minimum requirement
which is tabulated in Table 2-2.

2.2.5 Concrete cover design for column

A detail design of concrete cover for column is clearly indicated in Chapter 9.

Table 2-2: Summarized Concrete cover for structural members

Member Concrete grade Reinforcement bar Exposure class Nominal
diameter(mm) cover(mm)
Beam C-30/37 24 XC1 30
Slab C-25/30 10 XC1 20
Stair C-25/30 10 XC1 20
Foundation C-40/45 24 XC2 50

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CHAPTER 3 SLAB ANLYSIS AND DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

Concrete slab is a flat piece of concrete, put on the walls or columns of a structure. It
serves as a walking surface. In addition to that it serves as a load bearing member, as in
slab homes. Slab is a very common and important structural element, are constructed to
provide flat, useful surfaces. It is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom
surfaces parallel or near so.

In reinforced concrete construction, slabs are used to provide flat surfaces. The span in
the larger direction is denoted by Ly and that in the shorter direction by Lx. Slabs may be
supported on two opposite sides only, in which case the structural action of the slab may
be in one way i.e. the load carrying by the slab in the direction normal to the supporting
beams. Also, when the ratio of Ly/Lx is more than two, it can be defined as one-way
slab. Slabs which are supported on unyielding supports like walls and stiff beams on all
four sides and if the ratio of Ly/Lx is less than or equal to two, then the action of slabs
may be in two-way. The boundaries of a two-way slab can be simply supported or
restrained at the edges. Slabs resting on walls are considered as simply supported slabs,
wherein edges are free to rotate. Slab constructed monolithically with beams have some
restrained against rotation. These slabs may be continuous or discontinuous. Slab design
is predominantly done for bending (or flexure) behavior.

• Types of slab analysis methods

When a slab is supported other than on two opposite sides only, the precise amount and
distribution of the load taken by each support, and consequently the magnitude of the
bending moments on the slab, are not easily calculated if assumptions resembling
practical conditions are made. Therefore, approximate analyses are generally used. The
method applicable in any particular case depends on the shape of the panel of slab, the
condition of restraint at supports, and the type of load.

Two basic methods are commonly used to analyze slabs spanning in two directions.
These are the theory of plates which is based on elastic analysis under service loads, and

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yield-line theory in which the behavior of the slab as collapse approaches. A less well-
known alternative to the latter is Hillerborg’s strips method.

Some basic methods for the analysis of two-way slabs are:

• Coefficient method of analysis

• Yield line method of analysis
• Strip method of analysis

Types of two-way slab analysis

Coefficient method of Yield line method of analysis Strip method of analysis

analysis
Slabs with a complex shape or Strip method is valuable where the
The coefficient method is concentrated loading yield line slab contains openings.
a quick hand-method of method is suitable.
It is a method which is always
calculating the moments
It is un-conservative which means conservative. That is, if a certain
in two-way slabs
no matter what capacity is load path is postulated and the steel
supported by edge beams.
calculated, the real capacity is is sufficient to withstand those
The coefficient method actually less than that. So, it loads, the slab will not fail. But this
makes use of tables of requires experience to postulate does not have anything to do with
moment coefficients for a realistic failure lines. It is crucial deflections. So, with the strip
variety of slab edge to investigate all possible failure method, it is possible to get a slab
conditions. The mechanism. that is perfectly safe but way too
coefficients are based on flexible or that has way too many
The yield line method requires the
elastic analysis but also cracks.
ultimate moment across the yield
included considerations
line to determine the resultant The strip method requires the
for inelastic moment
load each segment. Thus, it is uniformly distributed ultimate load
redistribution.
important for checking. to determine the strip moment.
Thus, the final output of this method
What is coefficient method of slab analysis? is a direct input fo
Two-way slabs are curved in both directions resulting in biaxial bending moments. It is
convenient to think of such slabs as consisting of two sets of parallel strips, in each

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direction and intersecting each other. So, part of the load is carried by one set and the
remainder by the other.

Figure 3-1: Two-way slab

For uniformly distributed loads of w per square meter of the slab, each strip acts
approximately like a simple beam uniformly loaded by its share of w; i.e., wx and wy.
Since they are part of the same slab, their mid-span deflections must be the same.
Equating the center deflections of the short and long strips:

𝟓𝐰𝐱 𝐥𝐱𝟒 𝟓𝐰𝐲 𝐥𝐲𝟒 (3-1)

=
𝟑𝟖𝟒𝐄𝐈 𝟑𝟖𝟒𝐄𝐈

𝐰𝐱 𝐥𝐲 4 (3-2)
=( )
𝐰𝐲 𝐥𝐱

For a simply supported square slab, ly/lx = 1; therefore wx = wy= w/2. So, if only
bending was present, the maximum bending moment in each slab would be:

𝐰 (3-3)
Mmax = ( ) l2/8 = 0.0625 wl2
𝟐

However, the actual behavior of a slab is more complex than that of two intersecting
strips. Slab can be modeled as grid, some strips of which (particularly the outer strips)
are not only bent but also twisted. Consequently, the total load on the slab is carried not

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only by bending moments in two directions, but also twisting moments. For this reason,
bending moments in elastic slabs would be smaller than that would be computed for sets
of unconnected strips.

Figure 3-2: Two-way slab bending in two directions

A slab does not behave like a beam and would not collapse if only one hypothetical
central strip reaches ultimate load. Therefore, in reality moment can be further reduced
due to inelastic redistribution of the load among various strips of the slab.

The determination of exact moments in two-way slabs with various support conditions is
mathematically formidable and not suited to design practice. Various simplified methods
are therefore adopted for determining moments, shears and reactions in such slabs. Quite
popular and widely used among these methods is one using ‘Moment Coefficient’ based
on the 1963 ACI Code, for the special case of two-way slabs supported on four sides by
relatively stiff beams.

The method uses tables of moment coefficients for a variety of support conditions. These
coefficients are based on elastic analysis but also accounts for inelastic redistribution.
Moments in the middle strips in the two directions are:

𝑀𝑥=𝛽𝑥∗𝑤𝑑∗𝑙𝑥2 (3-4)
𝑀𝑦=𝛽𝑦∗𝑤𝑑∗𝑙𝑥2 (3-5)

Where:

𝛽𝑥 and 𝛽𝑦 Coefficients which can be found in national annex (here use British Standard is used )

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𝑙𝑥 The shorter span of the panel

The main reinforcement for two-way edge-supported slab panel should be placed
orthogonally (parallel and perpendicular) to the slab edges. The reinforcement in the
short direction (la) should be placed lower than the reinforcement in the long direction
(lb). Negative reinforcement should be placed perpendicular to the supporting edge
beams.

All other requirements for minimum reinforcement (temperature and shrinkage) should
be observed. For two-way slab systems, the spacing of reinforcement should not exceed
twice the slab thickness (tslab).

On the code coefficient method of analysis is an elastic analysis where some

redistribution is used. But the method actually is adapted from the yield line method of
analysis which is a plastic analysis.

History of coefficient method of slab analysis

The moment coefficient method included for the first time in 1963 ACI Code is
applicable to two-way slabs supported on four sides of each slab panel by walls, steel
beams. Although, not included in 1977 and later versions of ACI Code, its continued use
is permissible under the ACI 318-08 code provision (13.5.1).

Advantages of coefficient method of slab analysis

• Significant economy can be achieved by making a more precise analysis.

• There should be no reversal of moments at the critical design sections near mid-
span or at the support faces.

• Since this method is a simplified way of analysis it saves time spent on design.

Disadvantages of coefficient method of slab analysis

• The panels must be square or rectangular.

• The panels must be supported along two opposites (one-way slab) or two pairs of
opposite sides (two-way slabs)

• Loads must be uniformly distributed and

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• There cannot be large openings.

• Line loads are approximated as uniformly distributed load

Comparing and contrasting coefficient method with both linear and non-linear
method of slab analysis

Based on the estimation of Bending Moment Coefficients of Two Way RC Slabs using
Finite Element Approach (Udit Agrawal*, Akshay Garg, Vansh Dhingra and Visuvasam
Joseph Antony) which is based on the IS 456-2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete -
Code of Practice is an Indian Standard code of practice for general structural use of plain
and reinforced concrete. The latest revision of this standard was done in year 2000,
reaffirmed 2005. This code uses the limit state design approach as well working stress
design approach. It is written for use in India. It gives extensive information on the
various aspects of concrete.

Since the results of linear analysis obtained from SAP2000 give variation in comparison
with IS values, a commercially available finite element program ANSYS 12.0, was used
in this study to perform the nonlinear analysis. A single panel of slab with all nine
possible boundary conditions is modeled for non-linear analysis. The difference between
linear and non-linear analysis in software-oriented analysis is defining material
properties and type of analysis.

Thus, the study of (Udit Agrawal*, Akshay Garg, Vansh Dhingra and Visuvasam Joseph
Antony) conclude that the coefficient method of slab analysis is conservative for using
the coefficients to design the slabs. Then one can design a solid slab using coefficient
method results conservatively, since the coefficients obtained from this method are larger
than the coefficients from the nonlinear method of analysis.

In addition to that the following observations are made:

• Bending moment coefficients do not depend on loading and panel size in linear
analysis.

• Using Non-linear analysis yield line behavior of slab can be depicted and design
bending moment and bending moment coefficients can be obtained.

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• Non-linearity spreads from edge to center in case of continuous edge slabs.

Yielding first occurs at longer edge, then at shorter edge and finally at center,
which gives the clear idea of behavior of two-way slabs in non-linear analysis.

• Based on yielding of material at edges and mid span, bending moment

coefficients shall be calculated.

Is a coefficient method of analysis an elastic or plastic method?

It is ambiguous to say coefficient method of analysis is elastic or plastic. But BSI code
mentions it based on elastic analysis but also included considerations for inelastic
moment redistribution.

Accurate analysis of two-way slabs having different continuity conditions at their edges
is very difficult and for practical purposes is almost impossible. Thus, there are several
simplified methods for determining the moments, shear forces and support reactions. The
methods used for designing RC members are mostly based on elastic analysis of the
structure subjected to the ultimate loads though, the actual behavior of an indeterministic
structure is that when one or more member reach its bending resistance, the elastic
diagrams of this part will change to some extend and so, the elastic analysis results
cannot be used anymore. In such case if the structure has sufficient ductility, each time
that the section reaches its bending resistance, the bending moments will redistribute
until some plastic hinges or plastic lines form and, the structure becomes unstable. In
such circumstances, the structure cannot resist any more load and collapses. Such type of
analysis in which the bending moment diagrams at the failure point are used as a basis
for the design, is called plastic analysis.

In plastic method which is also known as the yield lines method, it is assumed that the
resistance of the slab is determined by bending only, and the other factors such as shear
or displacement should be considered separately. It must be noted that in the yield lines
method the behavior of the slab can be considered better. Many of slab systems which
cannot be analyzed with other methods such as equivalent frame method, direct method
and moment coefficients method because of the slab specific shape or loading type, can
be designed by plastic method. In fact, by the plastic method it is possible to design any
type of slabs with any shape subjected to any type of loadings.

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Thus, since the coefficient values are from yield line analysis it is a simplified plastic
method.

3.2 Criteria for using coefficient method of slab analysis

The architectural drawing is shown in figure 3-4 with the beam, column, partition wall,
slab panels and cantilever arrangement.

Figure 3-3: Model of slab system

Figure 3-4: Slab layout

The basic criteria that have to be satisfied in order to use coefficient method of slab
analysis are the following:

• No large openings allowed

For small holes like electric pipes since it is negligible it is assumed to be fully solid for
the analysis.

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For open down slab coefficient method of analysis is not an option, so in this final year
project there is an open down in panel 4.Then to use coefficient method of slab analysis a
beam is provided on the free edge side of the panel.

• Rectangular slab

If the sides of the slab are more than 4 it is impossible to use coefficient method of
analysis. Then in this final year project all panels are rectangular.

• (Characteristic live load/Characteristic dead load) ≤ 1.25

Here in order check for the worst case maximum characteristics live load and
minimum characteristics dead load from table 3.3

Maximum Characteristic live load=2.5 KN/m2

Minimum Characteristic dead load=6.68 KN/m2,

Characteristic live load 2.5 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2

= = 0.37 ≤ 1.25
Characteristic dead load 6.68 KN/m2

• Characteristic live load ≤ 5KN/m2 excluding partitions. Then the maximum

Characteristic live load on the panels in this final year project is 2.5KN/m2 ≤ 5
KN/m2.

Since all the criteria required to use coefficient method are satisfied, then it is possible to
use coefficient method of slab analysis in this final year project.

In the analysis and design of slab the general procedure to be followed are:

• Calculating the slab depth using serviceability limit state.

• Determining the load at each panel.
• Calculating the moment at each slab panel.
• Readjusting the support and span moments.
• Designing the slab using the adjusted moments.
• Checking the slab for shear.
• Checking the serviceability limit state for crack and deflection.

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

3.3 Slab depth determination

According to section 7.4 of EN1992-1-1 the slab depth is governed by the serviceability
limit state (deflection).The limiting span/depth ratio is obtained by the following
expression.

𝒍 (3-6)
𝒅
=NxF1xF2xF3

Where

𝒍 The limit span/depth

𝒅
N Given by the expression 3.7
F1 For flanged sections where the ratio of the flange breadth to the rib breadth exceeds 3, the
values of l/d given by Expression 3.7 should be multiplied by 0, 8.
F2 For beams and slabs, other than flat slabs, with spans exceeding 7 m, which support
partitions liable to be damaged by excessive deflections, the values of l/d given by
Expression 3.7 should be multiplied by 7 / leff (leff in meters).
F3 The expression 3.7 have been derived on the assumption that the steel stress, under the
appropriate design service load at a cracked section at the mid-span of a beam or slab or at
the support of a cantilever, is 310 MPa, (corresponding roughly to fyk = 500 MPa).
Then,

F1=1, since the beam section is not known at this stage a conservative value is taken.

F2=1, since the maximum span length in the slab system 6m<7m.
500
𝐹3 =
Ast, req
fyk
Ast, provided

𝟑
𝝆𝒐 𝝆𝒐
N=K (11+1.5√𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝝆
+ 𝟑. 𝟐√𝒇𝒄𝒌( 𝝆 − 𝟏)𝟐 ) (3-7)

Where:
𝐾 Factor to take into account the different structural systems;

𝜌0 Reference reinforcement ratio = √𝑓𝑐𝑘*10−3;

𝜌 Required tension reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (at support for cantilevers);

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

𝜌′ Required compression reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due to

design loads (at support for cantilevers);

𝑓𝑐𝑘 is in MPa units.

𝐾 is given in table 7.4N of EN1992-1-1 which accounts different structural systems, then
in slab model of figure 3.1 there are two types of slabs one two:

• Two ways spanning simply supported slab with K=1.3

• cantilever slab with K=0.4

𝜌0= √𝑓𝑐𝑘*10−3= √25*10−3= 0.5%

Assume 𝜌=0.5% according to section 7.4, article 2 of EN1992-1-1 for lightly stressed
concrete since the expression 3.2 is done for that value

ρ0
=1
ρ

Then by substituting the all values the expression 3.1 becomes in terms of K.

𝑙
= 1𝑥1𝑥1.25𝑥𝐾[11 + 1.5√𝑓𝑐𝑘 ] = 23.125K
𝑑

Then the calculation of effective depths of each panels and cantilevers is tabulated in
table 3.1 below.

Table 3-1: Calculation of effective depth of each panel for deflection requirements
Panel Shorter length(mm) K l/d Depth(mm)
C1 2000 0.4 9.25 216.20
C2 1000 0.4 9.25 108.12
C3 1600 0.4 9.25 179.64
P1 5400 1.3 30.06 179.64
P2 4200 1.3 30.06 139.72
P3 5200 1.3 30.06 172.97
P4 2600 1.3 30.06 86.49
P5 1600 1.3 30.06 53.23
P6 3000 1.3 30.06 99.80
P7 2100 1.3 30.06 69.86

Taking the maximum provide 216.2 for slab 1. For the rest of the slab provide a depth of
179.64.

Total depth= effective depth + cover +diameter of bar/2 (3-8)

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

D1 = 216.2 +20+5 = 241.2 ≈ 245 mm

D1 = 179+20+5 = 204, then take depth to be 200mm (deflection criteria will be checked
using rigorous method which is more economical than the simplified method used for the
calculation of the depth).

3.4 Load calculation

The slab is loaded with both dead load (DL) and live load (LL). Dead load comes from
self-weight of slab, floor finish, cement screed, plastering and partition load. Live loads
are either movable or moving load without any acceleration or impact.

Dead and live loads are calculated depending on the service of the slabs and self- weight.
Ignoring any localized effects caused by concentrated load, the partition loads are
distributed over the area of the slab.

For ultimate limit state, persistent and transient condition, the design loads are factored
according to ES-EN 1990:2002 Annex A1 (Art. A1.3.1 (4) - table A1.2 (B))

𝑃 𝑑 = 1.35DL + 1.5LL

3.4.1 Live (imposed) load

According to ES-EN 1991-1-1:2002(Art. 6.3.1.1(2) - Table 6.1), the building is
categorized under category “A” since it is a residential apartment building.

From ES-EN 1991-1-1:2002(Art. 6.3.1.1(2) - Table 6.2) the value of the imposed load in
KN/m2 is given and tabulated in Table 3-2

Table 3-2: imposed load for category A building

Category A Residential area
Recommended imposed load Used imposed load
(KN/m2) (KN/m2)
Floors 1.5-2 2
Stair 2-4 2
Balconies 2.5-3 2.5

3.4.2 Dead load

The dead load of the slab includes its own weight, floor finish and the partition load (the
partition load is considered as a dead load because there is a small probability of moving
the partition in residential areas). The own weight of the slab is determined by
multiplying the unit weight of each component of the slab by its thickness. The unit
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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

weight for such materials is obtained from table A.1 – A.12 of Annex A of EN 1991-1-
1:2002 and also from Table 2.8 of EBCS 1995.

3.4.2.1 Load from own weight

The thickness of the floor finish and reinforced slab are shown in Figure 3-5.The
calculation of dead load on the slab is tabulated as in Table 3-3.

Figure 3-5: thickness of floor finish and slab

Table 3-3 Loads from floor finish and own weight of the slab
Panel Material Thickness Unit Load Total load
(mm) Weight (KN/m2) (KN/m2)
(KN/m3)
Floor Finish 8 20 0.16
Cement 50 23 1.15
C1
Screed 7.93
RC Slab 245 25 6.25
Plastering 15 25 0.37
Floor Finish 8 20 0.16
`Cement 50 23 1.15
C2,C3,P1,P2,P3,P4,P5,P6 Screed 8 20 0.16
6.68
and P7
RC Slab 200 25 5
Plastering 15 25 0.37

3.4.2.2 Loads from partitions

The thickness of HCB walls is 20cm with 3m height. The calculation for each panel is
tabulated in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4: loads from partitions on each panel

Panel Unit weight Partition Lx Ly Concentrated Areal load
(KN/m3) wall length (m) (m) load (KN/m2)
(m) (KN)
P1 10 8.6 5.4 6 51.6 1.593
P2 10 5 4.2 6 30 1.19
P3 10 7.9 5.2 5.4 47.4 1.69
P4 10 1.86 2.63 4.2 11.6 1.01
P5 10 0 1.6 2.7 0 0
P6 10 7 3 5.4 42 2.59
P7 10 3 2.1 3.2 18 2.68

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

For the panels which are cantilevers the concentrated load of the partition can be
calculated by taking 1 m strip

Concentrated load= 1m * 3m* 0.2m * 10 KN/m3 = 6 KN.

3.4.3 Total design load

Pd= 1.35DL + 1.5LL

• Cantilever panel 1

Line load= 1.35 (7.93) + 1.5 (2.5) = 13.8 KN/m

Concentrated load= 1m * 3m* 0.2m * 10 KN/m3 = 6 KN

Figure 3-6: Design load on cantilever one

The total design loads are tabulated on each cantilever and panels is summarized in Table
3-5.

Table 3-5: Summary of design loads on each cantilever and slabs

Panel Dead load Live load Design dead load Design Live load Total design
(KN/m2) (KN/m2) (KN/m2) (KN/m2) load (KN/m2)

C1 7.93 2.5 10.70 3.75 13.79

C2 8.96 2.0 12.09 3.0 14.43
C3 8.96 2.0 12.09 3.0 14.43
P1 7.90 2.0 10.66 3.0 13.66
P2 7.50 2.0 10.12 3.0 13.12
P3 6.68 2.0 9.02 3.0 11.52
P4 7.99 2.0 10.80 3.0 13.80
P5 6.68 2.5 9.02 3.75 12.27
P6 7.32 2.0 9.88 3.0 12.90
P7 8.90 2.5 12.01 3.75 15.55

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3.5 Bending Moment calculation

The bending moments are calculated based on coefficient method, i.e.:

𝑀𝑥=𝛽𝑥∗𝑤𝑑∗𝑙𝑥2

𝑀𝑦=𝛽𝑦∗𝑤𝑑∗𝑙𝑥2

Where:

𝛽𝑥, 𝛽𝑦 Moment Coefficients from BS8110:1:1997

b Design load

𝑙𝑥 Short span length

By using the coefficient method of slab analysis the bending moment for panel 1, 2,
3,4,5,6 and 7 is summarized in table 3.6.

Table 3-6: Bending Moment Calculation

Design
Panel Load Lx Ly Ly/Lx βsx,sup βsx,span βsy,sup βsy,span Msx,sup Msx,span Msy,sup Msy,span

P1 13.665 5.4 6 1.1 0.0571 0.0432 0.045 0.034 22.8 17.2 17.9 13.5

P2 13.125 4.2 6 1.4 0.0789 0.0591 0 0.044 18.3 13.7 0.0 10.2

P3 13.8 5.2 5.4 1.0 0.0495 0.037 0 0.034 18.5 13.8 0.0 12.7

P4 12.9 2.6 4.2 1.6 0.0865 0.0648 0 0.044 7.5 5.7 0.0 3.8

P5 12.25 1.6 2.6 1.6 0 0.0912 0.058 0.044 0.0 2.9 1.8 1.4

P6 15.76 3 5.4 1.8 0.0936 0.0703 0 0.044 13.3 10.0 0.0 6.2

P7 11.52 2.1 3.2 1.5 0.0812 0.0521 0.045 0.034 4.1 2.6 2.3 1.7

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

Figure 3-7: Unadjusted moment distribution

3.6 Bending moment adjustment

For each support over which the slab is continuous, there will thus generally be two
different support moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels on
either side of the support to equalize their moments, as in the moment distribution
method for frames. Two methods of differing accuracy are given here for treating the
effects of this redistribution on moments away from the support. If ΔM/ML < 10% of the
larger moment, no adjustment is needed. But if ΔM/ML is greater than 10%, the moment
is distributed using the moment distribution method. Relative stiffness of each panel
shall be taken proportional to its gross moment of inertia divided by the length of each
panel. In this method consideration of the effects of changes of support moments is
limited to the adjacent spans.

• Between panel 4 and panel 7

M= 18.47102-17.93121= 0.53981

∆𝑀 0.53981
= *100% = 2.922% < 10% …………………….No Adjustment is required
𝑀𝐿 18.47102

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

• Between panel 7 and panel 9:

M= 18.47102 -9.971352= 8.5575

∆𝑀 8.5575
= *100% = 46.329331% > 10% …………………Use Moment Distribution
𝑀𝐿 18.47102

Figure 3-8: Unbalanced moment between panel 3 and 6

Table 3-7: Distribution factor calculation between panel 3 and 6

Member Stiffness Summation D.F
CB 𝐼⁄ 0.365854
Joint C 5.2 0.5256I
CD 𝐼⁄ 0.634147
3

Where:
Stiffness of each memeber
DF =
TotalStiffness
D.F is distribution factor.

Table 3-8: Adjusting moment at joint C panel 3 and 6

Joint C
D.F 0.365854 0.634147
18.47102 9.971352
-3.130795605 +5.426712953
15.3402244 15.3980649

Then add the amount subtracted from the support moment to span BC span moment.

𝑀𝐵𝐶 = 13.80662 + 3.130795605= 16.9374

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

Figure 3-9: Unbalanced moment between panel 1 and 2

Table 3-9: Distribution factor calculation between panel 1 and 2

Member Stiffness Summation D.F
12 𝐼⁄ 0.372093023
Joint 2 5.4 0.497685I
23 𝐼⁄ 0.629069771
3.2

Table 3-10: Adjusting moment at joint C between panel 1 and 2

Joint C
D.F 0.372093023 0.629069771
22.75272 18.26732
-1.66901734 +2.82176514
21.08370266 21.08908514

Then add the amount of subtracted moment from the support moment to span 12 span-
moment.

𝑀12 = 17.21396 + 1.66901734= 18.88

Figure 3-10: Unbalanced moment between panel 4 and 7

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

Table 3-11: Distribution factor calculation between panel 4 and 7

Member Stiffness Summation D.F
12 𝐼⁄ 0.446808511
2.6
Joint 2 𝐼⁄ 0.86080586I
23 0.553191488
2.1
Table 3-12: Adjusting moment at joint between panel 4 and 7
C
D.F 0.446808511 0.553191488
7.543146 4.12522
-1.527158427 +1.89076757
6.000314 6.01598757

Then add the amount of subtracted moment from the support moment to span 12 span-
moments.

𝑀12 = 5.650819 + 1.527158427 = 7.18

Then the balanced moment for each panel is shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3-11 Balanced moment distribution

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

3.7 Design of slab for flexure

The reinforcement design is done by general design chart method by using Euro code 2
Part 1,1 – ES-EN 1992-1-1-2002.

𝑀𝑠𝑑 (3-9)
𝜇𝑠𝑑 =
𝑓𝑐𝑑 ∗b∗𝑑 2

Where:
𝑀𝑠𝑑 Design moment
𝑓𝑐𝑑 Design strength of concrete
D Effective depth
B Width

• Minimum Reinforcement calculation

Minimum reinforcement and maximum spacing can be determined according to

Section 9.2.1.1, Part 1.1 of ES-EN1992-1-1:2002.Art. 9.1N of EC2)
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒎
As, min= 0.26* *𝒃𝒕 *d> 0.0013𝒃𝒕 *d (3-10)
𝒇𝒚𝒌

Where:
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒎 Mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete

𝒇𝒚𝒌 Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement

bt width

d effective depth

Area of reinforcement needed for the corresponding design moment is calculated using
the following equation.

𝑀𝑠𝑑 (3-11)
As =
𝑓𝑦𝑑 ∗ 𝑧

Where:
𝑀𝑠𝑑 Design moment
𝑓𝑦𝑑 Design yield capacity of reinforcement
z Moment arm

The calculation for area of reinforcement at each slab is summarized as follow.

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Table 3-13: Summary of design reinforcement (Ast) calculation

Panel Moment Effective As,c As,min S,req S,max S,provided Spacing

Name Strip Location (N.m) Depth(mm) µsd Kz z (mm2) (mm2) No of Bars (mm) (mm) (mm) Provided(mm)
Support B/n P1&P2 21083.7 175 0.048596 0.955031 0.16713 362.7 295.75 5 200 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Support B/n P1&P3 18471.0 175 0.042574 0.960842 0.168147 315.8 295.75 5 200 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P1
Span Shorter(x) 18883.0 175 0.043524 0.95993 0.167988 323.2 295.75 5 200 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Longer(y) 13548.0 165 0.035127 0.967928 0.159708 243.9 278.85 4 250 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Shorter(x) 13683.1 175 0.031538 0.971304 0.169978 231.4 295.75 3 333 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P2
Span Longer(y) 10187.1 165 0.026413 0.976086 0.161054 181.8 278.85 3 333 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Support B/n P3&P6 15340.2 175 0.035358 0.96771 0.169349 260.4 295.75 4 250 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P3 Span Shorter(x) 16937.4 175 0.039039 0.964219 0.168738 288.6 295.75 4 250 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Longer(y) 12687.2 165 0.032895 0.970031 0.160055 227.9 278.85 3 333 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Support B/n P4&P7 6000.3 175 0.01383 0.987624 0.172834 99.8 295.75 2 500 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P4 Span Shorter(x) 7178.0 175 0.016545 0.985158 0.172403 119.7 295.75 2 500 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Longer(y) 3837.0 165 0.009948 0.991129 0.163536 67.5 278.85 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Support B/n P5&C6 1818.9 175 0.004192 0.996281 0.174349 30.0 295.75 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P5 Span Shorter(x) 2860.0 175 0.006592 0.99414 0.173974 47.3 295.75 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Longer(y) 1818.9 165 0.004716 0.995815 0.164309 31.8 278.85 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Shorter(x) 13276.2 175 0.030601 0.972183 0.170132 224.3 295.75 3 333 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P6
Span Longer(y) 9971.4 165 0.025853 0.976605 0.16114 177.9 278.85 3 333 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
Span Shorter(x) 2646.8 175 0.006101 0.994579 0.174051 43.7 295.75 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200
P7
Span Longer(y) 1727.3 165 0.004479 0.996026 0.164344 30.2167838 278.85 1 1000 200 200 ɸ10 c/c 200

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3.8 Checking for shear

The design value for the shear resistance VRd,c, is given by expression in Section 6.2.2 of
ES-EN 1992- 1-1:2004 as:

Vrd,c = CRd,cK (100 𝑥 𝜌1 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑘)1/3 ) bwd ≥ (Vmin+K1σcp) bwd (3-12)

Where:
𝐴𝑠𝑡 (3-13)
𝜌=
bw x d

200 (3-14)
K=1+√ 𝑑
≤2.0
Vmin=0.035 x 𝐾 3/2 x 𝑓𝑐𝑘1/2 (3-15)
0.18 (3-16)
CRd,c=
𝛾𝑐
K1=0.15
𝑁𝑒𝑑 (3-17)
σcp= < 0.2 x fcd
𝐴𝑐

σcp=0 , since there is no axial load applied to the slab

Taking the diameter of reinforcement bar ∅10 𝐶|𝐶 200 mm, b= 1000mm and d= 175 mm
from Table 3-10.

𝑏 𝑥 as
Ast = ( )
𝑆

Where:

Ast Area of reinforcement bar

as Area of one bar
1000 𝑥78.539
𝐴𝑠𝑡 =
200

Ast = 392.695

𝐴𝑠𝑡 392.695
𝜌1=bw x d = 1000x175=0.224 %

0.18 0.18
𝐶𝑅𝑑, c= 𝛾𝑐 = = 0.12 𝛾𝑐 = 1.5 for transient and persistent design situation
1.5

𝑘=1+√ (200/𝑑) = 1+√ (200/ 175) = 2.069 ≤ 2 not ok! Use k = 2

(100∗ρ1∗fck)1
(CRd, c ∗ k ∗ ) ∗ bw ∗ d
V𝑅𝑑, c= max{ 3 }
(Vmin + k1σcp) ∗ bw ∗ d

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 Structural Design of a Medium Ductile G+10 Apartment Building with Commentary

(0.12 x 2(100 ∗ 0.224 x 25)1/3) x1000x175 = 74.584KN

V𝑅𝑑, c= max{ }
(0.035 x 23/2 x251/2) ∗ 1000 ∗ 175 = 86.62KN

V𝑅𝑑, c=86.62KN

Maximum acting shear calculation

By assuming the beam width to be 300mm

Vsd=Pd (0.5ln-d)bw (3-18)

Where:

Pd Design load on a panel n

Ln Clear distance of the shortest length of the panel

Pd=13.665KN/m2…….the load which have a maximum ln (panel one in this case)

ln=5.4m-0.3m=5.1m and by taking unit meter width

Vsd=13.665*(0.5*5.1-0.175)*1m=32.45KN

Then VRd,C=86.62KN>>>Vsd=32.45KN………. thus the slab can resist the shear

force without shear reinforcement.

3.9 Load transfer to beam

The design loads on beams supporting solid slabs spanning in two directions at right
angles and supporting uniformly distributed loads may be assessed by the following
equations:

𝑉𝑠x=𝛽𝑣x∗𝑊𝑑∗𝑙𝑥 (3-19)
𝑉𝑠𝑦=𝛽𝑣𝑦∗𝑊𝑑∗𝑙𝑥 (3-20)

Where:
𝑉𝑠𝑥 Design end shear on strips of unit width with 𝑙𝑥 and considered to act over the middle
three-quarters of the edge
𝑉𝑠𝑦 Design end shear on strips of unit width with span 𝑙x and considered to act over the
middle three-quarters of the edge.
𝑊𝑑 Un-factored design load

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𝑙𝑥 Shortest length of the panel

Load transfer coefficient are found from Table of BS 8110-1:1997

Table 3-14: shear force coefficient for uniformly loaded rectangular panels supported on
four sides with provisions for torsion at corners

panel Ly(m) Lx(m) Ly/lx Bvx,d Bvx,d Bvy,c Bvy,d

P1 6 5 1.11 0.44 0.29 0.4 0.26
P2 6 4 1.43 0.52 0.34 0.4 0.26
P3 5 5 1.04 0.4 0 0 0.26
P4 4 3 1.62 0.432 0 0.45 0.3
P5 3 2 1.63 0 0.44 0.45 0.3
P6 5 3 1.80 0 0.456 0.45 0.3
P7 3 2 1.52 0.54 0.35 0.4 0.26

Here the loads are transferred as un-factored load since the loads will be factored on
applied on the beams. For the load transfer we use the BS8110-1:1997 Code coefficient
method so that the shear force (loads) that are going to be transferred from the slab to
beams by using the coefficient method are going to be applied on 75% of the span
length of the beam but in order to make it a distributed load it will be multiplied by a
factor equals to 0.914.

• Case 1. Only un-factored Dead load

Table 3-15: Un-factored dead load transfer to beam

Un-
panel Ly lx Ly/lx factored 0.914*pd Bvx,c Bvx,d Bvy,c Bvy,d Vx,c Vx,d Vy,c Vy,d
dead load
P1 6 5 1.11 7.9 7.2 0.44 0.29 0.4 0.26 17.2 11.3 15.6 10.2
P2 6 4 1.43 7.5 6.8 0.52 0.34 0.4 0.26 14.9 9.8 11.5 7.5
P3 5 5 1.04 8.0 7.3 0.4 0 0 0.26 15.2 0.0 0.0 9.9
P4 4 3 1.62 7.3 6.7 0.43 0 0.45 0.3 7.5 0.0 7.8 5.2
P5 3 2 1.63 6.3 5.8 0 0.44 0.45 0.23 0 4.0 4.1 2.8
P6 5 3 1.80 8.9 8.1 0 0.46 0.45 0.3 0.0 11.1 11.0 7.3
P7 3 2 1.52 6.1 5.6 0.54 0.35 0.4 0.26 6.4 4.2 4.7 3.1

• Case 2. Only un-factored live load

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Table 3-16: Un-factored live load transfer to beam

Un-
panel Ly Lx Ly/lx factored 0.914*pd Bvx,c Bvx,d Bvy,c Bvy,d Vx,c Vx,d Vy,c Vy,d
live load
P1 6 5.4 1.11 2 1.8 0.44 0.29 0.4 0.26 4.3 2.9 3.9 2.6
P2 6 4.2 1.43 2 1.8 0.52 0.34 0.4 0.26 4.0 2.6 3.1 2.0
P3 5 5.2 1.04 2 1.8 0.4 0 0 0.26 3.8 0.0 0.0 2.5
P4 4 2.6 1.62 2.5 2.3 0.43 0 0.45 0.3 2.6 0.0 2.7 1.8
P5 3 1.6 1.63 2.5 2.3 0 0.44 0.45 0.3 0 1.6 1.6 1.1
P6 5 3 1.80 2 1.8 0 0.46 0.45 0.3 0.0 2.5 2.5 1.6
P7 3 2.1 1.52 2.0 1.8 0.54 0.35 0.4 0.26 2.1 1.4 1.5 1.0

• Load transfer from cantilever slabs

The loads from the cantilever slabs are transferred in to the beams by modeling
the 1m width cantilevers in SAP2000 and the loads on the beams from the slabs
is tabulated in the table 3-16.

Table 3-17: Load transfer on the cantilever slab

Cantilever Un-factored Un-factored Un-factored Total
U.D.L(KN) C.D.L(2KN) U.L.L(KN) design load
(KN)
C1 7.44 6 2.5 13.78
C2 8.47 6 2.5 15.18
C3 6.31 2 2.5 12.27

Where

U.D.L is uniformly distributed dead load

C.D.L is concentrated dead load at the free edge of the slabs due to the walls on it.

U.L.L is uniformly distributed live load

1) From Cantilever 1(L=2m)

a) Dead load from the cantilever (Gk=7.44KN/m and a concentrated
load=6KN at the end of the span)

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Figure 3-12: Dead Load on cantilever 1

The load transferred from cantilever one (C1) by both U.D.L and C.D.L is Vy=20.88KN

b) Live load from cantilever (Qk= 2.5 KN/m)

Figure 3-13: Live load on cantilever 1

The load transferred from cantilever one (C1) due to live load is Vy=5KN

By similar procedure the load transfer from cantilever 2 and 6 is tabulated as follows:

Table 3-18: Load transfer from cantilever slabs on C2 and C6

Cantilever 2 Cantilever 3
Dead Live Dead Live
load(KN) load(KN) load(KN) load(KN)
8.46 2.5 6.31 2.5
Load transfer(KN)
14.46 4 10.1 4

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CHAPTER 4 STAIR CASE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

4.1 Introduction

Staircase is a structural member which provides vertical movement (circulation) between

floors of the building at different vertical levels. It consists of steps arrange in a series for
the purpose of giving access to different floors of building.

The type of stair on the architectural drawing is a quarter turn newel stair in which a well
or opening is left between forward and backward flight. The staircase is longitudinally
supported. It spans between supports of beam at the top and bottom of a flight.

In case of open well stairs where span partly cross at right angles the load on common
area may distributed as one half in each direction.

The basic steps of the analysis and design of a staircase are:

• Determine design life

• Assess actions on the stair
• Asses durability requirements and determine concrete strength
• Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period
• Calculate minimum cover for durability, fire and bond requirements
• Check deflection for depth of stair
• Determine loading arrangements
• Analyze structure to obtain critical and shear forces
• Obtain critical moment
• Design flexural reinforcement
• Check shear capacity
• Check minimum reinforcement
• Check cracking
• Check anchorage
• Check laps

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4.2 Model of the stair

Figure 4-1 Stair model

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4.3 Stair depth determination

The design of stair has to fulfill both Serviceability Limit States (SLS) and Ultimate
Limit States (ULS) requirements. In general, the depth “D” of stair is controlled by the
deflection limits (EC2 7.4).

The limiting span/depth ratio may be estimated using Expressions 7.16 (a) and 7.16 (b)
from ES-EN 1992-1-2:2004 and multiplying this by correction factors to allow for the
type of reinforcement used and other variables.

L/d = N*K*F1*F2*F3

Where: L/d – limiting span/depth;

N–General term;

𝟑⁄
𝝆𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝟐
𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ √𝒇𝒄𝒌 ∗ ⁄ 𝝆 + 𝟑. 𝟐 ∗ √𝒇𝒄𝒌 ( ⁄ 𝝆 − 𝟏) ; 𝝆 ≤ 𝝆𝒐
N={ } (4-1)
𝝆𝒐 𝟏 𝝆 𝟏
𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ √𝒇𝒄𝒌 ∗ + ∗ √𝒇𝒄𝒌 ∗ √ ⁄𝝆 ; 𝝆 > 𝝆𝒐
𝝆−𝝆𝒐 𝟏𝟐

Where:

K – Factor accounting for support condition………...EN 1992-1-1(Table 7.4N);

F1 – factor accounting for T-beam effect……….......EN 1992-1-1(Section 7.4.2(2));

F2 – factor accounting for span lengths>7m………...EN 1992-1-1(Section 7.4.2(2));

F3 – factor accounting for stress at serviceability limit state assumption…EN 1992-1-1

(Section 7.4.2(2));

𝜌0 is the reference reinforcement ratio = 10−3√𝑓𝑐𝑘;

𝜌 is the required tension reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (at support for cantilevers);

𝜌′ is the required compression reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due
to design loads (at support for cantilevers);

𝑓𝑐𝑘 is in MPa units;

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Assumptions: Lightly stressed, 𝜌 = 0.5% = 0.005

𝜌0 = 10−3√25 = 0.005

As,req ρ0
=1 and =1
As,prov ρ

K=1

F1 = 500/fyk = 500/400 = 1.25

F2 = 1-----------------Since the stair section is rectangular, beff/bw = 1

F3 = 1-----------------Because L < 7m

Thus, L/d = 18.5*1*1.25*1*1

L/d = 23.125

d = L/23.125 = 4200 mm / 23.125

d = 181.62 mm

Thus, total depth of the stair = d + Clear concrete cover + Ø/2

= 181.62 mm + 20 mm+ 5 mm

= 206.62 mm

To make depth of stair similar with the slab approximate 206.62 mm to 200 mm. It is not
ok to round down the value, but the deflection checking calculation which is computed
on section 4.4 is conservative compared to the economical one. (To be checked by the
economical (rigorous) deflection calculation on Serviceability Limit State section.)

4.4 Loading

Loads on stairs are calculated on the basis of KN per meter. These loads are both
permanent and imposed loads. The permanent loads include: self-weight (soffit and
steps), cement screed, floor finishing material and plastering. The imposed load is
determined based on the functional use of the building.

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After obtaining the service permanent and imposed loads, the design loads are calculated
based on Annex A1 (normative) – Application for buildings (EN 1990:2002). Based on
Annex A1.3 (ultimate limit states) – design values of actions in persistent and transient
design situations indicates that “the design of structural members (STR) not involving
geotechnical actions should be verified using the design values of actions from table
(A1.2 (B)) – Art. A1.3.1(4).”

Values from the architectural drawing are:

Table 4-1 Stair section from architectural drawing

Riser 160 mm

Tread 300 mm

Angle (in degrees) 28o

4.4.1 Flight 1 and 2

Dead Load

• Concrete self-weight (Soffit) – Projected Unit weight = 25 KN/m3

Slab thickness = 0.200 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip = 1 m /Cos 28o

Line load = 25*0.200*1 /Cos 28o = 5.663 KN/m

• Concrete self-weight (Steps) Unit weight = 25 KN/m3

Area = (½)*b*h = (½)*0.3*0.16 = 0.024 m2

Line load = 25*(0.024/0.3)*1 = 2 KN/m

• Plastering (Gypsum) – Projected Unit weight = 18 KN/m3

Thickness = 20 mm = 0.02 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip = 1 m /Cos 28o

Line load = 18*0.02*1 /Cos 28o = 0.408 KN/m

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On tread

• Cement screed Unit weight = 23 KN/m3

Thickness = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip

Line load = 23*0.05*1 = 1.15 KN/m

• Finishing material (Marble) Unit weight = 27 KN/m3

Thickness = 30 mm = 0.03 m

Width of stair=1mstrip

Line load = 27*0.03*1 = 0.81 KN/m

On riser

• Cement screed Unit weight = 23 KN/m3

Thickness = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip

Number of riser = 4& 9

Number of tread = 4& 9

Line load=(4*0.16/4*0.3)*23*0.05*1= 0.613 KN/m

• Finishing material (Marble) Unit weight = 27 KN/m3

Thickness = 30 mm = 0.03 m

Width of stair = 1m strip

Number of riser = 4

Number of tread = 4

Line load = (4*0.16/4*0.3)*27*0.03*1= 0.432 KN/m

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Total dead load = 11.076 KN/m

Live Load

The building is a residential building. Hence, it falls under category A (table 6.1 of EN
1991-1-1:2002) where for stair specifying 2 – 4 KN/m2 (table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1:2002).
The recommended value of 2KN/m2 for residential house can be used

For 1 m strip width of stair = 1 m * 2KN/m2 = 2 KN/m

Total Design Load

Pd = 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk

Pd = [1.35 (11.076 KN/m)] + [1.5(2 KN/m)] = 17.952 KN/m

4.4.2 Landing
Dead Load

• Concrete self-weight Unit weight = 25 KN/m3

Slab thickness = 0.200 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip

Line load = 25*0.200*1 = 5 KN/m

• Cement screed Unit weight = 23 KN/m3

Thickness = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip

Line load = 23*0.05*1 = 1.15 KN/m

• Finishing material (Marble) Unit weight = 27 KN/m3

Thickness = 30 mm = 0.03 m

Width of stair = 1m strip

Line load = 27*0.03*1 = 0.81 KN/m

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• Plastering (Gypsum) – Projected Unit weight = 18 KN/m3

Thickness = 20 mm = 0.02 m

Width of stair = 1 m strip

Line load = 18*0.02*1 = 0.36 KN/m

Total dead load = 7.32 KN/m

Live Load

For 1 m strip width of stair = 1 m * 2 KN/m2 = 2 KN/m

Total Design Load

Pd = 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk

Pd = [1.35 (7.32 KN/m)] + [1.5(2 KN/m)] = 12.882 KN/m

Figure 4-2 Projected load on flight 1 and landing

Note; The support condition of stairs is idealized as pin- roller for design considerations
although in reality the connection is fixed due to the continuity the slab provides.

Figure 4-3 Projected load on flight 2 and landing

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4.5 Analysis

The analysis of stair is carried out on the basis of one-way slab. By taking a unit strip
width, the span moment and support moments are calculated. For maximum span
moment the stair ends are considered as pin whereas for maximum support moment the
ends are considered as fixed (at the starting of flight 1 and at the end of flight 2) and pin
(at landing corners). To be conservative it is possible to take the worst-case scenario on
the analysis which is pin-pin support and the detailing by fixed-fixed support.

4.5.1 Flight 1 Analysis

Figure 4-4 Projected loading on flight 1 and landing

Reaction forces

Reaction at B

[FB*(1.08+1.3)] - [17.952*1.08*(1.08/2)] – [12.882*1.3*(1.3+(1.08/2))] = 0

FB = 17.346 KN

Reaction at A

(-17.952*1.08) – (12.882*1.3) + FA +17.346 = 0

FA = 19.99 KN-----------Maximum shear force

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Bending moment

The maximum bending moment is at x = 1.0485 m where shear force is zero at that
location.

Mc = [19.99*1.0485] + [17.952*1.0485*(1.0485/2)]

Mc = 11.092 KNm-----------Maximum span moment

The maximum span moment is taken as a conservative moment for the support too.

Figure 4-5 Bending moment diagram for flight 1

4.5.2 Flight 2 Analysis

Figure 4-6 Projected loading on flight 2 and landing

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Table 4-2 Summarized result of flight 2

Parameters Value

Reaction at B 30.384 KN

Reaction at C 34.833 KN

Maximum shear force 34.833 KN

Maximum bending moment 33.762 KNm

4.6 Design

4.6.1 Design of Flight 1

4.6.1.1 Design for flexure

Design values

C 25/30, fcd = 14.167 MPa

S-400, fyd = 347.826 MPa

Fctm = 2.6 (EN 1992-1-1:2014 Table 1-1)

D = 200 mm

d = D – Cover – Ø/2 = [200 – 20 – (10/2)] mm= 175 mm

Msd = 11.092 KNm

b=1m

For 10 mm diameter transverse and longitudinal reinforcement bar:as = ᴨd2/4 = 78.539

m2

Minimum reinforcement

𝐟𝐜𝐭𝐦
𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 ∗ ( )∗𝐛∗𝐝
As, min= max { 𝐟𝐲𝐤 } (4-2)
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑 ∗ 𝐛 ∗ 𝐝

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2.6
0.26 ∗ (400) ∗ 1000 ∗ 175 = 295.75 𝑚𝑚2
As, min= max { }
0.0013 ∗ 1000 ∗ 175 = 227.5 𝑚𝑚2

As, min = 295.75 mm2

Maximum reinforcement

As, max = 0.04Ac

As, max = 0.04*175*1000

As, max = 7000mm2

Longitudinal bar

µsd= Msd/ [fcd * b * d2]

µsd= 11.092 * 103 / [14.167 * 1 *(175)2]

µsd = 0.0256

ω= 0.0341

Kx = 0.051 < K* = 0.448 which indicates a ductile section.

ω = (Ast * fyd) / (fcd * b* d)

Ast = (ω * fcd * b* d) / fyd

Ast = (0.0341 * 14.167 * 1000 * 175) / (347.826)

Ast = 243.057 mm2< As, min = 295.75 mm2-------------------------not ok!

Thus, provide Ast = As,min = 295.75 mm2

S = (b *as) / Ast = (1000 *78.539) / 295.75 = 265.558 mm

Maximum spacing

3𝐷
Smax= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { }
400 𝑚𝑚

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Smax= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 {3(200) = 600 𝑚𝑚}

400 𝑚𝑚

Smax = 400 mm > Sprovided = 265.58 mm ≈ 260 mm

Use Ø 10 c/c 260 mm (But the market in Ethiopia use a spacing of 200 mm.)

Thus, use Ø 10 c/c 200 mm

Transverse bar

As for transverse bar = 20% longitudinal bar

= 0.2 (295.75) = 59.15 mm2 < Asmin = 295.75mm2...….. Provide minimum

reinforcement

Thus, As, transverse = As, min = 295.75 mm2

S = (b *as) / Ast

S = (1000 *78.539) / 295.75

S = 265.558 mm

Maximum spacing

3.5𝐷
Smax= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { }
450𝑚𝑚

3(200) = 700
Smax= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { }
450 𝑚𝑚

Smax = 450 mm > Sprovided = 265.58 mm≈ 260 mm

Use Ø 10 c/c 260 mm (For transverse bars too the market in Ethiopia use a spacing of
200 mm.) Thus, use Ø 10 c/c 200 mm

4.6.1.2 Design for shear

Maximum acting shear

Bhy similar procedure as in section 3.8 of chapter three, the values used for checking
shear are:

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VRd,c= 86.620 KN

Vsd = 19.99 KN then

Vsd = 19.99 KN < VRd,c = 86.620 KN…………………The section is adequate.

4.6.2 Design of flight 2

Design for flexure

Table 4-3-Flexural design for flight 2

Parameter Value Description

Med 37.762 KNm

µsd 0.0778
Ω 0.0817
Kx 0.1046
As,min 295.75 mm2
Ast 582.339 mm2
Aprov 582.239 mm2
S 134.868 mm Longitudinal Reinforcement
Smax 400
Sprov 130
Use Ø 10 c/c 130 mm for longitudinal bar
As 116.4678 mm2
Amin 295.75 mm2
Aprov 295.75 mm2 Transverse Reinforcement
S 265.558 mm
Smax 450 mm
Sprov 200 mm (market value)
Use Ø 10 c/c 200 mm for longitudinal bar

Design for shear

Table 4-4-Shear design for flight 2

Parameter Value Description

Ast 392.695 mm2

𝜌1 0.224 %
CRd,c 0.12
K 2
VRd,c 86.620 KN
Vsd<VRd,c …….. Ok!
Vsd 19.99 KN
The section is adequate.

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4.7 Crack control for stair

Calculation of minimum reinforcement (As, min)

General information

• Structural type: slab

• Concrete strength: fck=25MPa

• Required number of reinforcement: n=6

• Required diameter of reinforcement: ∅=10mm

• Diameter of transverse reinforcement: ∅=10mm

Section property

• Type of section: rectangular

• Height: h= 200mm

• Width: b=1000mm

Isotropic property

• Ecm=31MPa

• Es=200GPa

Force

• Type of force: bending

• Axial force at SLS: NEd=0

The crack control calculation for the stair is done as followed based on EN1992-1-1
section 7.3.2.

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Determining Kc

As,min x σs=kc*k*fct, eff*Act (4-3)

Where:

As,min Minimum area of reinforcing steel within the tensile zone

Act The area of concrete within tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of the section
which is calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack
Σs The absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately
after formation of the crack. This may be taken as the yield strength of the
reinforcement, fyk. A lower value may, however, be needed to satisfy the crack width
limits according to the maximum bar size or the maximum bar spacing
fct,eff The mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the
cracks may first be expected to occur: fct,eff = fctm or lower, (fctm(t)), if cracking is
expected earlier than 28 days.
K The coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses,
which lead to a reduction of restraint forces
= 1,0 for webs with h ≤ 300 mm or flanges with widths less than 300 mm
= 0,65 for webs with h ≥ 800 mm or flanges with widths greater than 800 mm
intermediate values may be interpolated
Kc Coefficient which takes account of the nature of the stress distribution within the
section immediately prior to cracking and of the change of the lever arm:

kc ∗ k ∗ fct, eff ∗ Act (4-4)

𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
σs

Here the Type of force acting is bending and the type of section is rectangular. Then the
expression for coefficient Kc according to ES-EN1992-1-1 section 7.3.2 is:

(4-5)
σc
𝐾𝑐 = 0.4 ∗ (1 − )≤1
ℎ
𝐾1 ( ∗) ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑡, 𝑒𝑓𝑓
ℎ

Where:

σc Mean stress of the concrete acting on the part of the section under consideration given
𝑁𝐸𝑑
by σc= 𝑏∗ℎ

𝑵𝑬𝒅 Axial forces at the serviceability limit state acting on the part of the cross-section under

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consideration (compressive force positive).

h* h* = h for h < 1,0 m
h* = 1,0 m for h ≥ 1,0 m
k1 Coefficient considering the effects of axial forces on the stress distribution:
k1 = 1,5 if NEd is a compressive force
2h∗
k1= 3ℎ
if NEd is a tensile force

𝑁𝐸𝑑
Thus σc= 𝑏∗ℎ , Ned=0 (since there is no axial force on the stair)

σc
=0
ℎ
𝐾1 ( ∗) ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑡, 𝑒𝑓𝑓
ℎ

b=1000mm=1m

h=200mm=0.2m (depth of the stair)

h*= h ,since h=0.2 < 1m then

h*=200mm=0.2m

K1=coefficient for axial force effect on stress distribution

Since Ned=0, the value of K1 is not important in this calculation

Then by substituting the above values

σc
𝐾𝑐 = 0.4 ∗ (1 − ) = 0.4(1 − 0) = 0.4 ≤ 1
ℎ
𝐾1 ( ∗) ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑡, 𝑒𝑓𝑓
ℎ

• Determining K

Since the Type of section is rectangular

h=200mm

b=1000mm
K=1.0 since h=200mm≤300mm

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• Determining fct,eff

According to ES-EN 1992-1-1:2014 the expression for fct,eff is given by expression 3-

15 by the assumption cracking is expected earlier than 28 days.

fct,eff=fctm=0.3(fck)2/3 (4-6)

Where:

fck The cylindrical compressive strength of concrete

fctm The tensile strength of concrete

Fck=25MPa for stair of C25/30 from Table 2-2

Then fct,eff=fctm =0.3(25)2/3 = 2.565Mpa ≃ 2.6Mpa…….or from Table 1-1 ES-EN

1992-1-1:2014 the fctm for concrete strength of C25/30

• Determining Act

π ∗ ∅2 (4-7)
Act =
4∗ρ

Where:
∅ Diameter of reinforcement bar used in the stair
ρ Mechanical reinforcement ratio

𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏∗𝑑
b=1000mm

∅
d=h-cover- 2 = 200𝑚𝑚 − 20𝑚𝑚 − 5𝑚𝑚 =175mm and

As is the area of tensile reinforcement for flexure with 1m given by:

n ∗ π ∗ ∅2 (4-8)
As =
4

6∗𝜋∗(10)2
As = = 471.239mm2
4

471.239
𝜌 = 1000∗175 = 0.002693

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• Determining σs

σs is yield strength of the reinforcement= fyd =347.83MPa

𝐸𝑠 (4-9)
αe =
𝐸𝑐, 𝑒𝑓𝑓

Ecm (4-10)
Ec, eff =
1+μ

μ=2.63 and Ecm= 31Gpa from Table 1-1 ES-EN1992-1-1:2014

31𝐺𝑝𝑎
Then Ec,eff = = 8.539Gpa
1+2.63

𝑏ℎ2
+ (αe − 1) ∗ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 ∗ 𝑑
𝑋= 2 (4-11)
𝑏ℎ + (αe − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑡

1000 ∗ 2002
+ ( 23.419 − 1) ∗ 471.239 ∗ 175
𝑋= 2
1000 ∗ 200 + ( 23.419 − 1) ∗ 471.239

X=103.76mm

Act=1000mm*(200-103.7629) mm

Act=96,237mm2

• Final value of As, min

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kc ∗ k ∗ fct, eff ∗ Act (4-12)

As, min =
σs

By substituting all the values in the Equation(4-5) As, min becomes

As, min =2.8774x10−4 𝑚2 = 287.74mm2

The area reinforcement bar provided for flight two is 582.24mm2, 295.75mm2. thus

As, min =287.74mm2< A provided=582.24mm2, 295.75mm2 OK!

The area reinforcement bar provided for flight one is 582.24mm2, 295.75mm2.

As, min =287.74mm2< A provided=582.24mm2, 295.75mm2 OK!

4.8 Load transfer to beams from stair

Since the stair type used is a longitudinal stair type the load from the stair is transferred
to the landing stair beams and to the supporting beam located on the slab.

Figure 4-7: Model of stair

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Flight one

Case 1: Due to un-factored dead load

Figure 4-8: Dead Load on flight one of the stair

FA = 11.81KN FB = 9.67KN

Case 2: Due un-factored live load

Figure 4-9: Live load on flight one of the stair

FA = 2.38 KN FB = 2.38KN

Flight two

Case 1: Due to un-factored dead load

Figure 4-10: Dead load on flight two of the stair

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FB=18.06 KN FC=21.36KN

Case 2: Due to un-factored live load

Figure 4-11: Live load on flight two of the stair

FB=4KN FC=4KN

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CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS FOR EATHQUAKE RESISTANCE

5.1 Introduction

An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from a sudden release
of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere that creates seismic waves. At the Earth’s surface,
earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground.
Tectonic movement is one of the main causes of earthquake. Elastic rebound theory
states that as tectonic plates move relative to each other, elastic strain energy builds up
along their edges in the rocks along fault planes, in which it has high impact to create
seismic waves out of all the types of plate movement (divergent, convergent, relative or
shearing).

5.2 Fundamental principles of seismic design

The formation of seismic action leads a structural building and its occupants to have high
risk of damage and death respectively. Thus, structural buildings should not only be
designed to carry gravity loads but also lateral loads from the earthquake. This leads to
expedient two fundamental requirements for seismic performance in ES-EN 1998. These
are ‘No-collapse’ and ‘Damage limitation’ requirements.

Figure 5-1: Comparison of no-collapse and damage limitation requirement

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In addition to the fundamental requirements, there are other guiding principles given in
ES-EN1998. These are discussed as follow.

Table 5-1: Summary of the guiding principles of seismic design

No. Guiding Principles Explanation Mitigation

To reduce uncertainty, it is
important to ensure a direct load
path for the transmission of
Structural seismic forces from the top of the
1. Direct, clear load path.
simplicity building till the foundation. The
building can be considered as
structurally simple if the direct
load path is clear.
If distribution of mass, strength
and stiffness of the building is
uniform and symmetrical in plan
and elevation, then it performs
Uniformity, Improving irregular or
better than a building lacking these
2. symmetry and asymmetrical plan shapes by
resisting seismic actions.
redundancy expansion joints.
Redundancy is the existence of
more than one load path to
transmit seismic loads increasing
the reliability.
Principal or main directions of a
structural element is X and Y.
Thus, ensuring similar resistance,
Bi-directional
stiffness and ductility in both main
resistance and Providing similar resistance in
3. directions is crucial. This is by
stiffness both directions.
assuming that seismic force comes
on both principal axes, for
simplification, even though it may
have any direction.
The distance between the center of
mass and center of stiffness plays
Torsional an important role to respond a
Even mass and stiffness
resistance and seismic motion or force. The
4. distribution.
stiffness shorter the spacing between them,
the lesser the torsional excitation.

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No. Guiding Principles Explanation Mitigation

Cast in situ Reinforced Concrete

(RC) buildings slab is considered
as a horizontal diaphragm.
Ensuring rigidity in plan and
Adequacy of Giving special attention on
flexibility in vertical direction
diaphragms at analysis and design of
5. increases the system’s redundancy.
each story level diaphragms with very large floor
Diaphragms should have
openings.
appropriate in-plane stiffness for
the distribution of horizontal
inertia forces to the vertical
structural systems.
A soft story mechanism is formed
Avoidance of a Special measure on the analysis
when there is discontinuity of
6. soft story and detailing of structural walls
stiffness in elevation which leads
and columns.
to collapse.
For seismic forces it is preferable
that plastic hinges are formed in
beams than columns or shear
walls. The reason behind this is
providing stronger columns avoid
soft story failure. But ensuring
Strong columns- shear capacity of the hinging Ensuring that columns are
7. weak beams regions of the beam via detailing is stronger than beams in moment
crucial while the plastic hinges frames.
undergo flexural yielding in both
positive and negative bending.
Shear failure of the hinge region
would not be ductile. This attempt
is referred to as strong column-
weak beam action.

In order to resist seismic action a

dual system which is a
Provision of a combination of structural walls
second line of with ductile frames is the most
9. Providing ductile frames
defense appropriate one. The frames resist
more than 35% of the base shear

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No. Guiding Principles Explanation Mitigation

As far as foundation is concerned

One of the fundamental principle siting of the building must be free
Adequate for seismic design is to take from risks of soil rupture,
10. foundations adequate foundation system. It crossing a fault, slope instability
plays a crucial role in the behavior caused by liquification or
of the building. densification in the event of an
earthquake.

Knowing the fundamental and guiding principles now it is necessary to appropriately

identify how the requirements are inter-related to each other and how they can be
accounted.

The two basic performance requirements are the fundamental principles which are ‘No-
collapse’ and ‘Damage limitation’ requirements. The first one is considered as Ultimate
Limit State (ULS) while the latter one as Serviceability Limit State (SLS) based on the
concept of ‘limit state’. These two performance requirements are in detail elaborated by
three performance levels with three levels of seismic excitation.

Figure 5-2: Performance levels and Seismic excitation criteria

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Figure 5-3: Matrix coupling of three performance levels with three levels of seismic
excitation for new buildings
From the matrix the following can be understood to the basic objectives for normal
buildings:

• The frequent seismic excitation corresponds to the damage limitation requirement

where the structure can withstand a seismic event with the likelihood of occurring
once every 95 years.
• The rare seismic excitation corresponds to the no local collapse requirement
where the structure can withstand a seismic event with the likelihood of occurring
once every 475 years.
• The very rare seismic excitation corresponds to the collapse prevention
requirement where the structure can withstand a seismic event with the likelihood
of occurring once every 2475 years. In the code this excitation is implicitly
(indirectly) fulfilled on capacity design and special detailing.

Here EQ-II is the reference seismic action agR associated with a reference probability of
exceedance P = 10% in a reference time period of 50 years or a reference return period
TN = 475 year.

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𝐓𝐑 = −𝐓𝐋 / 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝐏) (5-1)

Where:

TR Reference Return Period

TL Reference Time Period
P Reference Probability of Exceedance
agR Reference Peak Ground Acceleration
Remark: For buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital importance for
civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power plants, etc. the matrix diagonal is
different. It falls on the rare seismic excitation corresponding to the damage limitation
requirement. This shows that damage on the structural members is not allowed where as
for the no local collapse requirement partition walls may crack since saving human life is
the priority.

Rare and very rare seismic excitation are different due the reserve capacity. ‘Rare’ has
residual strength (capacity) that can resist gravity load aftershock whereas ‘Very rare’
has no reserve capacity aftershock. Thus, for civil protection importance buildings the
reason why rare seismic excitation recommended is because the building must be totally
recovered after earthquake.

5.3 Reliability differentiation

The no collapse requirement is accounted by the reference seismic action which actually
has a reference return period of 475 years. The damage limitation requirement (SLS) is
accounted for different types of buildings or other constructions, depending on its
importance and consequences of failure. As ES-EN 1998 prescribes:

Reliability differentiation is implemented by classifying structures into different

importance classes. An importance factor γ1 is assigned to each importance class.
Wherever feasible this factor should be derived so as to correspond to a higher or
lower value of the return period of the seismic event (with regard to the reference
return period) as appropriate for the design of the specific category of structures.

At most sites the annual rate of exceedance, H(agR), of the reference peak ground
acceleration agR may be taken to vary with agR as H(agR ) ~ k0 agR-k with the value of the

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exponent k (coefficient of the curve) depending on seismicity, but being generally of the
order of 3 in ES-EN 1998.

If the seismic action is defined in terms of the reference peak ground acceleration agR, the
value of the importance factor γ1 multiplying the reference seismic action to achieve the
same probability of exceedance in TL years as in the TLR years for which the reference
seismic action is defined, may be computed as γI ~ (PL/PLR)–1/k.

Figure 5-4: Relationship of importance factor and return period with various exponent k

Remark: Roughly the earthquake magnitude history of Ethiopia is near to Italy (refer
Annex D). Adapting k = 3 to the Ethiopian condition might be fair, but deep
investigation and analysis is required since it is not exactly the same. Special attention
should be given to the Rift Valley areas in Ethiopia according to the earthquake
magnitude history around there.
5.4 Compliance criteria
The compliance criteria specify how the two limit states are quantified. The two limit
states are:

• Ultimate Limit States (ULS)

• Damage Limitation States (associated with Serviceability Limit States - SLS)

Limiting the uncertainties and promoting a good behavior of structures under seismic
actions more severe than the design seismic actions are also the measures where ES-EN
1998 requires.
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Ultimate Limit State

No collapse requirement is considered as Ultimate Limit State. The basic two

verification criteria are lateral resistance and energy-dissipation capacity. The resistance
and energy-dissipation capacity to be assigned to the structure are related to the extent to
which its non-linear response is to be exploited.

In operational terms such balance between resistance and energy-dissipation capacity is

characterized by the values of the behavior factor q and the associated ductility classes.

As a limiting case, for the design of structures classified as low-dissipative, no account is

taken of any hysteretic energy dissipation and the behavior factor may not be taken, in
general, as being greater than the value of 1.5 considered to account for over strengths.

For dissipative structures the behavior factor is taken as being greater than this limiting
value, accounting for the hysteretic energy dissipation that mainly occurs in specifically
designed zones, called dissipative zones or critical regions.

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Figure 5-5: Difference between lateral resistance and energy-dissipation capacity

No collapse requirement allows plastic deformation which later has effect on the
aftershock for medium and high ductility class structural buildings.

When a structure is reaching its plastic stage, it means the strength is reduced while the
provided ductility is sufficient. This indicates that ductility and strength have indirect
relationship. In addition to that the strength is highly dependent on the dimensioning
whereas the ductility for detailing. Even though the relation is inverse both should be
balanced each other. Strong columns-weak beams mechanism can be a good example in
Ultimate Limit State showing how ductility and strength are related.

Remark: It should be noted that the direct implication of seismic action for the building
to respond is its ability to sustain lateral deformations or displacement. But for
simplification since the non-linear systems are approximated to fully linear systems, the
physical character of the seismic action corresponds to the application of forces. This can
be clearly identified on the distribution of horizontal base shear force to each story.

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Damage Limitation State

This state is required on the case of buildings important for civil protection or containing
sensitive equipment.

Inter-story drift is limited for buildings having non-structural elements of brittle

materials attached, having ductile non-structural elements and having non-structural
elements fixed in a way so as not to interfere with structural deformations as specified in
ES-EN 1998, Article 4.4.3.2.

Generally, compliance criterion is a design verification method changing the qualitative

approach in to the quantitative one. Thus, checking the method of analysis and the
criteria for its selection are discussed as follow.
5.5 Earthquake analysis
Seismic analysis is related to calculation of the response of a building or other structure
under earthquakes. It is part of the process of structural design which includes
earthquake engineering or structural assessment and retrofit in regions where earthquakes
are prevalent.

In ES-EN 1998, Article 4.3.3.1 there are two types of linear-elastic analysis methods and
other two alternative non-linear methods.

Figure 5-6: Methods of earthquake analysis

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Remark: During earthquake any of the buildings collapse due to lack of understanding
of the inelastic behavior of structure. Elastic analysis gives only elastic capacity of the
structure and indicates where the first yielding occurs. It cannot give any information
about redistribution of forces & moments and failure mechanism. For this level the
linear-elastic method of analysis is used. Thus, while using the elastic method of analysis
the non-linear or inelastic method of analysis is accounted by the behavior factor, q.

5.5.1 Criteria for selection of the analysis method

In order to select the linear elastic analysis method ES-EN 1998 has specified conditions
considering regularity characteristics of the building in plan and in elevation.

Table 5-2: Consequences of structural regularity on seismic analysis and design (ES-EN
1998, Article 4.2.3.1 Table 4.1)

Regularity Allowed simplification Behavior factor

Plan Elevation Model Linear Elastic Analysis (for linear analysis)

Yes Yes Planar Lateral force Reference value

Yes No Planar Model Decreased value

No Yes Spatial Lateral force Reference value

No No Spatial Model Decreased value

5.5.2 Verifying regularity in plan and elevation

According to ES-EN 1998, Article 4.2.3.2 & Article 4.2.3.3 there are criteria listed for
regularity in plan and elevation respectively. Thus, verifying those criteria is necessary to
choose from either of the two linear-elastic method of analysis.

Verifying regularity in plan

Criterion 1: With respect to the lateral stiffness and mass distribution, the building
structure shall be approximately symmetrical in plan with respect to two orthogonal axes.

Check: The functional use of the building is orthogonally similar. It is a

residential building which is an apartment having similar function every
floor. Thus, it satisfies the criterion.

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Criterion 2: The plan configuration shall be compact, i.e., each floor shall be delimited
by a polygonal convex line. If in plan set-backs (re-entrant corners or edge recesses)
exist, regularity in plan may still be considered as being satisfied, provided that these
setbacks do not affect the floor in-plan stiffness and that, for each set-back, the area
between the outline of the floor and a convex polygonal line enveloping the floor does
not exceed 5 % of the floor area.

Check: According to E. Booth and Z. Lubkowski the definition of Re-

entrant Area (RA) is an area of a set-back at the corner of the main
structural element and outline of the floor is a surrounding line of main
structural elements excluding balconies & other cantilever projections
which is considered as Plan Area (PA) of the building.

Figure 5-7: Verification of compact shape (according to E. Booth and Z. Lubkowski,

Evaluating regularity in plan and elevation, 2009)
Criterion 3: The in-plan stiffness of the floors shall be sufficiently large in comparison
with the lateral stiffness of the vertical structural elements, so that the deformation of the
floor shall have a small effect on the distribution of the forces among the vertical
structural elements. In this respect, the L, C, H, I, and X plan shapes should be carefully
examined, notably as concerns the stiffness of the lateral branches, which should be
comparable to that of the central part, in order to satisfy the rigid diaphragm condition.
The application of this paragraph should be considered for the global behavior of the
building.

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Check: The building is rectangular with small opening. Since the slab is a
solid slab with a rigid diaphragm, the in-plan stiffness of the floor is
larger than the lateral stiffness of the vertical structural elements. Thus, it
satisfies the criterion.

Criterion 4: The slenderness λ = Lmax / Lmin of the building in plan shall be not higher
than 4, where Lmax and Lmin are respectively the larger and smaller in plan dimension
of the building, measured in orthogonal directions. Then:

Check: λ = Lmax/Lmin < 4

λ = 16.2m/11.2m < 4
λ = 1.45 < 4 ………Ok! (It satisfies the criteria.)
Criterion 5: In single
story buildings the Centre of stiffness is defined as the Centre of the lateral stiffness of
all primary seismic members. The torsional radius r is defined as the square root of the
ratio of the global torsional stiffness with respect to the Centre of lateral stiffness, and
the global lateral stiffness, in one direction, taking into account all of the primary seismic
members in this direction.

Check: The building is a multistory building. Thus, no need to add other

effects.

Criterion 6: In multi-story buildings only, approximate definitions of the center of

stiffness and of the torsional radius are possible. A simplified definition, for the
classification of structural regularity in plan and for the approximate analysis of torsional
effects, is possible if the following two conditions are satisfied:

a) All lateral load resisting systems, such as cores, structural walls, or frames, run
without interruption from the foundations to the top of the building;
Check: Here in the building all lateral load resisting systems are
continuous from foundation to the top of the building. Thus, this criterion
is satisfied.
b) The deflected shapes of the individual systems under horizontal loads are not
very different. This condition may be considered satisfied in the case of frame
systems and wall systems. In general, this condition is not satisfied in dual
systems.

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Check: This condition is satisfied since the system is frame system. In

addition to that the building is a single purpose building.

Criterion 7: In frames and in systems of slender walls with prevailing flexural

deformations, the position of the centers of stiffness and the torsional radius of all story
may be calculated as those of the moments of inertia of the cross-sections of the vertical
elements. If, in addition to flexural deformations, shear deformations are also significant,
they may be accounted for by using an equivalent moment of inertia of the cross-section.

Check: Here the Centre of stiffness calculation is not necessary since the
software ETABS will do it.

Therefore, satisfying all the criteria for regularity in plan.it is a ‘Yes’ on Table 5-2,
specifically for regularity, plan.

Verifying regularity in elevation

Criterion 1: All lateral load resisting systems, such as cores, structural walls, or frames,
shall run without interruption from their foundations to the top of the building or, if
setbacks at different heights are present, to the top of the relevant zone of the building.

Check: The frames and structural walls in the building runs from their
foundations to the top of the building without interruption.

Criterion 2: Both the lateral stiffness and the mass of the individual story shall remain
constant or reduce gradually, without abrupt changes, from the base to the top of a
particular building.

Check: Individual stories run without abrupt change from the base to the
top of the building. Thus, the criterion is satisfied.

Criterion 3: In framed buildings the ratio of the actual story resistance to the resistance
required by the analysis should not vary disproportionately between adjacent story.

Check: The ratio of the actual story resistance to the resistance required
by the analysis between adjacent story do not vary disproportionately.

Criterion 4: This criterion is required when setbacks are present.

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Check: The building has no setbacks.

Therefore, satisfying all the criteria for regularity in elevation it is a ‘Yes’ on Table 5-2,
specifically for regularity, elevation. According to the allowed simplification the model
is ‘Planar’ and the linear-elastic analysis is ‘Lateral Force’ method.

5.5.3 Determination of base shear force

Using the lateral force method of analysis, the main aim is to determine the base shear
force which is a horizontal component.

Figure 5-8: Base shear force on the building

In general term force is a multiplication of acceleration and mass. According to ES-EN
1998, Article 4.3.2.2 the seismic base shear force Fb, for each horizontal direction in
which the building is analyzed, shall be determined using the following expression from
ES-EN 1998 equation 4.5:

Fb = Sd (T1 ) . m . λ (5-2)

Where:

Sd(T1) Ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1

M Total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a rigid
basement
λ Correction factor, the value of which is equal to λ = 0.85 if T 1 ≤ 2Tc and the
building has more than two stories, or λ = 1.0 otherwise
But what do acceleration and mass signify? And what are their magnitudes? The
following steps will answer these questions and show the flow prior to the specific
calculation for the building.

Step-1: Determination of design spectrum acceleration, Sd(T1)

Response spectrum is a plot of the peak or steady-state response (displacement, velocity

or acceleration) of a series of oscillators of varying natural frequency that are forced into

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motion by the same base vibration or shock. One such use is in assessing the peak
response of buildings to earthquakes. The response of the building is studied for different
types of earthquake magnitudes, various periods and damping ratios. Response spectrum
provides a practical way to apply the knowledge of structural dynamics to design of
structures and development of lateral force requirements in building codes.

The design response spectrum for a ground motion component is developed using:

• Ground motion (ag) for an earthquake

• Natural vibration period, T
• Damping ratio, η

According to ES-EN Article 3.2.2.5 the design spectrum is Ƒ (ag, q, S, TB, TC, TD, T1).

Step-1.1: Determination of design ground acceleration, ag

For this earthquake concept there are three different accelerations that seems to be
confusing. These are:

• Bedrock acceleration (ao): is the acceleration of the selected bed rock due to
earthquake shaking.
• Peak ground acceleration (agR, PGA): is equal to the maximum ground
acceleration that occurred during earthquake shaking. PGA is equal to the
amplitude of the largest absolute acceleration recorded on an accelerogram at a
site during a particular earthquake. Earthquake shaking generally occurs in all
three directions. Therefore, PGA is often split into the horizontal and vertical
components. Horizontal PGAs are generally larger than those in the vertical
direction, but this is not always true, especially close to large earthquakes.
• Design ground acceleration (ag): is the modification of peak ground acceleration
by the importance factor of the building.

According to ES-EN, 1998 the Ethiopian national territories are divided into seismic
zones. The building is in zone 3 (Addis Ababa) where the peak ground acceleration
(PGA or ao/g) is 0.1g from seismic hazard map of Ethiopia (2015).

So, in order to determine the design ground acceleration, the importance class of the
building must be known.

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• Importance class is a multiplier that increases or decreases the base design loads.
Importance factors are outlined as a minimum required guideline with the
primary intent of protecting the functionality of the structure after a severe event.
The higher importance factor enhances the reliability (safety factor) of the
structure, which helps to protect its occupants, as well as its function, during and
after a major environmental event.

In ES-EN, 1998 Buildings are classified in 4 importance classes, depending on the

consequences of collapse for human life, on their importance for public safety and civil
protection in the immediate post-earthquake period, and on the social and economic
consequences of collapse.

Based on ES-EN 1998, Article 4.2.5 Table 4.3 the building is classified as importance
class of II (ordinary building). Thus, the recommended importance factor is γ1=1
according to Article 4.2.5, 5(p).

ag = γ1 . agR (5-3)

Where:

ag Design ground acceleration

γ1 Importance factor of the building
agR Peak ground acceleration
m m
ag = 1 ∗ 0.1g = 0.1 g
s2 s2

Step-1.2: Determination of behavior factor, q

Behavior factor is the ratio of elastic to plastic spectrum. In building structures are
designed for energy dissipation and ductility, the value of the behavior factor, by which
the elastic spectrum used in linear analysis is reduced, depends on the type of lateral-
force-resisting system and on the ductility, class selected for the design. There are three
types of ductility classes: low, medium and high.

• For low ductility class

The upper limit value of the behavior factor q, to account for energy dissipation capacity,
is derived for each design direction as follows:

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q = qo . K w (5-4)

Where:

q Behavior factor
qo Basic value of the behavior factor, dependent on the type of the structural system and
on its regularity in elevation
kw Factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls
Thus, the values of qo is taken as 1.5 which is the maximum value to be considered for
low ductile class structures and the factor kw is taken as one, since there is no a structural
wall in the model.

• For medium and high ductility class

For buildings that are regular in elevation, the basic values of qo for the various structural
types are given in ES-EN 1998 Article 5.2.2.2, Table 5.1. For dual system the value if
behavior factor is 3.0αu/α1. From Article 5.2.2.2, (5) for multistory, multi-bay frames
αu/α1 = 1.3.

q = 3.0αu/α1 (5-5)

Where:

αu Value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied, in order to form
plastic hinges in a number of sections sufficient for the development of overall
structural instability, while all other design actions remain constant.
α1 Value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied in order
to first reach the flexural resistance in any member in the structure, while all
other design actions remain constant
q = 3.0 ∗ 1.3 = 3.9
Remark: Behavior factor accounts:

• No-linear or inelastic method of analysis

• Damping ratio

Damping ratio is a process of gradually releasing or dissipating the kinetic energy.

Buildings damp by cracking or by reinforcement friction. Damping ratio is the ratio

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of damping to critical damping. The behavior factor will be accounted on design

which will also address damping.

Step-1.3: Identification of the type of elastic response spectra

Elastic response spectrum is a response spectrum which are basis for computing design
displacements and forces in systems expected to remain elastic. It is highly dependent on
the ground condition or type. According to ES-EN 1998 Article 3.12, Table 3.1 the
building to be constructed is classified on ground type A (Rock or other rock-like
geological formation, including at most 5 m of weaker material at the surface.)

Remark: Even though both peak ground acceleration and elastic response spectrum are
accelerations for this case, PGA addresses the ground earthquake magnitude whereas
response spectrum is purely dependent on the behavior of the building.

According to article 3.2.2.2, 2(P) Note 1, the surface wave magnitude (MS) requires deep
investigation on the site. Thus, depending on the characteristics of the most significant
earthquake contributing to the local hazard the design elastic response spectra is
classified in to two as follow:

• Type-1- High and moderate seismic regions (Ms > 5.5)

• Type 2 - Low seismicity regions (Ms ≤ 5.5); near field earthquakes

According to a study from Atalay Ayele (Addis Ababa University) based on data of
Institute of Geophysics Space Science and Astronomy of Addis Ababa University, Addis
Ababa, Dire Dawa and Mek’ele are found in the most seismically hazardous areas. The
cities Addis Ababa, Nazret, Dire Dawa and Awassa are very near to the main fault lines
(e.g. the Wonji fault, Nazret fault, Addis-Ambo-Ghedo fault, and Fil-Woha fault) where
many earthquakes have previously occurred (Kinde, 2002). Thus, for Addis Ababa type
1 design elastic response spectrum is selected.

From ES-EN 1998 Article 3.2.2.2, Table 3.2 values of the parameters describing the
recommended type 1 elastic response spectra for ground type A are:

S = 1.0
TB(s) = 0.15
TC(s) = 0.4
TD(s) = 2

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Where:

S Soil factor
TB(s) Lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch
TC(s) Upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch
TD(s) Value defining the beginning of the constant displacement response range of the
spectrum
The value of the damping correction factor η can be determined by the expression
dependent on the type of design elastic response spectra which is Type 1 (High and
moderate seismic regions):

10 (5-6)
η = √[ ] ≥ 0.55
5+ξ

Where:

ξ Viscous damping ratio of the structure expressed as a percentage

For type 1 the recommended viscous damping ratio is 5%.

η = [10/(5+ 5)](1/2) ≥ 0.55

η = 1 ≥ 0.5

Thus, η = 1

Step-1.4: Determination of fundamental period, T1

Fundamental period is the time taken for each complete cycle of oscillation (i.e. one
complete back-and-forth motion). The value depends on the building flexibility and
mass. The more flexibility the building has, the longer is T1, and more the mass, the
longer is T1. Though it is difficult to generalize things in earthquake, usually taller
buildings are more flexible and have larger mass and therefore have a longer T1.

According to ES-EN 1998 Article 4.3.3.2.1, equation 4.4 the fundamental periods of
vibration T1 need to be limited as follow:

4. Tc (5-7)
T1 ≤ {
2.0 sec

4 ∗ 0.4 sec
T1 ≤ {
2.0 sec

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1.6 sec
T1 ≤ {
2.0 sec

Thus, T1 ≤ 1.6sec

According to Article 4.3.3.2.2 of ES-EN1998 the value of T1 (in sec) for buildings up to
a height of 40m can be approximated by the following expression:

3
T1 = Ct ⋅ H 4 (5-8)

Where

Ct 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for moment resistant space
concrete frames and for eccentrically braced steel frames and 0.050 for all other
structures
H Height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the top of a rigid basement =
11*3.2 m = 35.2 m
For structures with concrete or masonry shear walls ES-EN 1998 Article 4.3.3.2.2.,
Equation 4.7 is provided to determine the value of Ct.

𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟓 (5-9)
Ct=
√𝑨𝒄
lwi (5-10)
Ac = ∑[Ai ∗ (0.2 + ( H )2 )]

Where:

Ac Total effective area of the shear walls in the first story of the building, in
m2
Ai Effective cross-sectional area of the shear wall i in the first story of the
building, in m2
lwi Length of the shear wall i in the first story in the direction parallel to the
applied forces, in m, with the restriction that lwi / H should not exceed 0.9

Since the building has no shear wall take Ct = 0.075 which is moment resistant space
concrete frame.

3 3
T1 = Ct ⋅ 𝐻 4 = 0.075x35.24 = 1.08sec ≤ 1.6sec……………………………………………….OK!

Now it is possible to determine the design spectrum acceleration, Sd(T).

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For the horizontal components of the seismic action the design spectrum, Sd(T),
is defined on ES-EN 1998 Article 3.2.2.5, Equations 3.13, 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16. The
equations vary where the fundamental period lies within the specified limit. For T1 =
1.08 sec, it lies between Tc (0.4) and TD (2). Thus, equation (9) is used to determine the
design spectrum.

2.5 Tc (5-11)
= a g . s . ( q ) . (T )
Tc ≤ T1 ≤ TD ∶ Sd(T) { 1
≥ β . ag
Where:

TC, TD Defined on Step-1.3 (Tc (0.4), TD (2))

ag Determined on Step-1.1 (ag = 0.1g)
q Determined on Step-1.2 (q (Low Ductility Class) = 1.5, q (Medium Ductility Class) = 3.9 )
β Lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum. The recommended value of β is 0.2
based on the note on article 3.2.2.5, (4)P of ES-EN 1998.

• For low ductility class

2.5 0.4
𝑆𝑑(𝑇) {= 0.1 ∗ 1.0 ∗ ( ) ∗ ( ) = 0.0617
1.5 1.08
≥ 0.2 ∗ 0.1 = 0.02

Sd(T) =0.0617 ≥ 0.02………………………………………………………………..OK!

Sd(T) =0.0617

• For medium ductility class

2.5 0.4
𝑆𝑑(𝑇) {= 0.1 ∗ 1.0 ∗ ( ) ∗ ( ) = 0.0237
3.9 1.08
≥ 0.2 ∗ 0.1 = 0.02

Sd(T) = 0.0237 ≥ 0.02………………………… ………………………………....OK!

Sd(T) = 0.0237

Step-2: Selection of correction factor, λ

λ accounts for the fact that in buildings with at least three stories and transitional degrees
of freedom in each horizontal direction, the effective modal mass of the 1st
(fundamental) mode is smaller on average by 15%, than the total building mass.

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Checking Take λ = 1.0 due to the following calculation.

T1 > 2Tc
1.08 > 2 * 0.4
1.08 > 0.81
Step-3: Determination of the building mass, m

According to article 3.2.4 of ES-EN1998 (Combinations of the seismic action with other
actions). The inertial effects of the design seismic action are evaluated by taking into
account the presence of the masses associated with all gravity loads appearing in the
following combination of actions:

ΣGk, j “+” Σ ψE,i.Qk,i (5-12)

Where:

ψE.i Combination coefficient for variable action i

From article 4.2.4 of EN1998-1:2003(Combination coefficients for variable actions)

ψ.Ei = ϕ.ψ2i

From table 4.2 of ES-EN1998 (Values of ϕ for calculating ψEi) the building is a
residential apartment building then its categorized in category A, for stories with
correlated occupancy the value of ϕ is 0.8. And for roof the value is 0.

From ES-EN 1990, Table A1.1 (recommended value of ψ factor for buildings), Action-
imposed loads in buildings-category A: domestic, residential areas.

ψ2=0.3

ψ.Ei = 0.8x0.3= 0.24

Thus,

Total Load= Dead Load + 0.24 * Live Load

Step-2.1: Computation of total mass and center of mass

Mass computation is done for:

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Typical floor

• Slab’s own weight

• Beam’s own weight
• Partition wall’s own weight
• Column’s own weight

Ground floor

• Column’s own weight

Roof

• Beam’s own weight

Remark: The cross-section size of the beam and column are assumed using a rough
calculation. For the beam taking the longest span length, it is analyzed in SAP software
assigning the load acting on it. According to the rough calculation it is estimated to be:
30 x 40 (cm) for typical beam, 20 x30 (cm), for secondary beam and 20 x 25 (cm) for top
tie beam. For the column tributary area method is used selecting a column surrounded by
large panels. Based on this calculation the estimated cross-section of column at the
foundation is 50 x 50 (cm).

Center of mass computation is done for each story independently which is shown in
detail on Appendix B.

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Figure 5-9: Slab panel, beam, and column and shear wall naming

Table 5-3: Summary of center of mass and weight of each story

Story Mass (KN) Xc (m) Yc (m)
Roof 162.650 5.011 6.735
10th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
9th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
8th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
7th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
6th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
5th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
4th Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
3rd Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
2nd Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
1st Floor 1950.344 5.031 8.152
Ground Floor 965.417
∑ 20631.507

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Now it is possible to determine the base shear force for both ductility class as follow:

Fb = Sd(T1) ⋅ m ⋅ λ

• For low ductility class

Fb =0.0617g * 20631.507 KN * 1.0 = 0.0617*9.81 * 20631.507 KN * 1.0

Fb = 12487.0 KN
• For medium ductility class

Fb = 0.0237g * 20631.507KN * 1.0 = 0.0237g * 20631.507KN *

1.0
Fb = 4796.79 KN

Comment: The result shows that the horizontal seismic force on medium ductility class
building is lesser than low ductility class building. For DCM the impact of earthquake is
accounted by the detailing where as for DCL it is accounted on the cross-sectional size.
The main parameter which changes the value of base shear force is design elastic
response spectrum (Sd(T1)) which is dependent on the behavior factor (vary for DCL
and DCM). The behavior factor signifies the building ability to dissipate energy from the
seismic force. The higher the behavior factor, the more the building dissipates energy.

5.5.4 Distribution of base shear or horizontal seismic force

The fundamental mode shapes in the horizontal directions of analysis of the building
may be calculated using methods of structural dynamics or may be approximated by
horizontal displacements increasing linearly along the height of the building.

When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements

increasing linearly along the height, the horizontal forces Fi should be taken as being
given by ES-EN 1998 Article 4.3.3.2.3, Equation 4.11:

Fi=FbZimi/(∑Zjmj) (5-13)

Where:

Fi Horizontal force acting on storey i;

Fb Seismic base shear

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Zi, Zj Heights of the masses mi and mj above the level of application of the seismic
action (foundation or top of a rigid basement).
mi, mj Story masses

Table 5-4: Seismic weight calculation

Storey Dead Load, Gk (KN) Live Load, Qk (KN) Gk + 0.15 Qk (KN)

Roof 162.650 0.000 162.650
10th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
9th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
8th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
7th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
6th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
5th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
4th Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
3rd Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
2nd Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
1st Floor 1950.344 270.139 2015.177
∑ 20314.422

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Table 5-5: Distribution of the horizontal seismic force

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Figure 5-10: Distribution of base shear on the building

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5.5.5 Accidental torsional effects

In order to account for uncertainties in the location of masses and in the spatial variation
of the seismic motion, the calculated center of mass at each floor shall be considered as
being displaced from its nominal location in each direction by accidental eccentricity
(ES-EN 1998 Article 4.3.2, Equation 4.3);

eai = ±0.05⋅ Li (5-14)

Where:

eai Accidental eccentricity of story mass i from its nominal location, applied in the same
direction at all floors
L Floor-dimension perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action
• On the X-direction

eax = ±0.05⋅ Lx

eax= ±0.05x11.2m

eaix = ±0.56m

• On the Y-direction

eay = ±0.05⋅ Ly

eaiy = ±0.05x16.2m

eaiy = ±0.81m

Figure 5-11: Location of the eccentricity in X and Y from the center of mass

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CHAPTER 6 BASIC CONCEPT OF CAPACITY DESIGN

In accordance with the compliance criteria the seismic analysis has already been
performed. The next step is to design the structural elements according to the design
criteria and provide appropriate detailing.
According to ES-EN 1998 there are three dissipation classes. These are:
• Low (ductility class low (DCL)) – virtually no hysteretic (extreme) ductility is
intended and the resistance to earthquake is achieved through the strength.
• Medium (DCM) – quite high levels of plasticity are permitted.
• High (DCH) – large inelastic excursions are permitted.
On low ductility class the seismic force calculated is larger with less complicated
realization of details, whereas on high ductility class the seismic force is reduced with
high-quality realization of details.

6.1.1 Design concepts

Energy dissipation and ductility class

Even though ductility and strength have inverse relations, a provision of ductility is
required without significant strength degradation. To decrease the cost of the structural
building, improving the ability of defined critical regions for high ductility demand is
preferable which leads to achieve lower global demands.

Picking the beam-column joint and plastic hinge locations in the beam are practical
examples for local ductility demands whereas full columns, shear walls and beams for
global demand.

There are two primary guidelines in which achieving lower global demand have to be
built upon. These are:

• Regularity of structural arrangements

• Providing adequate stiffness

Structural types:

According to ES-EN 1998 concrete buildings can be classified into 6 structural types.

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Structural Types

Frame system

• structural system in which both the vertical and lateral loads are mainly
resisted by spatial frames whose shear resistance at the building base exceeds
65% of the total shear resistance of the whole structural system.

Dual system, frame or wall equivalent

• structural system in which support for the vertical loads is mainly provided
by a spatial frame and resistance to lateral loads is contributed to in part by
the frame system and in part by structural walls, coupled or uncoupled.

Ductile wall system

• wall fixed at the base so that the relative rotation of the base with respect to
the rest of the structural system is prevented, and that is designed and
detailed to dissipate energy in a flexural plastic hinge zone.

Lightly reinforced walls

• wall with large cross-sectional dimensions, that is, a horizontal dimension lw

at least equal to 4,0 m or two-thirds of the height hw of the wall, whichever is
less, which is expected to develop limited cracking and inelastic behavior.
•
Inverted pendulum system

• system in which 50% or more of the mass is in the upper third of the height
of the structure, or in which the dissipation of energy takes place mainly at
the base of a single building element.

Torsionally flexible system

• Dual or wall system not having a minimum torsional rigidity.

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Behavior factors for horizontal seismic actions

Behavior factor accounts approximation of the non-linear response of the structure to

elastic response analysis, frequency shift, increased damping, over strength and
redundancy.

6.1.2 Design criteria

Targeting different fundamental requirements seismic design philosophies are generally
grouped in to four.

The design philosophy used in ES-EN 1998 is capacity design philosophy.

Capacity design

It is a design method in which elements of the structural system are chosen, suitably
designed and detailed for energy dissipation under severe deformations while all other
structural elements are provided with sufficient over strength so that the chosen means of
energy dissipation can be maintained. The critical regions of these members, often
termed as plastic hinges, are detailed for inelastic flexural action, and shear failure is
inhibited by a suitable strength differential.

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All other structural elements are then protected against actions that could cause failure,
by providing them with strength greater than that of the potential plastic hinge regions.

N.B: The primary concern in capacity design philosophy is to establish a suitable

strength or capacity hierarchy between components to the total system. Making all the
section ductile could have been a solution but, due to economic constraint ductility is
provided to only selective location which are called critical regions.

Figure 6-1 Capacity design philosophy

To elaborate the design philosophy, chain analogy is a good example.

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Figure 6-2: Chain analogy for ductile failure

Comparison of direct design and chain design

Direct design is the usual design for low dissipative buildings (DCL) while chain design
is design for high dissipative buildings (DCM and DCH).

Figure 6-3: Direct design described by chain analogy

The links support design force and cannot support force greater than Fy. Thus, σu = 4σy.

Figure 6-4: Chain design described by chain analogy

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Let Link 1,2 and 4 be brittle links and Link 3 be a ductile link. According to capacity
design principles, to maximize the ductility of the chain, some links have to be chosen to
have ductile behavior and be designed with that purpose. The rest of the structure must
be designed with excess strength in order to remain elastic during the plastic
deformations of the ductile links. For this purpose, the design force of the brittle links
must be equal to the maximum resistance of the ductile links after yielding, that is, a
force equal or above Fu. Therefore, the force applied on the chain can increase above Fy
up to the value Fu but cannot exceed this value. At this stage the chain collapses.

σu = 3σy + σu1 = 3σy + 20σy = 23σy (6-1)

Displacement much higher than the chain designed with the direct design methodology.

The key points in this chain analogy concept are:

• Not every link is required to be ductile.

• The load carrying capacity of brittle links must be greater than the ductile links.

Failure modes of mechanisms

Figure 6-5: Failure modes of a building (a-i)

For a ductility class medium building, the chain analogy can be interpreted as; hinges at
the edge of beams and at the bottom of the base column represent ductile link (link 3).
These hinges are designed as a ductile section whereas all the other sections are designed
as brittle members with increased yield capacity.

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Figure 6-6: Desirable failure mode for ductility class medium

Using the fact that the strength of a chain is the strength of its weakest link, a very
ductile link may be used to achieve adequate ductility for the entire chain. If the brittle
links are designed to have the same nominal strength as the ductile link, the randomness
of strength variation between all links, including the ductile link, would imply a high
probability that failure would occur in a brittle link and the chain would have no
ductility.

N.B: In this capacity design philosophy (for DCM & DCH) ductile link is like a
permanent rubber band which allows displacement of the building much larger than the
direct design methodology (for DCL).

Local ductility provisions

According to ES-EN 1998 to achieve the global response reductions consistent, much
greater local ductility has to be available within the critical regions of the structure. The
ductility is provided by a special confinement particularly at the base of columns, within
beam-column joints and in boundary elements of ductile walls.

In general, the ductility is increased by an increase in:

• compression steel content

• concrete compressive strength (confinement)

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• ultimate concrete strain (confinement)

And is decreased by an increase in:

• tension steel content

• steel yield strength

• axial load.

Displacement demand and ductility demand

Displacement demand is the maximum deflection the whole structural system deforms or
deflects so that it can dissipate some of the load induced on it due to Earthquake.

Ductility demand is the maximum ductility level that the structure can reach during a
seismic action that is a function of both the structure and the earthquake.

Figure 6-7: Concept of energy stored and energy dissipated

Confined concrete

Confined concrete has stress-strain characteristics that are distinctly different than those
of plain concrete.

Plain concrete subjected to longitudinal compression is in a uniaxial state of stress.

Longitudinal strains generated by such loading give rise to transverse tensile strains that
may result in vertical cracking.

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Combination of lateral pressure and axial compression results in a triaxial state of stress.
Transverse strains caused by lateral pressure counteract the tendency of material to
expand laterally, and result in increased strength.

Figure 6-8: Stress-Strain diagram for confined concrete

Primary and secondary members

Primary members contribute to the seismic resistance of the structure, whereas secondary
members are not part of the main system for resisting seismic loading.

A careful review should be conducted to the structural building to check whether the
stiffening parts of individual members preventing the intended ductile flexural response
and result a brittle shear failure. For instance, columns restrained by masonry panels over
part of their height.

Stiffness considerations

Structural stiffness is important in meeting the damage limitation provisions in assessing

the significance of P-δ effects.

The inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient, θ, used to take account of P-δ effects is:

θ = Ptot * dr / (Vtot * h) (6-2)

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Where:

Ptot Total gravity load at and above the story

Vtot Cumulative seismic shear force acting at each story and h the story height
dr Story drift
N.B: If the maximum value of θ at any level is less than 0.1, then P-δ effects may be
ignored. If θ exceeds 0.3, then the frame is insufficiently stiff, and an alternative solution
is required. For values of θ between 0.1 and 0.2, an approximate allowance for P-δ
effects may be made by increasing the analysis forces by a factor of 1/ (1– θ) whilst, for
values of θ of between 0.2 and 0.3, a second order analysis is required.

6.1.3 Conceptual design

In order to reduce uncertainties of the estimation of the seismic demands, more attention
should be paid to the conceptual design.

Control or decrease ductility demand by:

• the use of base isolation

• the use of energy dissipating device (Structural controls)
• the proper selection of the structural configuration

Provide large ductility with stable hysteretic behavior:

• to achieve integral action of the whole structure by tying together the main
components and detail the plastic hinge location carefully

One of the most important requirement of design of is the weak-beam-strong-column

design of frames aimed at preventing the formation of soft-story mechanisms. For this
purpose, it is necessary that the sum of the flexural capacity of the columns converging
at a joint is greater than the flexural capacity of the beams converging at the same joint.

6.1.4 Frames design for DCM

Material and geometrical restrictions

Reinforcement – Only ribbed bars are permitted as longitudinal reinforcement of critical

regions

Concrete - Class C16/20 or higher must be used

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Beams

In order to promote an efficient transfer of moments between columns and beams, and
reduce secondary effects, the offset of the beam center line from the column center line is
limited to less than a quarter of the column width.

Also, to take advantage of the favorable effect of column compression on the bond of
reinforcement passing through the beam/column joint:

Width of beam ≤ (column width + depth of beam)

≤ Twice column width if less

This requirement makes the use of flat slabs in ductile frames inefficient as the slab
width that contributes to the stiffness and strength of the frame is reduced.

Columns

The cross-sectional dimension should be at least 1/10th distance between the point of
contra flexure and the end of the column, if the inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient θ is
larger than 0.1.

Calculation of action effects

In frame structures, the starting point is the calculation of beam flexural reinforcement to
resist the loads output from the analysis for the relevant gravity load and seismic
combination with the seismic loads reduced by the applicable q factor and factored as
appropriate to account for P-δ effects and accidental eccentricity.

The shear actions on the beam should then be established from the flexural capacity for
the actual reinforcement arrangement provided. Because what is needed is the flexural
capacity to commence.

The moments that should then be applied to the columns are also calculated from
capacity design principles to meet the strong column-weak beam requirement.

∑MRc >= 1.3 ∑MRb (6-3)

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Where:
∑MRc Sum of the column strengths provided at the face of the joint

∑MRb Sum of the beam strengths provided at the face of the joint

Strength verification

Having derived the design shear and bending actions in the structural members, the
resistances are then calculated according to ES-E 1992.

An additional restriction in columns is that the normalized axial compression force Vd

must be less than 0.65.

υd = NEd /Ac fcd ≤ 0.65 (6-4)

Where:

υd Normalized axial compression force

NEd Design strength of
Ac Area of column
fcd Design concrete strength
Design and detailing for ductility

Ductile detailing is concerned about ensuring the damages in buildings during

earthquakes are of the acceptable variety, and also that they occur at the right places and
in right amounts.

Special detailing is required in the ‘critical’ regions, where plastic hinges are expected to
form.

Beams

Critical regions

The critical regions are defined as extending a length hw away from the face of the
support, and a distance of hw to either side of an anticipated hinge position (e.g. where a
beam supports a discontinued column), where hw is the depth of the beam.

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Main (Longitudinal) steel

Although flexural response of reinforced concrete beams to seismic excitation is

generally deformation-controlled, abrupt brittle failure can occur if the area of
reinforcement provided is so low that the yield moment is lower than the concrete
cracking moment.

To guard against this, ES-EN 1998 requires a minimum amount of tension steel equal to:

ρmin, tension side = 0.5 (fctm / fyk) (6-5)

Where:

ρmin Minimum amount of tension steel

fctm Mean value of concrete tensile strength
fyk Characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement

For medium ductile structural building the yield moment of the beam has to be greater
than the concrete cracking moment for the main or longitudinal reinforcement. Otherwise
the concrete cracks and tensile forces are transferred suddenly to the reinforcement were
the beam may be unable to withstand the applied bending moment.

The constant for ρmin for DCL is 0.26 unlike the one in DCM which is 0.5. In order to
understand the constants difference a beam with cross-section 25X50 (cm) is used. When
designing for DCM the crack moment is less than the yield moment. (Mcr = 30.736
KNm < My = 42.614 KNm). The reinforcement yields after the concrete is cracked due
to the provision of ρmin, Ast,min. Since it is a medium ductile building the crack of
concrete helps to loss or dissipate energy safely without yielding of the rebar. When
designing for DCL before the concrete cracks the reinforcement yields for the provision
of ρmin, Ast,min. For DCL buildings ρmin is provided for shrinkage rather than for energy
dissipation. Therefore, coefficient of ρmin for DCM (0.5) is greater than DCL (0.26)
because of the requirement to dissipate energy. (Refer Appendix E)

ρmax, critical regions = ρ’ + 0.0018fcd / (µᶲ εsy,d fyd) (6-6)

Where:

εsy,d Design value of reinforcement strain at yield

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ρ' Compression steel ratio in the beam

fcd Design compressive strength of the concrete
fyd Design yield strength of the reinforcement
µᶲ Curvature ductility factor

µᶲ = 2qo-1 if T ≥ Tc

µᶲ = 1+2(qo-1)Tc/T if T < Tc

ρmax is dependent on the compression steel ratio in order to avoid compression failure
before tension failure. In capacity design any form of brittle failure has to be avoided.

Seismic action is a repeated inelastic cyclic load applied to the structural building. Due to
this the bond between concrete and reinforcement becomes unreliable. Thus, while
detailing the beam, splicing of rebars shouldn’t takes place. Even on non-critical regions
the provision of splicing of rebar must be accompanied with a confined specially
designed transverse steel.

Hoop (Transverse) regions

Many of the detailing provisions in ES-EN 1998 revolve around the inclusion of
transverse reinforcement to provide a degree of triaxial confinement to the concrete core
of compression zones and restraint against buckling of longitudinal reinforcement. As
confinement increases the available compressive capacity, in terms of both strength and
more pertinently strain, it has enormous benefits in assuring the availability of local
curvature ductility in plastic hinge regions.

Figure 6-9: Transverse reinforcement in beams, from ES-EN 1998 Part 1

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The requirements set out in EC8 to achieve this through detailing of critical regions are
briefly summarized below.

• Hoops of at least 6 mm diameter dbw must be provided.

• The spacing, s, of hoops should be less than the minimum of: hw/4; 24dbw; 225
mm or 8dbL.
• The first hoop should be placed not more than 50 mm from the beam end section.

Hoops must have 10 bar diameters anchorage length into the core of the beam.

Figure 6-10: Medium Ductile Beam reinforcement (at Commercial Bank of

Ethiopia headquarter construction)
Columns

Critical regions

These are the regions adjacent to both end sections of all primary seismic columns. The
length of the critical region (where special detailing is required) is the largest of the
following:

• Hc
• lci/6
• 0.45 m.

Where:

hc Largest cross-section dimension of the column

lci Compression steel ratio in the beam

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The whole length of the column between floors is considered a critical region:

• if (hc/lci) is less than 3

• for structures with masonry infills:

• if it is a ground floor column

• if the height of adjacent infills is less than the clear height of the column

• if there is a masonry panel on only one side of the column in a given plane.

Main (longitudinal) steel

The longitudinal reinforcement ratio must be between 0.01 and 0.04.

• Symmetric sections must be symmetrically reinforced.

• At least one intermediate bar is required along each side of the column.
• Full tension anchorage lengths must always be provided, and 50 per cent
additional length supplied if the column is in tension under any seismic load
combination.
• As for beams, no splicing of bars is allowed in the critical regions and where
splices are made, they must be confined by specially designed transverse steel.

Transverse steel (Hoops and Ties)

The amount of transverse steel supplied in the critical regions at the base of columns
must satisfy:

αωwd ≥ 30µᶲ vd .εsy,d . bc/bo – 0.035 (6-7)

Where:

ωwd (Volume of confining hoops*fyd)/(Volume of concrete core*fcd)

bo Minimum dimension of concrete core
Α Confinement effectiveness factor

The confinement effectiveness factor depends on concrete core dimensions, confinement

spacing and the arrangement of hoops and ties.

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In the critical region at the base of columns, a minimum value of ωwd of 0.08 is
specified. However, for structures utilizing low levels of ductility (q of 2 or less) and
subject to relatively low compressive stresses (νd<0.2), this requirement is waived and
the normal ES-EN 1992 regions of columns the following applies:

• Minimum hoop and tie diameter is 6 mm.

• Maximum spacing of hoops and ties in the critical region is the least of:
• b0 /2
• 175 mm
• 8 dbL.
• The maximum distance between restrained longitudinal bars should be 200 mm.
• Hoops must have 10 bar diameter anchorage length into the core of the column.

Figure 6-11: Typical column details – cross section

Figure 6-12: Ductile Column (at Commercial Bank of Ethiopia headquarter construction)

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The medium ductile column in CBE has intermediate rebars along each side. There are
one leg transverse bars used to increase the confinement of the column section.

Beam column joints

The beam-column joints of frames represent a highly stressed region with quite complex
reinforcement detailing. The design requirements in ES-EN 1998 are much more
straightforward for DCM than for DCH.

In DCM joints, no explicit calculation of shear resistance is required, provided the

following rules are satisfied:

a. To ensure that there is adequate bond between reinforcement and concrete, the
diameter of the main beam bars passing through the joint must be limited.
b. At least one intermediate column bar is provided between each of the corners of
the columns.
c. Hoops must continue unreduced through the joint from the critical region of the
column, or must meet the confinement requirements if greater, unless the joint is
confined on all four sides by beams. In this case, the hoop spacing may be
doubled (but must not exceed 150 mm).

Figure 6-16: Medium ductile Beam Column joint (at Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
headquarter construction)

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6.1.5 Advantage of DCM over DCL

If ductile members are used to form a structure, the structure can undergo large
deformations before failure. This is beneficial to the users of the structures, as in case of
overloading, if the structure is to collapse, it will undergo large deformations before
failure and thus provides warning to the occupants. This gives a notice to the occupants
and provides sufficient time for taking preventive measures. This will reduce loss of life.
· Structures are subjected to unexpected overloads, load reversals, impact and structural
movements due to foundation settlement and volume changes. These items are generally
ignored in the analysis and design. If a structure is ductile than taken care by the
presence of some ductility in the structure. · The limit state design procedure assumes
that all the critical sections in the structure will reach their maximum capacities at design
load for the structure. For this to occur, all joints and splices must be able to withstand
forces and deformations corresponding to yielding of the reinforcement.

Therefore, in moderate-to-high-seismicity regions, DCL buildings may not be cost-

effective due to the provision of large structural member cross-sections. In addition to
cost, they are unsafe in case of overloading leading to immediate collapse without giving
warning.

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CHAPTER 7 FRAME ANALYSIS

7.1 ETABS model description

This part will discuss about general overview of the model which includes the optimized
material and section property, ETABs model (in 3D, plan and elevation views) and
generation of load combination.

7.1.1 Material and section property

When we start from concrete grade the grades listed in table 8.1 are the most optimized
grades that satisfies cover and strength requirements for the respective structural
members. S-460 is used for steel of all structural members, since the interaction diagram
for column formulated by Dr-Ing Girma Z. (AAiT’s Professional Structural Engineer) is
only for S-460. Thus, the same grade of steel is used for other structural members since
applying different steel grades in one structure is not practical.

The sizes of the structural members are assigned by considering stability, safety and
economy of the whole structure after many iterations. The preliminary size of the beam
is assigned by using the architectural drawing as a starting trial and by designing one
long span beam which is subject to large load. The preliminary size of the column is
assigned by using tributary area method as a starting trial. Then the final sizes listed here
in table 8.1 for both beams and columns is reached after many iterations to satisfy the
three basic requirements of design (stability, safety and economy).

Table 7-1: material and section properties used in the ETABs model
Members Name of member Grade of Concrete Steel grade Size (bxD),mm Description
Grade beam C30/37 S-460 350x500 Ground level
Secondary beam C25/30 S-460 200x300 Landing
Beam Top tie beam C30/37 S-460 300x400 Roof level
S-460 1st to 10th floor
Typical beam C30/37 450x600 levels
S-460 3rd to 10th floor
Column(70x70) C45/55 700x700 levels
S-460 Ground to 2nd
Column
Column(85x85) C45/55 850x850 floor levels
S-460 Foundation
Column(90x90) C45/55 900x900 column

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7.1.2 Property/stiffness modification factors

The property/stiffness of the section is modified in the model as shown in Figure 8.1 to
account the cracking of reinforced concrete sections in the tension side which are the
recommended values in ES-EN 1992.

Figure 7-1: Property/stiffness modifiers used in the model

In the absence of stiffness modifiers, the structure would be stiffer and thus attract higher
lateral force due to earthquake. i.e. these stiffness modifiers reduce the capacity of the
section in order to be on the safe side.

7.1.3 Diaphragm assigning

Slab is not modeled in ETABs frame analysis since it is analyzed using the coefficient
method of slab analysis rather the loads transferred from the slab to the beam are
assigned. The diaphragm of typical floor is shown in Figure 8.2 below.

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Figure 7-2: Diaphragm assigning on typical floor

7.1.4 ETABS model

The 3D model is shown in the Figure 8.1 below

Figure 7-3: 3D ETABS model

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The plan view of one typical floor is shown in figure 8.2 below which includes the
typical beams that will be designed later on axis three of the second floor. Elevation view
is also shown in figure 8.3 below which includes the column which will be designed later
on axis 3C of the second floor.

(a) (b)
Figure 7-4: (a)Typical plan view of second floor and (b) Sample Elevation view of the model

7.1.5 Load combinations

The first group of combination is generated for the model includes one for SLS (quasi-
permanent) and one for ULS as comb1 and comb2 respectively.

Comb 1: 1.35Gk+ 1.5Qk. (ULS)

Comb 2: Gk+Qk (SLS, quasi-permanent)

The second group of combination is generated for the action effects due to horizontal
components of seismic action and the quasi-permanent combinations. The diagram
shown in figure 8.6 below shows how the seismic actions are assigned in the ETABs
model on the four points of application obtained by offsetting the center of mass by 5%
to account the accidental torsional effects. By this total of 128 load combinations are
generated starting from comb3 to comb130. In the diagram shown below only the

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positive directions are shown but the negative directions are also considered in the
generated load combinations. For example, there is -EQX1 in exactly opposite direction
of +EQX1 the same works for the other seismic actions shown in the diagram.

Figure 7-5: Diagram of sign convection for the seismic load application
The remaining combinations are listed below

+EQX1 (leading) and EQY (accompanying)

Comb 3: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 4: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY1+IMPY

Comb 5: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1 +0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 6: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY1-IMPY

Comb 7: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1-0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 8: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX -0.3 EQY1 +IMPY

Comb 9: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1-0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 10: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1-0.3 EQY1 -IMPY

Comb 11: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1 +0.3 EQY2+IMPX

Comb 12: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 13: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY2-IMPX

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Comb 14: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1+0.3 EQY2-IMPY

Comb 15: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1 -0.3 EQY2 +IMPX

Comb 16: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1-0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 17: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX1 -0.3 EQY2 -IMPX

Comb 18: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX-0.3 EQY2-IMPY

-EQX1 (leading) and EQY (accompanying)

Comb 19: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 +0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 20: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1+0.3 EQY1+IMPY

Comb 21: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1+0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 22: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1+0.3 EQY1-IMPY

Comb 23: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1-0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 24: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1-0.3 EQY1 +IMPY

Comb 25: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1-0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 26: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1-0.3 EQY1-IMPY

Comb 27: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1+0.3 EQY2+IMPX

Comb 28: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1+0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 29: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 +0.3 EQY2 -IMPX

Comb 30: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 +0.3 EQY2 -IMPY

Comb 31: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 -0.3 EQY2 +IMPX

Comb 32: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 -0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 33: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1-0.3 EQY2-IMPX

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Comb 34: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX1 -0.3 EQY2-IMPY

+EQX2 (leading) and EQY (accompanying)

Comb 35: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2+0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 36: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 +0.3 EQY1+IMPY

Comb 37: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 +0.3 EQY-IMPX

Comb 38: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2+0.3 EQY1, -IMPY

Comb 39: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY1 +IMPX

Comb 40: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY1 +IMPY

Comb 41: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 42: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY1 -IMPY

Comb 43: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2+0.3 EQY2 +IMPX

Comb 44: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2+0.3 EQY2 +IMPY

Comb 45: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2+0.3 EQY2-IMPX

Comb 46: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 +0.3 EQY2-IMPY

Comb 47: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY2+IMPX

Comb 48: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 49: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2 -0.3 EQY2 -IMPX

Comb 50: Gk+0.3Qk +EQX2-0.3 EQY2-IMPY

-EQX2 (leading) and EQY (accompanying)

Comb 51: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 52: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY1 +MPY

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Comb 53: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 54: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY1-IMPY

Comb 55: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2-0.3 EQY1+IMPX

Comb 56: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY1+IMPY

Comb 57: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY1-IMPX

Comb 58: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY1-IMPY

Comb 59: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY2 +IMPX

Comb 60: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 61: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY2-IMPX

Comb 62: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 +0.3 EQY2-IMPY

Comb 63: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY2+IMPX

Comb 64: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY2+IMPY

Comb 65: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY2-IMPX

Comb 66: Gk+0.3Qk -EQX2 -0.3 EQY2-IMPY

+EQY1 (leading) and EQX (accompanying)

Comb 67: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1+0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 68: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 +0.3 EQX1+IMPY

Comb 69: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 +0.3 EQX1-IMPX

Comb 70: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 +0.3 EQX1 -IMPY

Comb 71: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 72: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX1+IMPY

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Comb 73: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX1 -IMPX

Comb 74: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX1, -IMPY

Comb 75: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1+0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 76: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 +0.3 EQX2+IMPY

Comb 77: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1+0.3 EQX2-IMPX

Comb 78: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 +0.3 EQX2-IMPY

Comb 79: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 80: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX2 +IMPY

Comb 81: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1 -0.3 EQX2-IMPX

Comb 82: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY1-0.3 EQX2-IMPY

-EQY1 (leading) and EQX (accompanying)

Comb 83: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX1 +IMPX

Comb 84: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX1 +IMPY

Comb 85: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX1 -IMPX

Comb 86: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX1 -IMPY

Comb 87: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX1 +IMPX

Comb 88: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX1+IMPY

Comb 89: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX1-IMPX

Comb 90: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1-0.3 EQX1 -IMPY

Comb 91: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1+0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 92: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX2 +IMPY

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Comb 93: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX2-IMPX

Comb 94: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 +0.3 EQX2 -IMPY

Comb 95: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1-0.3 EQX2 +IMPX

Comb 96: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX2+IMPY

Comb 97: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX2 -IMPX

Comb 98: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY1 -0.3 EQX2 -IMPY

+EQY2 (leading) and EQX (accompanying)

Comb 99: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 100: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX1+IMPY

Comb 101: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX1-IMPX

Comb 102: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2+0.3 EQX1-IMPY

Comb 103: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 104: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX1 +IMPY

Comb 105: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX1-IMPX

Comb 106: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX1 -IMPY

Comb 107: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 108: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX2+IMPY

Comb 109: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX2-IMPX

Comb 110: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 +0.3 EQX2-IMPY

Comb 111: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2-0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 112: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX2+IMPY

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Comb 113: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX2 -IMPX

Comb 114: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2-0.3 EQX2 -IMPY

-EQY2 (leading) and EQX (accompanying)

Comb 115: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 116: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2+0.3 EQX1+IMPY

Comb 117: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2+0.3 EQX1-IMPX

Comb 118: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX1-IMPY

Comb 119: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 -0.3 EQX1+IMPX

Comb 120: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 -0.3 EQX1 +IMPY

Comb 121: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 -0.3 EQX1 -IMPX

Comb 122: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 -0.3 EQX1-IMPY

Comb 123: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 124: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX2+IMPY

Comb 125: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX2 -IMPX

Comb 126: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 +0.3 EQX2 -IMPY

Comb 127: Gk+0.3Qk -EQY2 -0.3 EQX2+IMPX

Comb 128: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX2 +IMPY

Comb 129: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX2 -IMPX

Comb 130: Gk+0.3Qk +EQY2 -0.3 EQX2 -IMPY

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7.2 Imperfections

Imperfections are deviations from the proposed analysis that result either in change in
dimension, property or boundary conditions. The basic types of imperfections are:

Geometric imperfections

• Variance of dimensions of a structure or a member

• Lack of verticality of a structure and straightness or flatness of a member

Material imperfections

• Variance of material properties

• Residual stresses (distribution in a cross-section usually considered uniform

along the member).

E.g. in I-sections (both hot-rolled and welded)

Structural imperfections

• Variance of boundary conditions, eccentricities in joints

In frame analysis the following imperfections shall be introduced:

• Global imperfections of frames or bracing systems:-Covers lack of verticality for

frames or straightness of structures restrained by bracing)

• Local (member) imperfections of individual members:-Cover lack of straightness

or flatness of a member and residual stresses of the member.

Geometric imperfections according to ES-EN1992 Article 5.2

The unfavorable effects of possible deviations in the geometry of the structure and the
position of loads shall be taken into account in the analysis of members and structures.
Imperfections shall be taken into account in ultimate limit states in persistent and
accidental design situations. It is not considered in serviceability limit state. (ES-EN
1992-1-1, section 5.2).

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The imperfection is represented by inclination ɵi, given by:

θi = θ0⋅αh⋅αm (7-1)

Where:

θ0 Basic value: the recommended value is 1/200= 0.005

2
αh Reduction factor for height: αh = ; 2/3 ≤ αh ≤ 1
√𝑙

Αm 1
reduction factor for number of members: αm = √0.5(1 + 𝑚)

L length or height [m]

M number of vertical members contributing to the total effect

In Expression (1.1), the definition of l and m depends on the effect considered, for which
three main cases can be distinguished (refer Figure 8.8):

• Effect on isolated member: l = actual length of member, m =1.

• Effect on bracing system: l = height of building, m = number of vertical

members contributing to the horizontal force on the bracing system.

• Effect on floor or roof diaphragms distributing the horizontal loads: l=storey

height, m=number of vertical elements in the storey(s) contributing to the total
horizontal force on the floor.

For isolated members the effect of imperfections may be taken into account in two
alternative ways a) or b):

a) As an eccentricity, ei, given by

ei = θi l0 / 2

Where l0 is the effective length,

For walls and isolated columns in braced systems, ei = l0/400 may always be used as a
simplification, corresponding to αh = 1.

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Figure 7-6: Examples of different buckling modes and corresponding effective

lengths for isolated members
b) As a transverse force, Hi, in the position that gives maximum moment:

• for unbraced members:

Hi = θi N (7-2)

• for braced members:

Hi = 2θi N (7-3)

Where:

N Axial load

(a) (b)

Figure 7-7: (a) Unbraced member and (b) Braced member

For structures, the effect of the inclination θi may be represented by transverse forces, to
be included in the analysis together with other actions.

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• Effect on bracing system:

Hi = θi (Nb - Na) (7-4)

• Effect on floor diaphragm:

Hi = θi(Nb + Na) / 2 (7-5)

• Effect on roof diaphragm:

Hi = θi⋅ Na (7-6)

Where:

Na and Nb Vertical forces contributing to Hi.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7-8: (a)Braced system, (b) Floor diaphragm and (c) Roof diaphragm

Computation of inclination, θi

θi = θ0⋅αh⋅αm (7-7)

Where:

θo=0.005
2
αh= ; 2/3 ≤ αh ≤ 1
√𝑙

l=height of the building=11x3.2m=35.2m

2
αh=√35.2=0.337<2/3

Thus, take αh=2/3=0.667

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1
αm== √0.5(1 + )
𝑚

m=number of vertical members=11, then

1 1
αm== √0.5(1 + 𝑚)= √0.5(1 + 11)=0.739

Thus

θi=0.005*0.667*0.739=0.002464

Table 7-2: Transverse forces due to geometric imperfection

Story Force Per
Ѳi, rad
Floor Level Level Forces,P(KN)| Story=Ѳi*(Nb-Na),KN
Roof Bottom 899.75 0.002464 2.217
10th Floor Bottom 3136.7158 0.002464 5.512
9th Floor Bottom 5373.6815 0.002464 5.512
8th Floor Bottom 7610.6473 0.002464 5.512
7th Floor Bottom 9847.613 0.002464 5.512
6th Floor Bottom 12084.5788 0.002464 5.512
5th Floor Bottom 14321.5445 0.002464 5.512
4th Floor Bottom 16558.5103 0.002464 5.512
3rd Floor Bottom 18982.526 0.002464 5.973
2nd Floor Bottom 21406.5418 0.002464 5.973
1st Floor Bottom 23830.5575 0.002464 5.973
Ground Bottom 24959.99 0.002464 2.783

7.3 Safety verification

7.3.1 Ultimate limit state (no collapse requirement)

The no-collapse requirement (ultimate limit state) under the seismic design situation is
considered to have been met if the following conditions regarding resistance, ductility,
equilibrium, foundation stability and seismic joints are met.

Resistance condition

1) Ed ≤Rd

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Where:

Ed Design value of the action effect, due to the seismic design situation

Rd Design resistance of the element, calculated in accordance with the rules to material
used

2) Second- order effects (P-Δ effects)

Ptot ∗ dr (7-8)
θ= ≤ 0.1
Vtot ∗ h

Where:

Inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient

𝛉
Total gravity load at and above the storey considered in the seismic design
Ptot
situation
Design interstorey drift, evaluated as the difference of the average lateral
Dr
displacements ds at the top and bottom of the storey under consideration

Vtot The total seismic storey shear; and

The inter-story height.

H
dr =qd *de (7-9)

Where:

ds Displacement of a point of the structural system induced by the design seismic

action
qd Displacement behavior factor assumed equal to q unless otherwise specified
de Displacement of the same point of the structural system, as determined by a linear
analysis based on the design response spectrum

If 𝜃 ≤ 0.1 no need to consider second order effect (non-sway frame)

If 0,1< θ ≤0,2, the second-order effects may approximately be taken into account by
multiplying the relevant seismic action effects by a factor equal to 1/(1 - θ).

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θ shall not exceed 0.3

• Inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient calculation

For roof (sample calculation)

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑟 (7-10)
𝜃=
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 ∗ ℎ
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑒
=qd , then
ℎ ℎ

𝑑𝑒
=0.001617 from output of ETABS
ℎ

qd=3.9 from earthquake analysis

𝑑𝑟
Then =0.0063063
ℎ

Ptot=899.75KN from ETABS

Vtot=77.715KN from ETABS

899.75 ∗ 0.0063063
θ=
77.715

=0.07301156<0.1 Non sway

The calculation for the remaining floors is tabulated in the table below:

Table 7-3: Inter-story drift sensitivity coefficient calculation

Floor
level Combination Ptot,KN Vtot,KN de/h q dr/h Ѳ Frame
Roof Comb 47 899.75 -77.715 0.001617 3.9 0.006306 0.07 Non-Sway
10th Floor Comb 47 2953.785 -940.316 0.002484 3.9 0.009688 0.03 Non-Sway
9th Floor Comb 47 5007.82 -1717.09 0.003772 3.9 0.014711 0.04 Non-Sway
8th Floor Comb 47 7061.854 -2408.03 0.005013 3.9 0.019551 0.06 Non-Sway
7th Floor Comb 47 9115.889 -3013.15 0.006128 3.9 0.023899 0.07 Non-Sway
6th Floor Comb 47 11169.92 -3522.43 0.007081 3.9 0.027616 0.09 Non-Sway
5th Floor Comb 47 13223.96 -3965.89 0.007852 3.9 0.030623 0.10 sway
4th Floor Comb 47 15277.99 -4313.51 0.008384 3.9 0.032698 0.12 sway
3rd Floor Comb 47 17519.08 -4575.31 0.007796 3.9 0.030404 0.12 sway
2nd Floor Comb 47 19760.16 -4751.28 0.00758 3.9 0.029562 0.12 sway
1st Floor Comb 47 22001.25 -4841.42 0.006587 3.9 0.025689 0.12 sway
Ground Comb 47 23130.68 -4842.9 0.003031 3.9 0.011821 0.06 Non-Sway

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From the above table the results of the inter-story sensitivity coefficient (𝜃) values
indicates the frame system is sway which means we need to account the second-order
effect on the analysis of the frame in ETABS.

In addition to the resistance condition checked above the following requirements should
be met in the ultimate limit state requirement, which will be checked in the analysis and
design of the frame these are:

• Global and local ductility condition

• Equilibrium condition

• Resistance of horizontal diaphragms

• Resistance of foundation

• Seismic joint condition

7.3.2 Serviceability limit state (damage limitation requirement)

Limitation of inter-story drift

• For buildings having non-structural elements of brittle materials attached to the

structure:
drV ≤ 0.005h

• For buildings having ductile non-structural elements:

drV ≤ 0.0075h

• for buildings having non-structural elements fixed in a way so as not to interfere

with structural deformations, or without non-structural elements:

drV ≤0.010 h

Where:

dr Design inter-story drift

h Story height;

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V Reduction factor which takes into account the lower return period of the seismic
action associated with the damage limitation requirement.

The value of the reduction factor V may also depend on the importance class of the
building.

The recommended values of V are:

• V=0.4 for importance classes III and IV and

• V = 0.5 for importance classes I and II.

Damage limitation requirement computation

For Roof Level (Sample Calculation)

Here it is assumed that the buildings having a non-structural element of brittle materials
attached to the structure, thus

drV ≤ 0.005h

drV
≤0.005
h

Where:

dr de
=qd *
h h

de
=0.001617 from ETABS
h

qd=q=3.9

dr de
=qd * = 3.9 ∗ 0.001617 = 0.006306
ℎ ℎ

V=0.5 (for building of importance class II) then

drV
= 0.006306 ∗ 0.5 = 0.003153≤0.005
h

0.003153 ≤0.005 OK!

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Table 7-4:The calculation for the remaining story

Maximum
Story de/h q dr/h V drV/h Value check
Roof 0.000091 3.9 0.000355 0.5 0.000177 0.005 OK
10th Floor 0.000087 3.9 0.000339 0.5 0.00017 0.005 Ok
9th Floor 0.000084 3.9 0.000328 0.5 0.000164 0.005 Ok
8th Floor 0.000079 3.9 0.000308 0.5 0.000154 0.005 Ok
7th Floor 0.000072 3.9 0.000281 0.5 0.00014 0.005 Ok
6th Floor 0.000064 3.9 0.00025 0.5 0.000125 0.005 Ok
5th Floor 0.000053 3.9 0.000207 0.5 0.000103 0.005 Ok
4th Floor 0.000042 3.9 0.000164 0.5 8.19E-05 0.005 Ok
3rd Floor 0.000032 3.9 0.000125 0.5 6.24E-05 0.005 Ok
2nd Floor 0.000023 3.9 8.97E-05 0.5 4.49E-05 0.005 Ok
1st Floor 0.000012 3.9 4.68E-05 0.5 2.34E-05 0.005 Ok
Ground 0.000004 3.9 1.56E-05 0.5 7.8E-06 0.005 OK

7.4 How to assign imperfection in ETABS

The global and local imperfection can be accounted during design or analysis stage.

During Analysis stage

During the analysis stage the imperfection can be accounted by applying equivalent
horizontal force at each story for global imperfection. This is done by;

• Calculating transverse force using Hi=θi (Nb-Na), the longitudinal force at the
top and bottom of the column can be found by running ETABS.

• Global imperfection can be accounted for as equivalent horizontal force defined

as notional loads in ETABS. The steps to be followed are:

NB: Notional load pattern for x and y direction for each dead and live load with a load
ratio θi = θ0⋅αh⋅αm and Set theta (ratio) =0.00001 in design

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During design

Setting concrete frame design preferences to account for global imperfection in ETABS.
The steps to be followed are:

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CHAPTER 8 BEAM DESIGN

8.1 Introduction

A beam is generally defined as a horizontal element which is subjected mainly to

transverse loading and does not develop significant axial compression in the design
seismic situation. The primary, if not the only, mode in which concrete elements can
dissipate energy is in bending. Energy dissipation takes place in alternate positive and
negative bending at flexural plastic hinges at member ends although long-span beams
also subjected to significant transverse loading may develop one-sided plastic hinges in
positive bending at some distance from their end sections. Dissipative zones in concrete
elements are termed ‘critical regions’.

Beam hinge moment capacity

The beam hinge moment capacities, at yield in the actual structure, are of great
significance. They determine the level of seismic lateral load resistance built into the real
structure, and thus they directly affect the ductility demand which the structure must
sustain in order to survive the earthquake. They also largely govern the design of all
other components of the frame.

To secure ductile performance in the real structure, design calculations must allow
adequately for maximum likely over strength which could be built in to the beam hinge
locations. Beam hinge moment capacities must therefore be calculated from the known
reinforcing bar details, making allowance for all foreseeable sources of such over
strength. The over strength sources are:

• Higher actual yield point of main bars

• Strain hardening of main bars
• Slab reinforcement (Co-operation of slab reinforcing bars can significantly
increase beam hinge capacity, and its contribution should be carefully assessed.)
• Tensile strength of slab concrete (Where anchorage of slab connections near the
column is effective, concrete tensions may be significant especially for a single
cycle or for a single pulse loading.)

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Non-ductile shear failure must be prevented. In addition to the load-factored dead and
live load shears, the beams must resist the maximum shears which can be induced under
dynamic conditions as hinges develop and plastic zones spread inwards, usually from the
beam ends.

Sample calculation of axis 3 beams are done.

8.2 Flexural design of beam

In calculating moment capacities of beams subjected to earthquake forces, it has been

widespread practice to ignore compression reinforcement of the beam and any tension
reinforcement in the flange (slab) for a beam in negative bending (tension at top).
Ignoring the slab reinforcement results in the calculated strength of the beam being less
than it would be if these effects were included in the calculations. This over strength in
flexure, uses up some of the cushion of shear strength provided from a capacity-design
procedure.

Actual beam capacity

The actual beam capacity is a combination of the actual reinforcement provided for
flexure plus the contribution of the slab for sagging moment. For primary beams framing
into interior columns.

Figure 8-1: Contribution of slab for actual beam capacity

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Steps taken for flexural design

Hogging moment (Negative moment):

1. Calculate μ

2. If μ > 0.205 provide compressive reinforcement

3. For μ < 0.205 determine Kz

4. Calculate tensile reinforcement

Sagging moment (Positive moment):

1. Calculate beff

2. Calculate μ

3. Determine the location of neutral axis

4. Calculate reinforcement

Detailed flexural design for selected axis is as follow:

Step-1: Define envelope combination

The hogging and sagging moments of the beam are determined from ETABS analysis.
Envelope combinations must be defined in ETABS software load combination section
based on the leading direction of earthquake which are EQX and EQY. EQX implies
earthquake loading in X direction and EQY stands for earthquake loading in Y direction.
The maximum moment can be determined by combining both envelopes.

Envelope X – Earthquake in X direction is leading

Envelope Y – Earthquake in Y direction is leading

Envelope XY – Combination of Envelope X and Envelope Y

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Step-2: Draw bending moment diagram

Beam marked ABC (Axis 3) in Figure 8-2: Beam ABC on the frame on 2nd floor is
considered for design. The maximum hogging moment (a bending moment that produces
convex bending at the supports of a continuously supported beam or negative bending
moment) and maximum sagging moment (a bending moment that produces concave
bending at midspan of a simply supported beam or positive bending moment) from
Envelope XY in ETABS analysis result need to be generated.

Figure 8-2: Beam ABC on the frame

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Figure 8-3: Bending moment diagram of Beam BC

Figure 8-4: Bending moment diagram of Beam AB

N.B: Design of beam AB and beam BC are similar. Design of beam BC is shown in
detail as follow.

The maximum hogging and sagging moment throughout span of beam BC is taken.

M(Hogging) = 955.571 KNm

M(Sagging) = 920.072 KNm

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Step-3: Design for sagging moment

Step-3.1: Determine µ

M (8-1)
μ=
beff d2 (fcd )

Where: Assumed cross-section:

M Hogging or sagging moment Concrete cover = 30 mm

beff Effective width of the beam
Diameter of main rebar = 24 mm
d Effective depth of the beam
Diameter of stirrup = 8 mm
fcd Design strength of concrete

Depth of beam = D = 650 mm

d = D – Concrete cover – Stirrup – Ømain bar / 2

d = 650 – 30 – 8 – (24/2)

d = 600 mm

Assumed material:

C 30/37

S-460

0.85 ∗ 30
fcd = = 17 mpa
1.5

460
fyd = = 400 mpa
1.15

fctm = 2.9 mpa

N.B: T and L beams are considered only on the spans of the beams whereas at the
support rectangular sections are considered. For sagging moment, the contribution of
slab need to be included.

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Effective width for T-beam:

Figure 8-5: Longitudinal section of Beam ABC

Figure 8-6: Effective width for T-beam

= beff,i = Σbeff,i + bw ≤ b (8-2)

beff,i= 0.2bi + 0.1l0 ≤ 0.2l0 ≤ bi (8-3)

l0 = 0.15 ∗ (l1 + l2 ) = 0.15(5.4 + 4.2) = 1.44m

(0.5 − 0 ⋅ 4.5)
𝑏1 = = 2.475𝑚
2

(4.2−0⋅45)
b2 = = 1.875m
2

beff,1 = 0.2 ∗ 2.475 + 0.1 ∗ 1.44 = 0.639 ≥ 0.2l0 = 0.2 ∗ 1.44 = 0.288m ≤ 2.475

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beff,2 = 0.2 ∗ 1.875 + 0.1 ∗ 1.44 = 0.519m ≥ 0.2l0 = 0.2 ∗ 1.44 = 0.288m ≤ 1.875

beff = Σbeff,i + bw ≤ b

beff = (2 ∗ 0.288) + 0.450 = 1.026m = 1026mm ≤ 2475 + 1875 + 4504=4800 mm

beff = 1026mm

m
μ=
beff d2 (fcd )

920.0721 ∗ 103
μ=
1.026 ∗ (0.6)2 ∗ 17 ∗ 106

μ = 0.0846 < μ∗ = 0.205 → Single reinforced

k x = 0.21 ⇒ x = k x ∗ d = 0.21 ∗ 0.6m = 0.126m = 126mm

Check location of neutral axis: x = 126mm < t f = 200mm → neutral axis is at the
flange. Thus, take rectangular beam with width bf or beff

Step-3.2: Determine lever arm (Z)

z = k z ∗ d (Reading μ from General Design Chart and Design Table to ES-EN 1992-1-
1:2014)

μ = 0.0846

z = 0.95 ∗ 600mm

z = 570mm

Step-3.3: Determine Ast

M 920.0721 ∗ 103 N
Ast = =
z ∗ fyd 0.57 ∗ 400 N/mm2
Ast = 4033.1mm2

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Step-3.4: Number of bars

Ast,req 4033.1
n= =
ast (24)2
π∗ 4

n = 8.9 ≅ 9(provide 9Ø24)

Step-3.5: Number of bars per row

Øbar = 24mm
Minimum clear space between bars = max {aggergate size + 5mm = 20mm + 5mm
20mm
Minimum clear space between bars = 25mm

𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 → 450 = 30 ∗ 2 + 8 ∗ 2 + 𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 ∗ 24 + (𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 − 1) ∗ 25

374 = 24𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 + 25𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 − 25

𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎 = 8.143 ≅ 8𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑤

Figure 8-7: Arrangement of reinforcement for tension in the beam

d1 = 30 +8 + (24/2) = 50 mm

d2 = 50 + (24/2) + 25 + (24/2) = 99 mm

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Weighted average d’
2 2
A1 ∗ d1 + A2 ∗ d2 [(8π ∗ 24 ⁄4) ∗ 50] + [(2π ∗ 24 ⁄4) ∗ 99]
d′ = =
A1 + A2 242
10π ∗ 4

d′ = 60.900 mm

Effective depth = d = D − d′

d = (650 − 60.900)mm

d = 589.100mm

Step-3.6: Revise Area of reinforcement on the tension side (Ast)

Determine z:

M (8-4)
μ=b 2 ∗(f )
eff ∗d cd
920.072 ∗ 103
μ=
1.026 ∗ (0.5891)2 ∗ (17 ∗ 106 )

μ = 0.1520

k x = 0.208 → x = k x ∗ d

x = 0.208 ∗ 589.10mm

x = 122.533mm < t f = 200mm

z = kz ∗ d

kz = 0.914

z = 0.914 ∗ 589.10mm

z = 538.437mm

Determine Ast :

M 920.0721 ∗ 103 N
Ast = =
z ∗ fyd 0.538437 ∗ 400 N/mm2

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Ast = 4271.955mm2

Determine new number of bar for tension:

Ast,req
nnew =
ast

4271.955
nnew =
(24)2
π∗ 4

nnew = 9.443 ≅ 10Ø24 → for tension

Step-4: Design for hogging moment

Step-4.1: Determine µ

𝑀
μ = 𝑏𝑑2 (𝑓𝑏𝑐)

955.5714 ∗ 103
μ =
0.45 ∗ 17 ∗ 106 ∗ (0.600)2

μ = 0.347 > μ ∗ = 0.205 → Double reinforced

Step-4.2: Determine the limiting moment (𝐌𝐥𝐢𝐦) for 𝛍𝐥𝐢𝐦

Bending moment corresponding to the limiting value of ensuring sufficient ductility.

Mlim = μlim ∗ bd2 (fcd)

Mlim = 0.205 * 0.450*(0.6)2 * (17 * 106)

Mlim = 564.570 KNm

Step-4.3: Determine the limiting lever arm (𝐙𝐥𝐢𝐦)

Zlim = kz * d

Zlim = 0.880 * 600 mm

Zlim = 528 mm

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Step-4.4: Determine the limiting Area of reinforcement (As,lim)

Mlim
As, lim = Zlim ∗fyd

564.570 ∗ 1000N
As, lim =
0.528 ∗ 400 N/mm2

As, lim = 2673.153 mm2

Step-4.5: Determine Area of reinforcement on the compression side (Asc)

M − Mlim
Asc =
fsc ∗ (d − d2)

Check yielding of steel:

Using d2/d and µ determine ℰs2 from General Design Chart and Design Table to ES-EN
1992-1-1:2014

d2 55mm
= = 0.0917
d 600mm

µ = 0.353

ℰs2 = 2.85% > ℰyd = 2% → The steel has yielded.

Thus, fsc = fyd

M − Mlim
Asc =
(d − d2) x fyd

(955.571 − 564.570) × 103 N

Asc =
N
(0.6 − 0.055) × 400
mm2

Asc = 1793.583mm2

Step-4.6: Determine Area of reinforcement (As)

As = Asc + As, lim

As = 1793.583mm2 + 2673.153mm2

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As = 4466.736mm2

Step-4.7: Number of bar

Ast, req 4466.736mm2

n= = = 9.874 ≈ 10 provide 10∅24
ast 242
π× 4

Step-4.8: Number of bar per row

nava = 8 bar per row

Step-4.9: Revise effective depth

Figure 8-8: Arrangement of reinforcement

d1 = 30 +8 + (24/2) = 50 mm

d2 = 50 + (24/2) + 25 + (24/2) = 99 mm

Weighted average d’
2 2
A1 ∗ d1 + A2 ∗ d2 [(8π ∗ 24 ⁄4) ∗ 50] + [(2π ∗ 24 ⁄4) ∗ 99]
′
d = =
A1 + A2 242
10π ∗ 4

d′ = 60.900 mm

Effective depth = d = D − d′

d = (650 − 60.900)mm = 589.100mm

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Step-4.10: Revise area of reinforcement (Asc and Ast)

Mlim = μlim × bd2 (fcd) = 0.205 × 0.450 × (0.5891)2 × (17 × 106 ) = 544.244KNm

zlim = kz × d = 0.880 × 589.1mm = 518.408mm

Mlim 544.244 × 103 N

As, lim = = = 2624.593mm2
zlim × fyd 0.518408 × 400 N
mm2

Check yielding of steel:

Using d2/d and µ determine ℰs2

d2 55mm
= = 0.093
d 589.1mm

M 955.571 × 103
μ= 2 = = 0.359
bd (fcd) (0.450) × (0.58910)2 (17) × 106

εs2 = 2.7% > 𝜀𝑦𝑑 = 2% → The steel has yielded.

M − Mlim (955.571 − 544.244) × 103 N

Asc = = = 1907.471mm2
(d − d1) × fyd N
(0.58910 − 0.050) × 400
mm2

Ast = Asc + As, lim = (1907.471 + 2624.593)mm2 = 4532.064mm2

Determine new number of bar for tension:

Ast, req 4532.064

nnew = = = 10∅24
ast 242
π× 4

10×π×(24)2
Provide 10∅24 → for tension | Ast, provided = = 4523.890 mm2
4

Determine new number of bar for compression:

Asc, req 1907.471

ncomp = = = 4∅24
ast π × (24)2
4
4×π×(24)2
Provide 4∅24 → for compression | Ast, provided = = 1810.286 mm2
4

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Step-5: Compare hand calculation with ETABS output

Table 8-1: Area of reinforcement from hand calculation and ETABS

Area of reinforcement provided (mm2)
Parameter
For Tension For Compression

Hand Calculation 4523.890 1810.286

ETABS Output 5022 2171

Comment: Even though the design coefficients, section and material properties match,
the concrete cover used in ETABS (43 mm) is different from the hand calculation (30
mm). This has effect on the value of effective depth. Thus, ETABS is more conservative
which might be uneconomical for this case.

8.3 Shear design of beam

To avoid brittle type of failure the beam is designed for shear actions from flexural
capacity of the beam for the actual reinforcement arrangement provided in addition to the
actual shear caused by dead load.

Steps taken for shear design

1. Determine the critical region

2. For the critical region calculate the additional shear due to flexure

Figure 8-9 Shear effect due to gravity load and flexure

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M1 ± M2 (8-5)
V= + Vstatic
L

Where:

V Shear capacity of the beam

M1 & M2 Flexural moments modified by a modification factor for DCM γRD = 1
Vstatic Shear load due to gravity
L Length of the beam

3. Check the diagonal compression failure and VRDC

4. Calculate stirrup spacing
5. Determine spacing for gravity load only for the part of the beam outside the
critical region

Detailed shear design for axis 3 Beam BC on Figure 8-2 is as follow:

Step-1: Shear design for critical region

Step-1.1: Derive shear demand from flexural capacity

Step-1.1.1: Calculate hogging capacity

beff = bw + 8hf

Slab width to be considered = 8 × 0.20 = 1.6m

1000 π×102 mm2

Slab reinforcement = ∅10clc200 → × = 392 in total.
200 4 m

Astension provided (initial)= 4523.890mm2 .

mm2
Ast(new)= 4523.890mm2 + 392.699 × 1.6m = 5152.208mm2
m

Ast(required) = 4373.88mm2 for an applied moment of 911.736KNm

Ast(new) 512.208
Hogging capacity: M = = 911.736 × 4373.88 = 1073.979KNm
Ast(req

N.B: Checking the carrying capacity of the determined area of reinforcement through
back analysis is necessary to make sure the calculation is correct.

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a. Assume failure region

Assume the failure region to be region 4 (where Ecm = 3.5 %0 and Est < Eyd).

Figure 8-10: Strain diagram for failure region 4

b. Determine Est

(𝑑 − 𝑋) (8-6)
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 3.5
𝑋
3.5 (8-7)
𝐾𝑥 =
3.5 + 𝐸𝑠𝑡
3𝐸𝑐𝑚 − 2 (8-8)
∝𝑐= 𝐾𝑥
3𝐸𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑠𝑡 (8-9)
Es =
𝐸𝑠𝑡
𝑓𝑦𝑑 (8-10)
𝐸𝑦𝑑 =
𝐸𝑠𝑡

Fyd = 400 MPa

Est = 200 GPa

According to equilibrium equation:

Ts = Cc (8-11)

𝑇𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠𝑡 . 𝐹𝑠𝑡 (8-12)

𝐶𝑐 = ∝ 𝑐 . 𝑓𝑐𝑑 . 𝑏 . 𝑑 (8-13)

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Simultaneously equating equation (8-6), (8-7), (8-8) and (8-8) on the equilibrium
equation gives:

Est = 2 %0 ≤ Eyd = 2 %0 Ok!

c. Determine Tst

Tst = 2060.884 KN

d. Determine Mmax

(𝐸𝑐𝑚(3𝐸𝑐𝑚 − 4) + 2) (8-14)
𝛽𝑐 = . 𝐾𝑥
2𝐸𝑐𝑚(3𝐸𝑐𝑚 − 2)
(8-15)
𝑍 = 𝑑(1 − 𝛽𝑐)
(8-16)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠 . 𝑍

Using equation (8-14), (8-15) and (8-16) the value of the maximum moment is:

Mmax = 892.340 KNm

Comment: Based on the back analysis, the maximum moment (892.340 KNm)
determined is less than the applied moment (911.736 KNm). This shows that the
calculation is conservative and approximately similar. The contribution of slab is
additional capacity to the hogging. Which is 1073.979 KNm. Generally, the calculation
to determine the hogging capacity is approximately similar to the back analysis which is
okay to proceed.

Step-1.1.2: Calculate sagging capacity

Astension provided (initial) = 4523.890mm2

Ats(req) = 4300.423mm2 for an applied moment of 920.0721KNm

Ast(init) 4523.890
Sagging capacity: M × = 920.0721 × = 976.883KNm
Ast(req) 4300.423

Step-1.1.3: VED
γRD × [MRd(top) + MRd(bottom)]
VED = + Vstatic
L

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For DCM structures γRd = 1.0 in beams.

From gravity load analysis Vstatic = 38.9846KN

L = 4.2m − 0.85m = 3.35m

{ 1 × [1073.979 + 967.883]}
VED = + 38.9846 = 648.496KN
3.35

Step-1.2: Compare hand calculation and ETABS output

Table 8-2: VED from hand calculation and ETABS

Shear Capacity, VED (KN)
Parameter
Hand Calculation 648.496

Analysis Design
ETABS Output
594.690 594.690

Comment: The hand calculation is more conservative than ETABS output which is due
to the contribution of slab being considered in the hand calculation.

Step-1.2: Check shear resistance to EC2 for demand based on flexural

capacity

VED
ѵED = bd

648.496 × 103 N
ѵED = = 2.446
450 × 589.100 mm2
Let θ = 21.8° (Assumption)

Cotθ = 2.5

αcw × bw × z × v1 × fcd (8-17)

VRD, max =
bd(cotθ + tanθ)

Where:

VRD max Maximum shear capacity of the section

V1 fck
strength reduction factor cracked in shear,V1 = u = 0.6(1− 250)

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𝛂cw coefficient taking account of the state of the stress in the compression chord
Ѳ compression strut angle between 45° and 21.8°(1≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5)
Z Inner level arm for a member with constant depth, corresponding to the
bending moment in the element under consideration. In the shear analysis of
reinforced concrete without axial force, the approximate value z = 0.9d may
normally be used
30
U1 =0.6(1− 250) = 0.528

Z = 0.9 d = 0.9 × 585.20 = 526.680mm

N
1 × 450mm × 526.680mm × 0.528 × 17
VRD, max = mm2
450mm × 589.100mm × (2.5 + 0.4)

N
VRD = 2.767 mm2

Check whether web crushing is prominent or nor:

N N
VRD,max = 2.767 mm2 > VED = 2.446 (web crushing is not prominent)
mm2

Step-1.3: Check yielding of stirrup

Asw (8-18)
VRD,s = S
× z × fywd × cotθ

Where:

Asw Cross sectional area of the shear reinforcement (legs for a single closed link)

S Spacing of the stirrups

Fywd Design yield strength of the shear reinforcement

To provide the minimum shear reinforcement for the given design shear force, the stirrup
at yielding must be equal to the design shear force.

VED =VRD,s= 648.496KN

Shear reinforcement diameter, ɸ=8mm

Asw
S=VRD,s × z × fywd × cotθ

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82
4π×
4
S= × (0.9 × 585.2) × 400 × 2.5
648.496×103

S = 163.294mm ≈ 160mm

hw 650
= = 162.5mm ≈ 163mm
4 4
In critical regions, S = min 24dbw = 24 × 8mm = 192mm
225mm
{ 8dbl = 8 × 24mm = 192mm

S = 163𝑚𝑚 ≈ 160𝑚𝑚

Step-2: Shear design for non-critical region

Step-2.1: Shear force diagram from ETABS analysis

For the non-critical region of the beam shear design is based on ES-EN 1992. Hence, the
shear force diagram is determined from ETABS analysis for ultimate limit state (ULS).

Figure 8-11: Shear force diagram for beam BC

Step-2.2: Determine VED

VED = 55.6649KN

VED 55.6649×103 N
ѵED = = 450×589.100 = 0.209 mm2
bd

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Let θ = 21.8° (Assumption)

Cotθ = 2.5

αcw×bw×z×v1×fcd
VRD,max= bd (cotθ+tanθ)

fck 30
V1 = 0.6(1 − 250) = 0.6(1 − 250) = 0.528

Z = 0.9d = 0.9 × 589.100mm = 530.190mm

1×450×526.680×0.528×17 N
VRD,max= = 2.767 mm2
450×589.100×(2.5+0.4)

Check whether web crushing is prominent or not:

N
VRD,max = 2.767 mm2 > 𝑉𝐸𝐷 = 0.209(web crushing is not prominent)

Step-2.3: Check yielding of stirrup

Asw
VRD,s = × z × fywd × cotθ
s

Where VED = VRD, s = 55.6649KN

Shear reinforcement diameter,∅ = 8mm

Asw
S = VRD,s × z × fywd × cotθ

82
4π×
4
S = 55.6649×103 × 526.680 × 400 × 2.5

S = 1902.371mm > 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

Smax= 0.75d

Smax= 0.75 × 589.100mm

Smax= 441.825 mm

use S = Smax = 438.90mm ≈ 430mm

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8.4 Detailing of beam

According to Table 3.4.3. ES-EN 1998 rules for detailing and dimensioning of primary
beams for DCM, the detailing criterions must be satisfied as follow.

• Critical region length:

hw = 650mm

• ρmin, tension side:

0.5fctm 2.9
ρmin, tas = == 0.5 × 460=0.003152
fyk

fctm
As, tension, min = 0.5 (b × d) = ρmin, tens × bd
fyk

As, tension, min = 0.003152 × 450 × 585.20=830.05mm2

As,tension, provided= 4523.89mm2 > 𝐴𝑠, 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 830.05mm2

• ρmax, critical regions:

0.0018fcd
ρmax = ρ′ + μ∅εsy,d fyd

μ∅ = 2qₒ − 1 if T ≥ Tc

Tc
μ∅ = 1 + 2(qₒ − 1) if T < 𝑇𝑐
T

where qₒ = 3.9

T = 1.08

Tc = 0.4

Hence T > 𝑇𝑐

μ∅ = 2(3.9) − 1 = 6.8

fyd 400
εsyd = = 200×103 = 0.002
E

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Ascomp 4523.89
ρ′ = = 450×585.20 = 0.01718
b×d

0.0018×17
ρmax = 0.01718 + 6.8×0.002×400

ρmax = 0.022805

Ast, max = ρmax × b × d

= 0.022805 × 450 × 585.20

= 6005.469mm2

As comp provided = 4523.89mm2 < 𝐴𝑠𝑡, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6005.469mm2 OK!

• As, min, critical regions bottom:

As, min, critical = 0.5As, top

As, min, crit = 0.5 × 4523.89

As, min, crit = 2261.945mm2 < 4523.89mm2

dbl 7.5(1+0.8Vd) fctm

• − bar crossing interior joint ≤ ρ′
hc (1++0.5 ) fyd
ρmax

dbl 7.5(1 + 0.8(0.17633)) 2.9

≤ ×
hc (0.01718) 400
(1 + 0.5 )
0.022805

dbl
≤ 0.0522
hc

dbl ≤ 850mm × 0.0522

dbl ≤ 44.38mm

dbl fctm
− bar anchored at exterior joint ≤ 7.5(1 + 0.8Vd)
hc fyd

dbl 2.9
≤ 7.5(1 + 0.8(0.17633)) × 400
hc

dbl ≤ 850mm × 0.062045

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dbl ≤ 52.74mm OK!

N.B: The design of beam AB will follow the same procedure as that of beam BC and it is
summarized in Table 8-1.

Table 8-3: Summary of moment and reinforcement for Beam AB

Moment (KN)
Sagging moment Hogging moment
779.21 815.25
Area of reinforcement(mm2)
3448.7 3744.9

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CHAPTER 9 COLUMN DESIGN

9.1 Introduction

Column is a vertical structural member which supports and transfers load from floor and
roof to foundation. These members carry mainly axial compressive loads with or without
moment which comes either from both or one direction. Other compression members
include structural walls, arch ribs, shells...etc. According to ES-EN1992, a vertical
compression member can be classified as a column if it fulfills the following criteria’s or
else it is considered as a structural wall.

1. D > b
2. D ≤ 4b
3. H ≥ 3D

9.1.1 Classification of columns

a) Braced and Unbraced

This classification is based on the manner by which lateral stability is provided to the
structure as a whole. Lateral stability can be provided either by frame system or by
providing other structures.

Unbraced systems support lateral load using only frame action.The frame action is
resulted from the combined effect of the beam and column. To increase the frame action
the following measures can be taken:
1. Decreasing the beam length
2. Increasing beam depth
3. Increasing column size

The deflection of this type of system is characterized by shear mode type of deflection
meaning the deflection is higher at the bottom and relatively constant at the bottom.

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Braced structures use special structure such as structural wall, core system and bracing
steel (for the case of steel frame) to resist lateral loads. For high buildings the section
provided for the column to resist the lateral load will make it uneconomical thus we use
bracings.

Structural walls are one form of bracing and are characterized by flexural mode of
deflection meaning the structure acts as a cantilever structure with a small deflection at
the lower portion and higher at the top.

Figure 9-1: Deflected shape of braced and unbraced structures

b) Sway and Non-Sway

This classification is based on sensitivity to second order effect due to lateral
displacement. The relative displacement between the top and bottom column would
result in additional moment in the column. When this displacement is sufficiently large
to influence significantly the column moment the structure is called sway frame. ES-ES
1992 defines significant change as 10% increase in primary moment. A frame can be
considered Non-Sway if horizontal displacements do not significantly reduce the vertical
load carrying capacity of the structure. The sway effect can be accounted using PΔ effect
in ETABS (Refer Annex D)

Figure 9-2: Sway Frame

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c) Slender and short column

This classification is based on the sensitivity to the second order effect due to bending of
the column.
Short Column is a column which the additional moment (Pδ) is negligible.
M=Mo
Slender column is a column in which the additional moment is not negligible.
M= Mo+ Pδ

d) Axialy loaded, Uniaxial and Biaxial Columns

This classification is based on the load effect the column experiences.
Axially loaded columns are columns which are not exposed to any moment in any
direction.
Uniaxial columns are columns which are highly exposed to bending moment in one of
the directions rather than the both direction in addition to the axial load.
Biaxial columns are columns which have to resist equivalent moment in both directions
besides the axial load.

9.2 Design of column

9.2.1 Cover Design

Concrete grade: C 45/55

Steel grade: S 460

Diameter of Longitudinal bar: ϕ 32

Diameter of stirrup: ϕ 10

Design for corrosion

According to ES-EN 1992-1-1 Table 4.1, for dry and permanently wet members the
exposure class is XC1.

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For XC1 a minimum concrete grade of C 20/25 is required based on EN-ES 1992-1-1,
Annex E, Table E.1).

Provided grade is C 45/55 which is adequate.

Design for bond and durability

The concrete cover for bond and durability is done for the main reinforcement bar as
follows:

• Minimum Concrete Cover (Cmin)

Assume diameter of main reinforcement bar is 10mm.then Cmin is given by:

Cmin =Max {Cmin,b; Cmin,dur + ∆Cdur,γ - ∆Cdur,s-∆Cdur,add; 10 mm} (9-1)

Where:
Cmin Minimum cover
Cmin,b Minimum cover due to bond requirement
Cmin,dur Minimum cover due to environmental conditions(depends on service life, structural
class and exposure class)
∆Cdur,γ Additive safety element (recommended value is 0mm based on ES-EN1992-1-1
section 4.4.1.2,expression 6)
∆Cdur,st Reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel(recommended value is 0mm
based on ES-EN1992-1-1, section 4.4.1.2,expression 7)

∆Cdur,add Reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection (recommended value is
0mm based on ES-EN1992-1-1, section 4.4.1.2,expression 8)

Cmin,dur Determined from Table 4.3N section 4.4.1.2 of ES-EN1992-1-1 as follows:

Assumptions

• Service life of the building is 50 years (recommended service life of building by

section 4.4.1.2 of article 5, ES-EN1992-1-1)

• Structural class is 4(recommended structural class with 50 years’ service life for
the indicative concrete strengths given in Annex E of ES-EN1992-1-1).

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N.B from Table 4.3N of Section 4.4.1.2 of ES-EN1992-1-1 for concrete grade > C 30/37
with exposure class XC1, the structural class will be reduced by 1.

Then by referring Table 4.4N of section 4.4.1.2 of ES-EN1992-1-1 for structural class of
3 and exposure class of XC1, Cmin,dur=10mm.

For longitudinal bar

Cmin=Max (32mm, 10mm,10mm) =32mm

From section 4.4.1.3, article 5 of ES-EN1992-1-1the recommended value is 10mm.

Cnom= Cmin+ ΔCdev= 32mm+10mm=42mm

dl = 42 + (32/2) = 58

For stirrup

Cmin=Max (10mm, 10mm,10mm) =10mm

From section 4.4.1.3, article 5 of ES-EN1992-1-1the recommended value is 10mm.

Cnom= Cmin+ ΔCdev= 10mm+10mm=20mm

dl = 20 + (32/2) + 10 = 46

Therefore the bar for the longitudinal bar governs.

Concrete cover for fire resistance

The time assumed for fire resistance is 2 hours (120min). From ES-EN 1992-1-2, Table
5.2 b, assuming w=0.1 the minimum width and cover requirement is 250mm and 50 mm
respectively.

The cover for bond and durability governs thus the exact clear cover will be

Cover = 58 – (32/2) – (10) = 32

Provide cover of 35 mm

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9.2.2 Column capacity

When the column is designed for a medium ductility class it has to be ensured that the
beam fails before the column. According to ES-EN 1998-1, Expression 4.29

∑MRc = 1.3 ∑MRb (9-2)

Where:
MRc Moment capacity of the column
MRb Moment capacity of the beam

According to EN-ES 1998-1:2003 Article 5.4.3.2.1(2), the biaxial bending can be

simplified as a uniaxial bending by reducing the uniaxial moment resistance by 30%

A single interior column on the second floor located on Axis 3B is selected for design.
From the beam analysis and design in Chapter 8 the capacity of the beam on axis 3 can
be used to calculate the uniaxial moment capacity.

The total beam capacity is found by adding the hogging capacity of one beam with the
sagging capacity of the other and vise versa thus we have two different cases,

Case 1: MS1= 1023.1 KNm and MH2= 1016.97 KNm

∑MRc = 1.3 ∑MRb= 1.3 (1023.1+1016.97) = 2652.1 KNm

Case 2: MH1= 817.71 KNm and MS2= 1122.9 KNm

∑MRc = 1.3 ∑MRb= 1.3 (1122.9+817.71) = 25522.79

The design for the column will be done for Case 1.

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N.B: The maximum moment from ETABS analysis is 1235.27 KNM and the design
value is 1183.02 KNm. ETABS takes into account different factors which makes the
design value greater than the analysis value. The moment used for design using capacity
design concept is 2653.2 KNm which is much greater than analysis value. This is the
case because we want to create a strong column which has a capacity greater than the
beam to ensure the beam fails first.

9.2.3 Design of the column (Column at the first floor)

9.2.3.1 Design for Axial load and flexure

Assuming the bottom part of the column has 55 present contributions. The design
moment will be:

MRcb = 0.55(2652.1) = 1458.7 KNm

Step 1: Determine axial load from ETABS analysis

Maximum compression= 3473.12 KN

Minimum compression= 309.9KN

Step 2: Calculate normalized axial load and μsd

The dimensionless factors are used to design the column using interaction chart.

Vsd= 𝑁𝐸𝐷 ⁄ 𝑓𝑐𝑑𝐴𝑐

For minimum compression; Vsdmin = 309.9 ⁄ (25.5𝑥8502 ) = 0.017

For maximum compression; Vsdmax = 3473.12 ⁄ (25.5𝑥8502 ) = 0.188

N.B: Usually the normalized axial load is greater than the above values but since our
system is a frame system with no wall the cross-sections provided are large making the
normalized axial load small.

EN-ES 1991-1:2003 Article 5.4.3.2.1(3) states that the normalized axial load should not
exceed 0.65. Since the Vs > 0.65 the section is okay.

μsd= 𝑀𝐸𝐷 ⁄ 𝑓𝑐𝑑𝐴𝑐𝐻

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The moment will be reduced by 30% a uniaxial chart is being used to analyze a biaxial
column.

MED = 1458.7/0.7 = 2083.8 KNm

μsd= 𝑀𝐸𝐷 ⁄ 𝑓𝑐𝑑𝐴𝑐𝐻

= 2083.8 ⁄ 25.5(8502 )(0.85) = 0.133

Step 3: Determine mechanical reinforcement ratio (ω)

d = (850-35-10-(32/2)) = 789

d1= (35+10+ (32/2)) = 61

d1/d= 0.08 ≈ 0.1 use uniaxial chart No. 2

For minimum compression: Vsd = 0.017 and μsd= 0.133

ω = 0.2

For maximum compression: Vsd = 0.017 and μsd= 0.133

ω = 0.12

Step 4: Calculate area of steel

The area of steel required can be calculated using ω of minimum compression.

Ast∗fyd
ω=
fcdAc

ω∗fcdAc 0.2∗25.5∗(850)(850)
Ast = = = 9211.875 mm2
fyd 400

No. of bar = 9211.87 / (Π (322)/4) = 11.4 ≈ 12

For 12ϕ32 (9650.97 mm2) the moment capacity can be determined by making back
analysis

ω = 0.2 And for Vsd = 0.017

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μsd= 0.132 ( MRc = 2067.14 KNm)

Step 5: Cross checking the design value of ETABS

Ast = 8384 mm2

ω= 0.182

From uniaxial chart 2 the value of μsd can be determined for the minimum and
maximum normalized axial load.

For maximum compression: μsd = 0.17

For minimum compression: μsd = 0.13

𝑀𝐸𝐷 = μsd ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑑𝐴𝑐𝐻 = 0.13*25.5*(8502)*0.85 = 2035.83 KNm

Assuming the equal reinforcement is provided for top and bottom column. The total
column capacity is,

∑Mc= 2035.83 * 0.7* 2 = 2850.2 KNm > 2651 KNm

Thus the section is safe.

9.2.3.2 Design for shear

Step 1: Calculate the design shear force

The design of a building for medium ductility ensures that brittle failure (shear failure)
comes after ductile failure (flexural failure) thus the shear capacity is based on the
flexural capacity of the column.

Figure 9-3: Shear for columns

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Vmax,c = (M1,d + M2,d)/ lclear

According to ES-EN 1998-1:2003, Article 5.4.2.3 Expression 5.9 the design shear of the
column is;

VED = 𝛶RD min(∑MRb/∑MRc,1)* MRc,i (9-3)

Where:

Factor accounting for overstrength due to steel strain hardening and confinement
𝛶RD
of the concrete of the compression zone of the section, taken as being equal to 1.1

MRc Moment capacity of the column

MRb Moment capacity of the beam

Design value of the column moment of resistance at end i in the sense of the
MRci
seismic bending moment under the considered sense of the seismic action;

Lclear = 3.2-0.65= 2.55 m

VED = 1.1(2040.07/(2*2067.14)) * (2*2067.14)/ 2.55 = 880.03 KN

N.B: The maximum shear from ETABS analysis is 688.4 KN but the column is designed
for an axial load of 880.03 KN this is to ensure the shear failure comes after flexural
failure to avoid brittle type of failure.

Step2: Check diagonal Compression failure

From EN-ES 1992-1-1:2004, Article 6.2.3(4) Expression 6.14 we have;

(9-4)
VRd,max = V1(fcd)(bw)(z)/(cotθ+tanθ)

V1= 0.6(1- (fck/250) = 0.492

Z=0.9*d = 792 mm

Assume cot θ =2.5

VRd,max = 2930.16 KN > VEd

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The section is safe from diagonal compression failure.

Step 3: Check Shear resistance of the concrete

The design value for the shear resistance VRd,c, is given by expression in ES-EN 1992- 1-
1:2004 Article 6.2.2 of as:

VRd,c=(CRd,c x K x(100 𝑥 𝜌1 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑘)1/3) x bw x d + K1σcp ≥ (Vmin) x bw x d (9-5)

𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝜌=
bw x d

𝜌 =9650.97/ 850*789 = 0.014

200
K=1+√ = 1.5 ≤2.0
𝑑

Vmin=0.035 x 𝐾 3/2 x 𝑓𝑐𝑘1/2

0.18
CRd,c= 𝛾𝑐 = 0.12

K1=0.15

σcp=NEd/ Ac = 309/(8502) = 0.428 < 0.2 x fcd = 5.1

VRd,c = 523.1 KN < VED=880.03 KN thus Stirrup is required

Step 4: Calculate stirrup spacing to be provided

From EN-ES 1992-1-1:2004, Article 6.2.3(4) Expression 6.13 we have;

Asw/S = VRd,s /( Z*fywdCotθ) = VED/( Z*fywdCotθ) = 1.1 mm2/ mm

Reinforcement of the second side of the biaxial column

The reinforcement for the other side of the column can be determined using the beam
capacity of axis 2. The reinforcement of the beam was taken from ETABS design results
and by including the contribution of the slab section the capacity of the column was
determined. Following similar procedure the reinforcement of the column given in
ETABS was checked and found to be adequate.

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9.2.3.3 Detailing

The detailing requirement of column for medium ductile buildings is indicated in ES_EN
1998-1:2003, Article 5.4.3.2.2.

Critical region:

ℎ𝑐
𝑏𝑐
Lcr =𝑀𝑎𝑥 { } = 0.85 m
0.45𝑚
𝐿𝑐/6

Longitudinal bars:

• ρmin= 0.01

As,min = 0.01*Ac = 7225 mm2 < 9650.97 mm2

• ρmax= 0.04

As,max = 0.04*Ac = 28900 mm2 > 9650.97

mm2

• Diameter of bar = 32mm > 8 mm

• Bar per side = 6 > 3

Sbar= (850-(2*35) - (2*10)-(32*6))/5 = 113.6 mm

• Maximum spacing between restrained bars=

113.6 mm< 200mm
• Distance of unrestrained bar from nearest
restrained bar < 150 mm … No unrestrained
bars

Transverse bars(w)

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6𝑚𝑚 6𝑚𝑚
Diameter of bar (10 mm) ≥ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 { }=max { } = 8 mm
𝑑𝑏𝑙/4 32/4

Spacing:

Asw/S = 1.1 mm2/mm

For 6 leg, Asw = 471.2 mm2

S = 428 mm ≈ 400 mm

20𝑑𝑏𝑙 20(32)
ℎ𝑐
Sw = min{ } = { 850 } = 400 mm
𝑏𝑐 850
400 400

Use s= 400 mm

At lap splices if dbl>14mm

12𝑑𝑏𝑙 384
0.6ℎ𝑐 510
Sw = min{ }={ } = 240 mm
0.6𝑏𝑐 510
240 240

Use S=240mm

For critical region:

8𝑑𝑏𝑙 256)
𝑏𝑜/2 𝑏𝑜/2
Sw = min{ }={ }
175 175

bo = 850-(2*35)-10 = 770

Sw = 175 mm

9.2.4 Confinement for the base column

For DCM, confinement reinforcement within the critical regions at the base of a column
must meet the requirements off EN-ES 1998-1:2003 Article 5.4.3.2.2(8) to (11). Articles
5.4.3.2.2(10) and (11) are satisfied by detailing the column as indicated on the detailing
above. The additional requirement of Article 5.4.3.2.2(8) and (9) are as follows:

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αω ≥ 30 μϕVdεsy,d(bc/bo) - 0.035 (9-6)

ω ≥ 0.08 (9-7)

Where:

μϕ Required value of the curvature ductility factor

Vd Normalized design axial force

εsy,d Design value of tension steel strain at yield

Bc Gross cross-sectional width

Bo Width of confined core(to the centerline of the hoops)

Α Confinement effective factor

• The value of maximum compression is found from ETABS analysis result.

V= 3473.12 KN

Vd= 3473.12/((850)(850)(25.5)) = 0.19

• α = αs x αn

αs = (1-s/2bo)*(1-s/2ho)

bo = ho=850 - (2*35) – (10)= 770 mm

αs = (1- 175/(2*770))2= 0.786

αn= 1-∑bi2/6boho = 1- (113.6)2*20/ 6*(770)2 = 0.927

α= 0.927*0.786 = 0.728

• ω =((Asvx/bo*s) +(Asvy/ho*s)) (fyd/fcd)

= 2*(471.2/(770*175))(400/25.5)) = 0.109

αω = 0.109 * 0.728 = 0.08

• μϕ = 2q-1 = 2*3.9 -1 = 6.8

• εsy,d = 400/200*103 = 0.002

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bc/bo = 850/770 = 1.1

αω ≥ 30(6.8) (0.19) (0.002) (1.1)-0.035= 0.0503

Therefore, use ϕ 10 bars with spacing 175mm

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CHAPTER 10 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

10.1 Introduction

The foundation (or substructure) is the part of a structure that is usually placed below the
surface of the ground and that transmits the load to the underlying soil or rock. Because
the soil is generally much weaker than the concrete columns and walls that must be
supported, the contact area between the soil and the footing is much larger than that
between the supported member and the footing.

The purposes of foundations are:

• To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring
intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying
underneath.
• To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal
settlement.
• To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
• To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
• To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
The choice of foundation type is selected in consultation with the geotechnical engineer.
Factors to be considered during selection are:
• Soil strength
• Soil type
• Variability of the soil type over the area and with increasing depth
• Susceptibility of the soil and the building to deflections
Generally, foundations are of two types. These are:
• Shallow Foundation
• Deep Foundation

10.1.1 Shallow Foundation

Shallow foundation is provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, i.e.
near to the ground level. The different types of shallow foundations are:

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a) Isolated (Spread) footing

b) Combined footing
c) Cantilever (Strap) footing
d) Continuous (Wall) footing
e) Mat (Raft) foundation

A) Isolated (Spread) footing: are used to support individual column.

B) Combined footing: supports two or sometimes three columns in a row. Combined
footings are used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing, or other
considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations.
C) Cantilever (Strap) footing: consists of two individual footings connected by a beam
called a strap. They are used where the distance between the columns is so great that
a trapezoidal combined footing becomes quite narrow.
D) Continuous (Wall) footing: this type of footing is suitable at locations liable to
earthquake activities.
E) Mat (Raft) foundation: used where the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure
loads are heavy. Instead of using spread footings that would cover more than one half
of the area, it is more economical to use raft foundation.

10.1.2 Deep Foundation

Deep foundations are used when the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to
carry the load even by a raft foundation. Then eventually shallow foundation has to be
ruled out, and a deep foundation taken to an available firm stratum is adopted. Based on
the above conditions stated, the types of foundations chosen for our building are Isolated
Footing and Combined Footing. The design is based on EN- 1997, and design axial loads
and bending moments are obtained from 3D frame analysis using ETABS v.16.2.1.

10.2 Design Philosophy

10.2.1 Load Resistance Factored Design (LRFD)

In Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, load factors are applied to the
loads and resistance factors to the internal resistances or capacities of sections. The value
of a load factor depends on the accuracy with which a load can be determined and the

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probability of its simultaneous occurrence with other loads in a combination for a

specific limit state.
For any structural design including foundation we use LRDF method.

10.2.2 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Members proportioned so that the stresses in the steel and concrete resulting from normal
service loads were within allowable stress (specified limits), were only fractions of the
failure stresses of the materials. Allowable stresses, in practice were set at about one-half
the concrete compressive strength and one-half the yield stress of the steel.

For all footing proportioning we use ASD method with a factor of safety ranges from 2.5
to 3.

Such method is adopted for footing proportioning, in order to avoid application of safety
factor for third time in analysis and design.

First- Dead load and live load factored with 1.35 and 1.5 respectively.
Second - Concrete and Steel cross sectional capacity factored to less value by 1.5
and 1.15 respectively.
Third - Using Ultimate capacity (Allowable Stress * Safety factor) of the soil is the
governing capacity to avoid third time safety factor and be economical.

Footing Area = Unfactored load / Allowable Stress

(Dead Load + Live Load)/ (Allowable Stress)
Footing Area = Factored Load / (Allowable Stress)
(1.35*Dead Load + 1.5*Live Load)/ (Allowable Stress)

10.3 Design Combination for Isolated Footing

For our project foundation design, we use combination one which only take in
consideration unfactored dead load and live load. As the base shear force located at the
bottom of the ground floor, earthquake doesn’t have any effect.

10.3.1 Design of Isolated Footing Eccentrically Loaded Pad base

An isolated footing is a footing that carries a single column. The function of an isolated
footing is to spread the column load laterally to the soil so that the stress intensity is
reduced to a value that the soil can safely carry.

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The approximate contact pressure under a given symmetrical foundation can be obtained
from the flexural formula, provided that the considered load lies within the kern of the
footing.

𝑷 𝟔𝒆𝒙 𝟔𝒆𝒚 (10-1)

Ϭ𝒊 =𝑨𝒅 (𝟏 ± 𝟐.𝟓
± 𝟐.𝟓
)
𝒃

Where: -
P Design Axial Load
B Width of Pad
L Length of Pad
𝒆𝒙 , 𝒆𝒚 , Eccentricity due to moment

The thickness of a given footing that determined by checking the thickness needed for
punching shear criteria and wide beam shear criteria. The greater of the two governs the
depth of the footing. The design was performed for column C26, corresponding to the
footing F25. The axial load and moment values are obtained from the 3D frame analysis
using ETABS v16.2.1.

(A) Specification

The characteristic loads for an internal column footing in a building are given in Table
8.1. The proposed dimensions for the 900 mm square column and base (2500 × 2500
mm) are shown in Fig. 8.1.

The soil is firm well drained clay with the following properties:

Unit weight = 18 KN/m3

Allowable Bearing pressure = 400 KN/m2 ,
The materials to be used in the foundation have the following properties:

fck =40Mpa
fyk =460Mpa

Figure 10-1 Side and Elevation of Footing

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Table 10-1 Applied Column Loads and Moments

Loads Axial(KN) Moment (M3-3) Moment(M2-2)

(KNm) (KNm)
Dead Loads 2153.8895 0.9791 4.7672
Live Loads 254.2185 0.5766 0.5087

First trial section for design of the pad dimension: -

Assuming the pad depth be 550mm the length and width of the pad is computed from the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil using quasi-permanent load combination 1DL +
1LL.

Design Axial Load = 1*2153.8895 + 1*254.2185

Design Axial Load = 2408.108KN
Base Area is computed using the axial load and allowable bearing pressure of soil

𝑃 (10-2)
Base Area = 𝜎 𝑑
𝑎𝑙𝑙

2408.108
Base Area= = 6.02027𝑚2
400

Where: -
𝑃𝑑 Axial Load
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 Allowable Bearing capacity of soil

L* W = L*L = 6.02027𝑚2
L = √6.02027𝑚2
L = 2.5m
(b) Design Axial Load and Design Moment

Design Axial Load:

𝑃𝑑 = 1.35 𝑄𝑘 + 1.5 𝐺𝑘
𝑃𝑑 = 1.35*2153.8895 + 1.5*254.2185
𝑃𝑑 = 3289.0775
Design Moment (2-2)
𝑀𝑑(2−2) = 1.35*𝑀𝑑(2−2)𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 1.5*𝑀𝑑(2−2)𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑀𝑑(2−2) = 1.35*4.7672 +1.5*0.5087
𝑀𝑑(2−2) = 7.19877KNm
Design Moment (3-3)
𝑀𝑑(3−3) = 1.35*𝑀𝑑(3−3)𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 1.5*𝑀𝑑(3−3)𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑀𝑑(3−3) = 1.35*0.9791 + 1.5*0.5766
𝑀𝑑(3−3) = 1.321785 + 0.8649

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𝑀𝑑(3−3) = 2.186685KNm

(C) Stress Distribution Over Soil

𝑀𝑑(3−3) 𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟖
𝒆𝒙 = = 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 = 0.0006665m
𝑷𝒅
𝑀𝑑(2−2) 𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟖
𝒆𝒚 = = 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 = 0.00218869m
𝑷𝒅
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝒊 = (𝟏 ± ± )
𝟔.𝟐𝟓 𝟐.𝟓 𝟐.𝟓
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟏 = (𝟏 + + ) = 529.85Kpa
𝟔.𝟐𝟓 𝟐.𝟓 𝟐.𝟓
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟐 = (𝟏 + − ) = 524.32Kpa
𝟔.𝟐𝟓 𝟐.𝟓 𝟐.𝟓
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟑 = (𝟏 − + ) = 529. 06Kpa
𝟔.𝟐𝟓 𝟐.𝟓 𝟐.𝟓
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟒 = (𝟏 − − ) = 522.65Kpa
𝟔.𝟐𝟓 𝟐.𝟓 𝟐.𝟓

Since the stress developed is more than the allowable stress of the soil which id 400Kpa
we increase the length of sides of the pad to 3m*3m.

𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗

Ϭ𝟏 = (𝟏 + + ) = 370.5486Kpa
𝟗 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟐 = (𝟏 + − ) = 367.3200Kpa
𝟗 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟑 = (𝟏 − + ) =366.3539Kpa
𝟗 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟔∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟔𝟗
Ϭ𝟒 = (𝟏 − − ) =370.6160Kpa
𝟗 𝟑 𝟑

Since all the stresses developed are less than allowable stress which is 400Kpa.

Figure 10-2 Base pressures about axis 2-2

Using similarity of triangles,

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3m 1.95m
=
3.289923889Kpa xKpa
1.95m∗3.289923889Kpa
X= 3m

X = 2.137800528Kpa
∴ Stress at the column face is 369.465Kpa

Figure 10-3 Stress at the column face about axis 3-3

1.05m 2(1.05m)
MEd = ((369.465KN/m2 *3m*1.05m) *( ) + ((370.549 KN/m2 *-369.465 KN/m2 *) *3m*1.05m) *( )
2 3

MEd = 611.00274+2.39022
MEd = 613.3929KNm

Figure 10-4 Base pressures about axis 2-2

Using similarity of triangles,
3m 1.05m
=
4.2621Kpa xKpa
1.05m∗4.2621pa
X= 3m

X = 2.2376025Kpa
∴ Stress at the column face is 368.5915Kpa

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Figure 10-5 Stress at the column face about axis 2-2

1.05𝑚 2(1.05𝑚)
𝑀𝐸𝑑 = ((368.5915KN/𝑚2 *3m*1.05m) *( ) + ((370.616 KN/𝑚2 *-368.5915 KN/𝑚2 *) *3m*1.05m) *( )
2 3

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 609.558 + 4.4860725

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 614.044 KNm

(D) Wide beam shear

The wide beam shear is stress is checked at d = 488mm

Figure 10-6 Stress at the d distance from column face about axis 2-2
3𝑚 2.438𝑚
=
4.2621𝐾𝑝𝑎 𝑥𝐾𝑝𝑎
2.438𝑚∗4.2621𝐾𝑝𝑎
X= 3𝑚

X = 3.46367Kpa
∴ Stress at d distance from the column face is 369.81757Kpa
369.818+370.616
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = ( )*(0.562m) *3m
2

𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 1370.217Kpa*1.686 𝑚2
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 624.185862KN

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(E) Flexure design of Pad

MEd = 614.044KNm
0.85∗fck 0.85∗40
fcd = = = 22.67Mpa
Υc 1.5
fyk 460
fyd = = 1.15 = 400Mpa
Υs
MEd (10-3)
μsd = f 2
cd ∗b∗d

Where: -
MEd Design Moment
fcd Design Concrete compressive Capacity
B Width of reinforcement face
d Effective depth of Pad

614044Nm
μsd = 22666.67KN/m2∗3m∗(0.488m)2

μsd = 0.01850421618
The corresponding omega(w) value for μ𝑠𝑑 = 0.01850421618 is read from design chart
and w = 0.01850421618.
𝑤∗𝑏∗𝑑∗𝑓𝑐𝑑 (10-4)
𝐴𝑠1 = 𝑓𝑦𝑑

Where: -
𝑏 Width of pad
𝒅 Effective depth of pad
𝑓𝑦𝑑 Design yield capacity of steel
𝑓𝑐𝑑 Design compressive capacity of concrete

0.0018∗3m∗0.488m∗22.667MN/m2
As1 = 400MN/m2

As1 = 1493.30196 mm2

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 613.3929KNm
MEd
μsd = f 2
cd ∗b∗d

613.3929Nm
μsd =
22666.67KN/m2 ∗3m∗(0.464m)2

μsd = 0.019441

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The corresponding omega(w) value for μsd = 0.019441 is read from design chart and w =
0.019441
w∗b∗d∗fcd
As1 = fyd

0.019441 ∗3m∗0.464m∗22.667MN/m2
As1 = 400MN/m2

As1 = 1533.53 mm2

Minimum Reinforcement must be provided along axis 2-2: -

fctm (10-5)
As,min = 0.26 *( fyk
)*bd ≥ 0.0013bd

Where: -

𝑏 Width of pad
𝒅 Effective depth of pad
As,min Minimum are of steel reinforcement
fctm Tensile Capacity of Concrete
𝑓𝑐𝑘 Characteristic yield capacity of concrete
fctm
As,min = 0.26 *( )*bd ≥ 0.0013bd
fyk

3.5
As,min = 0.26 *( 460)*3000*488 ≥ 0.0013*3000*488

As,min = 2896.17mm2 ≥ 1907.1mm2

Minimum Reinforcement must be provided along axis 3-3: -

fctm
As,min = 0.26 *( )*bd ≥ 0.0013bd
fyk

3.5
As,min = 0.26 *( 460)*3000*464 ≥ 0.0013*3000*464

As,min =2753.74 mm2 ≥ 1809.6mm2

∴ 𝐀 𝐬,(𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐝) = 2896.17𝐦𝐦𝟐 and 𝐀 𝐬,(𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐝) = 2753.74𝐦𝐦𝟐

𝑇ℎ𝑒 number of bars provided is computed as follows: -

As,(provided)
Number of bars = Each bar Area (ɸ24)

2896.17mm2
Number of bars = π∗(12)2

Number of bars = 7 bars

Spacing of reinforcements in both direction: -

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Pad width
Spacing for bars = Number of bars
3000mm
Spacing for bars = = 428.57mm ≌ 450mm
7 bars

Minimum spacing must be used according to EN 1992-1-1-2005 section 9.3.1

“In an area with concentrated loads or area of maximum moment “
Smax = 2h ≤ 250mm
Smax = 2(550mm) ≤ 250mm
Smax = 11000mm ≤ 250mm
Smax = 250mm
Area of steel provided will be: -

As,(provided) = Number of bars used * Area of each bar

Pad width
As,(provided) = Spacing used * Area of each bar
3000mm
As,(provided) = * π ∗ (12)2
250mm

As,(provided) = 4973.76mm2

∴ Use ɸ𝟐𝟒 c/c 250mm reinforcement for both side (along “x” and “y”)

(F) Shear Capacity of Pad without shear reinforcement

624.185862
VEd = =426.356Kpa
3m*0.488m
AS =f24c/c250=4973.76mm 2
AS 4973.76
ρ= = =0.00339738£0.02
bd 3000x488
0.18 0.18
CRd,c = = =0.12
γc 1.5
200 200
k=1+ =1+ =1.64018£2.0
d 488
1 1
v=CRd,c k(1000ρf ck ) 3 =0.12x1.64018x(100x0.0034x40) 3 =4.69685Mpa
v min =0.035K1.5 f ck =0.035x2.101x6.325=0.465Mpa
v Rd,c =4.6968Mpa
v Ed =0.426356Mpa
v Ed (0.426356)£v Rd,c (4.6968)
No shear reinforcement is required.

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(G) Punching Shear and Maximum Shear

Figure 10-7 Punching shear perimeter

Check punching shear on perimeter at Nd from the face of the column where 1 ≤ N ≤ 2.
C1 and c2 are respectively the dimensions of the column parallel and perpendicular to
the eccentricity of load.

Average Effective Depth is: -

dAverage = 0.5(dx + dy )
dAverage = 0.5(488mm + 464mm)
dAverage = 476mm
Average Pressure developed is: -
ϭmin +ϭmax
ϭAverage = 2
370.616Kpa+366.354Kpa
ϭAverage = 2

ϭAverage = 368.485Kpa
Check Punching Shear around column perimeter

C1 =C2 =900mm
Uo = 2(C1 +C2 )
Uo = 2(900mm+900mm)
Uo = 3600mm

Area = Uo *d
Area = 3.6m*0.476m
Area = 1.7136m2

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𝑃
𝑑
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
3289.072𝐾𝑁
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 1.7136𝑚2

𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 1.1919396Mpa
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3*(1-𝑓𝑐𝑘 /250) ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑑 (10-6)

Where: -
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the design value of the maximum punching shear resistance along the
control section considered
𝑓𝑐𝑘 characteristic compressive capacity of concrete
𝑓𝑐𝑑 design compressive capacity of concrete

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3*(1-𝑓𝑐𝑘 /250) ∗ 𝑓𝑐𝑑

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3*(1-40/250) ∗ 22.667
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5.712Mpa

∴ Since 𝑉𝐸𝑑 (1.1919396Mpa) < 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.712Mpa) therefore the thickness of pad is
acceptable.

Check Punching Shear around perimeter Nd from face of column, Where 1≤ N ≤2

Control Perimeter to be considered as a function of N,

𝑈𝑑 = 2𝑐1+2𝑐2 +2𝜋Nd
𝑈𝑑 = 2(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝜋Nd)
𝑈𝑑 (𝑁) = 2(900mm+900mm+ 𝜋N476mm)
𝑈𝑑 (𝑁) = 2(1.8m + 𝜋N(.476m))
𝑈𝑑 (𝑁) = (3.6 + 2.98928N)𝑚2 (10-7)

Area under the control perimeter to be considered as a function of N,

A = 𝑐1*𝑐2 + (𝑐1*Nd) *2 + (𝑐2 *Nd) *2 + 𝜋(Nd)2
A = 𝑐1*𝑐2 + 2∗ 𝑐1*Nd + 2∗ 𝑐2 *Nd + 𝜋(Nd)2
A = 𝑐1*𝑐2 + 2*Nd (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) + 𝜋(Nd)2
A = 0.9*0.9 + 2∗ 0.9*N*0.476(0.9 + 0.9) + 𝜋(N0.476)2
A = 0.81 + 1.7136N+ 0.71181N 2 (10-8)

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Figure 10-8 Stress along punching perimeter

ϭ𝑚𝑎𝑥 −ϭ𝑚𝑖𝑛
ϭ1 (𝑥1 ) = ϭ𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ( )*𝑥1
3
ϭ𝑚𝑎𝑥 −ϭ𝑚𝑖𝑛
ϭ2 (𝑥2 ) = ϭ𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ( )*𝑥2
3
370.616−366.354
ϭ1 (𝑥1 ) = 366.3539 + ( )*𝑥1
3
370.616−366.354
ϭ2 (𝑥2 ) = 366.3539 +( )*𝑥2
3

ϭ1 (𝑥1 ) = 366.3539 + (1.421)*𝑥1 (10-9)

ϭ2 (𝑥2 ) = 366.3539 + (1.421)*𝑥2 (10-10)

Figure 10-9 Punching perimeter

𝛽∗𝑉𝐸𝑑 ,𝑟𝑒𝑑 (10-11)

𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 𝑈1 ∗𝑑

Where: -
𝑉𝐸𝑑 , 𝑟𝑒𝑑 maximum shear stress
𝑑 is the mean effective depth of the slab
𝑈1 is the length of the control perimeter being considered
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑 - 𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

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ϭ1 +ϭ2
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 = *A
2

𝑒 𝑒𝑦
β=1 +1.8√(𝑏𝑥 )2 + (𝑏 )2
𝑦 𝑥

𝑏𝑦 =𝑏𝑥 = 2Nd+c = 2*N*(0.476) +0.9

𝑒 𝑒𝑦
𝛽 (𝑏𝑥 )=1 +1.8√(𝑏𝑥 )2 + (𝑏 )2
𝑦 𝑥

(𝑒𝑥 )2 +(𝑒𝑦 )2
𝛽(𝑏𝑥 )=1 +1.8√ (𝑏𝑥 )2

(0.000665)2 +(0.00218869)2
𝛽 (𝑏𝑥 )=1 +1.8√ (𝑏𝑥 )2

0.004117385 (10-12)
𝛽 (𝑏𝑥 )=1 +1.8( )
𝑏𝑥

3−2𝑁𝑑−𝑐 3−2𝑁∗0.476−0.9
𝑥1 (N)= =
2 2

𝑥2 (N)=3 − 𝑥1
𝑥1 (N)=1.05-0.476N
𝑥2 (N)=3 −(1.05-0.476N)
𝑥1 (N)=1.05-0.476N (10-13)

𝑥2 (N)=1.95-0.476N (10-14)

Shear capacity of concrete as a function of N without shear reinforcement.

AS =  24c / c 250 = 4973.76mm 2

AS 4973.76
= = = 0.00339738  0.02
bd 3000 x 488
0.18 0.18
CRd ,c = = = 0.12
c 1.5
200 200
k = 1+ = 1+ = 1.64018  2.0
d 488
1 1
2d 2
v = CRd ,c k (1000  f ck ) 3 *( ) = 0.12 x1.64018 x(100 x0.0034 x40) 3 ( ) = 4.759145*(2 / N ) Mpa
Nd N
vRd ,c ( N ) = 4.6968(2 / N ) Mpa

vRd ,c ( N ) = 4.6968(2 / N )Mpa (10-15)

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Table 10-2: Punching shear checking in the critical periphery

N Nd X1(m) X2(m) ϭ1(Kpa) ϭ2(Kpa) Ϭavg Area(m2) VEd,up(KN) Pd(KN) Ved,rep βx=βy β Ud 𝑽𝑬𝒅 (Kpa) (2d)/(Nd) 𝑽𝑹𝒅𝒄 (Kpa)
(Kpa)
(1 0.476 0.574 2.426 367.169554 369.801246 368.485 3.23541 1192.20134 3289.07 2096.87565 1.808 1.00227 6.58928 670.06236 2 4759.145
1.1 0.523 0.5264 2.473 367.101914 369.868885 368.485 3.556250 1310.42624 3289.07 1978.65075 1.904 1.00216 6.88820 604.77535 1.8181818 5235.06
1.2 0.571 0.4788 2.521 367.034274 369.936525 368.485 3.891326 1433.896965 3289.07 1855.18003 1.999 1.00206 7.18713 543.39640 1.6666666 5710.974
1.3 0.618 0.4312 2.568 366.966635 370.004164 368.485 4.240638 1562.61352 3289.07 1726.46347 2.094 1.00196 7.48606 485.45597 1.5384615 6186.889
1.4 0.666 0.3836 2.616 366.898995 370.071804 368.485 4.604187 1696.57590 3289.07 1592.50109 2.189 1.00188 7.78499 430.55685 1.4285714 6662.803
1.5 0.714 0.336 2.664 366.831356 370.139444 368.485 4.981972 1835.78412 3289.07 1453.29287 2.284 1.00180 8.08392 378.36077 1.3333333 7138.718
1.6 0.761 0.2884 2.711 366.763716 370.207083 368.485 5.373993 1980.23818 3289.07 1308.83881 2.38 1.00173 8.38284 328.57786 1.25 7614.632
1.7 0.809 0.2408 2.759 366.696076 370.274723 368.485 5.780250 2129.93806 3289.07 1159.13893 2.475 1.00166 8.68177 280.95825 1.1764705 8090.547
1.8 0.856 0.1932 2.806 366.628437 370.342362 368.485 6.200744 2284.88378 3289.07 1004.19321 2.570 1.00160 8.98070 235.28544 1.1111111 8566.461
1.9 0.904 0.1456 2.854 366.560797 370.410002 368.485 6.635474 2445.07532 3289.07 844.001672 2.665 1.00154 9.27963 191.37090 1.052631 9042.376
2 0.952 0.098 2.902 366.493158 370.477642 368.485 7.08444 2610.51270 3289.07 678.564292 2.760 1.00149 9.57856 149.04967 1 9518.29

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(H) Detailing
The anchorage length (𝑙𝑏𝑑 is found as follow: -

𝑙𝑏𝑑 = 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼4 𝛼5 𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞 (10-16)

Where: -

𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞 is basic anchorage length

𝑙𝑏𝑑 is design anchorage length

𝑓𝑦𝑘 (10-17)
𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = (1/4.6) * (𝑓 ) *ɸ
𝑏𝑑

Where: -

𝑓𝑦𝑘 Characteristic steel yield capacity

𝑓𝑏𝑑 bond stress

𝐹𝑏𝑑 = 2.25 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑑 (10-18)

Where: -

𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑑 is the design value of concrete tensile strength

𝜂1 is a coefficient related to the quality of the bond condition

𝜂2 is a coefficient related to bar diameter

𝜂1 = 0.7 for D > 600 and

𝜂2 = 1 for ɸ > 32mm
460
𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = (1/4.6) * (𝑓 ) *24
𝑏𝑑 ∗1.91

𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 1256.5mm
𝑙𝑏𝑑 = 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼4 𝛼5 𝑙𝑏𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑙𝑏𝑑 = 0.8375 ∗ 1.1375 ∗ 0.7 ∗ 1 ∗ 1256.5𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑑 = 837.9088

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CHAPTER 11 ROOF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

11.1 Introduction

A roof truss is a structure with straight pieces forming triangles to support a load. The

members of the triangles are placed under tension and compression but do not bend. The

top chords of the truss typically bear loads directly, and the resulting tension and

compression load distribution through the struts to the bottom chord accounts for the

greater overall load bearing capability.

A purlin is a horizontal structural member in a roof. Purlins support the loads from the

roof deck or sheeting and are supported by the principal rafters.

The basic steps of the analysis and design of roof are:

• Determining span and spacing of truss

• Design of EGA sheet: Involves calculating the wind load and selecting the
EGA sheet.

• Design of purlin; Involves calculating the loads on the purlin, preparing

load combination for the dead load, live load and wind load, modeling the
purlin on SAP, analysis and design using SAP

• Design of truss; Involves selecting truss configuration and sections,

transferring unfactored dead load, live load and wind load from purlin,
preparing load combination, modeling the truss on SAP, analysis and
design using SAP

• Description of the Connection types to be used

• Detailing

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11.2 Dimensions of the roof

Figure 11-1: Dimensions of the roof

N.B.: The dimension of the roof we took is from a typical warehouse in order to exercise
steel truss design and wind load analysis on the face of the roof. A span length of 20 m
and 30 m width is selected.

11.3 Design of EGA sheet

EGA sheet is selected from Kaliti Metal Products Factory Manual. But these sections
depend on locally available EGA sheets manufactured in different locally available
companies. But in order to select the cross section of the sheet, wind load acting on it has
to be known. Based on the calculated wind load the uniform load carrying capacity of the
EGA sheet can be selected from the manual.

11.3.1 Loading
Wind load

The magnitude of the wind load depends on the roof shape, wind direction and location
of the building. The wind speed for buildings located in rural areas varies with the one
located in urban areas and also buildings located at flat areas have different wind
magnitude compared with buildings located at hills or cliffs.

Wind can create suction forces and whole roof section can be blown off. Appropriate
fasteners and holding down bolts or anchors must be used.

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Wind velocity and velocity pressure

Basic values
The basic wind velocity shall be calculated as indicated in ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Article
4.2 (2) P Expression (4.1)

Vb = Cdir *Cseason * Vb,o (11-1)

Where:
Vb Basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at 10 m
above ground of terrain category II
Vb,o Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
Cdir Directional factor = 1 which can be found in ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Article 4.2 (2)P,
Note 2
Cseason Season factor = 1.0 which can be found in ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Article 4.2 (2)P,
Note 3
The value of Vb,o can be taken from EBCS(old code). Which gives a value of 22 m/s.

Vb = 1.0 * 1.0 * 22 m/s

𝑉𝑏 = 22 m/s
Mean wind
The mean wind velocity Vm (z) at a height above the terrain depends on the terrain
roughness and orography and on the basic wind velocity,Vb , and should be determined
according to EN EBCS 1991-1-4:2004, Article 4.3.1 (1)P Expression (4.3)

Vm (z) = Cr (z) * C0 (z) * Vb (11-2)

Where:

Cr(Z) Roughness factor which is a function of the terrain category

Co(Z) Orography factor

Terrain category selection

Since the building is in Addis Ababa which is an urban region, it is surrounded by other
high-rise buildings. Thus, according to ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Annex A, A.1
(Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category), we have chosen terrain
Category IV, area in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with buildings and their
average height exceeds 15m.

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Referring ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Table 4.1 (Terrain categories and terrain parameters):

Zo= 1 m

Zmin= 10 m

Zmax = 200 m which can be found in ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Article 4.3.2, 1

(recommended value)

Usually the height of ware house is about 10 or 11m but to see the maximum wind effect
on the roof we have taken the height of the building to be equal with a G+10 building.

Z = height of the building = (11*3.0 m) + (2.68 m) = 35.68 m

Roughness Factor (𝐂𝐫 (z))

Now that the terrain category and terrain parameters are selected the roughness
coefficient can be calculated using, Expression 4.4 and 4.5 on Article 4.3.2 (1) ES-EN
1991-1-4:2004

Cr (z) = K r * ln (z/zo) for Zmin ≤ Z ≤ Zmax (11-3)

Cr (z) = Cr (Zmin ) for Z ≤ Zmin (11-4)

Where:
Kr Terrain factor depending on the roughness length Zo calculated using;
K r = 0.19 * (Z0 /Z0,II )0.07
Zo,ll 0.05 m for terrain category II (ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Table 4.1)

K r = 0.19 * (1 m / 0.05 m) 0.07

K r = 0.234

For Zmin = 10 m, Z = 35.68 m, Zmax = 200 m,

𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ Z ≤ 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥

10 m ≤ 35.68 m ≤ 200 m

𝐶𝑟 (z) = 0.234 * ln (35.68 m / 1m) = 0.836

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Orography Factor (Co (Z))

Terrain orography
Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the
effects should be taken into account using orography factor𝐶𝑜 . The average slope of the
upwind terrain is less than 3o where the ground surface is flat, thus the effect of
orography is neglected (𝐶𝑜 = 1) according to Article 4.3.3 ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004.

Large and considerably higher neighboring structures

If the structure is to be located close to another structure, that is at least twice as high as
the average height of its neighboring structures, then it could be exposed (dependent on
the properties of the structure) to increased wind velocities directions according to
Article 4.3.4, ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004. The building is not located twice as high as the
average height of its neighboring structures. Thus, there is no need to increase the wind
velocity direction.

Closely spaced buildings and obstacles

In rough terrain closely-spaced buildings modify the mean wind flow near the ground, as
if the ground level was raised to a height called displacement height hdis. According to
ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Annex A, A.5 in the absence of accurate information the
obstruction height may be taken as have = 15 m for terrain category IV.

Figure 11-2: Obstruction height and upwind spacing (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004,
Figure A.5)

According to ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Annex A, A.15

x ≤ 2 ⋅ have in which hdis is the lesser of 0.8 ⋅ have or 0,6 ⋅ h

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2 ⋅ have < x < 6 ⋅ have in which hdis is the lesser of 1.2 ⋅ have – 0,2 ⋅ x or 0,6 ⋅ h

x ≥ 6 ⋅ have in which hdis = 0

Since there is no accurate information obstruction height, it is possible to take have =

15m. The distance between the building and its neighbor building is in the range of 95-
100 m which is x.

x ≥ 6 ⋅ have

95 m ≥ 6 * 15 m

95 m ≥ 90 m

Thus, hdis = 0

Therefore, Vm (z) = Cr (z) * C0 (z) * Vb

Vm (z) = 0.836 * 1 * 22m/s

Vm (z) = 18.392 m/s

Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity I𝑣 (z) at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the
turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity according to Article 4.4 (1), ES-EN 1991-
1-4:2004. The standard deviation of the turbulence σ𝑣 can be determined using
Expression 4.6 ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004,

σv = K r * Vb * K I (11-5)
Where:

KI Turbulence factor. The recommended value is K I = 1.0.

σ𝑣 = 0.234 *18.392 * 1

σ𝑣 = 4.304

The recommended rules for the determination of Iv(Z) is stated in Expression 4.7 ES-EN
1991-1-4:2004

Iv (z) = σv / Vm (z) = K I / (C0 (z) * ln(Z/Z0 )) for Zmin ≤ Z ≤ Zmax (11-6)

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Iv (z) = Iv (Zmin ) for Z ≤ Zmax (11-7)

For 10 m ≤ 35.68 m ≤ 200 m,

I𝑣 (z) = 4.304 /18.392 = 0.234

Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) at height z, which includes mean and short-term
velocity fluctuations, is determined in accordance with Expression 4.8 ES-EN 1991-1-
4:2004

qp (z) = [1 + (7 * Iv (z))] * (1/2) * ρ * (Vm (z))2 (11-8)

Where:

Ρ Air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure to be
expected in the region during wind storms. The recommended value is 1.25 Kg/m3 (Article
4.5, (1) Note 2), ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004)

𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + (7 * 0.234)] * (1/2) * 1.25 * 18.3922

𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = 557.72 N/m2 = 0.558 KN/m2

Wind actions

Wind actions on structures and structural elements shall be determined taking account of
both external and internal wind pressures. (Article 5.1(1), ES-EN 1991-1-4)
According to Article 5.2 (3), ES-EN 1991-1-4, the net pressure on a wall, roof or element
is the difference between the pressures on the opposite surfaces taking due account of
their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is taken as positive, and suction,
directed away from the surface as negative.

Figure 11-3: Positive internal pressure and external pressure

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External wind pressure

The external wind pressure is the wind pressure acting on the outside surface of the
building and can be calculated using Article 5.2 (1) Expression 5.1.

We = qp (ze ) cpe (11-9)

Where:
qp(Ze) Peak velocity pressure
Ze Reference height for the external pressure
Cpe Pressure coefficient for the external pressure

Peak velocity pressure has been calculated in the previous section and the pressure
coefficient can be determined from section seven of ES-EN 1991-1-4.

For a duo pitched roof Article 7.2.5, ES-EN 1991-1-4 can be used.

Dimensions of the truss system

Pitch angle (α) 15

Height of building (h) 35.68
Span of truss 20
Width 30

Figure 11-4: Positive pitch angle truss dimensions

Zones for wind direction θ= 0 and θ=90

b- Cross wind dimension

b
e= min{ }
2h

30
e= min{ }
2(35.68) = 71.36

e= 30

Figure 11-5: Zones for wind direction θ= 0 (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Figure
7.8(a))

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b- Cross wind dimension

b
e= min{ }
2h

20
e= min{ }
2(35.68) = 71.36

e= 20

Figure 11-6: Zones for wind direction θ= 90 (Adopted from ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004, Figure
7.8(b))

Pressure coefficients
The external pressure coefficients 𝑐𝑝𝑒 for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the
size of the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure that produces the wind action
in the section to be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded
areas A of 1 m2 and 10 m2 in the tables for the appropriate building configurations as
cpe,1, for local coefficients, and cpe,10, for overall coefficients, respectively. The values
between these areas can be interpolated. (Article 7.2.1 (1), ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004).
Table 11-1: Area of each zone for wind direction θ= 0 and θ= 90
Zones for wind direction θ= 0

Zones F G H I J

Length(m) 7.5 15 30 30 30

Width(m) 3 3 7 7 3

Area(m2) 22.5 45 210 210 90

Zones for wind direction θ= 90

Zones F G H I
Length(m) 5 5 10 20

Width(m) 2 2 8 10

Area(m2) 10 10 80 200

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External pressure coefficients for duo pitch roof with 15ᵒ angle pitch

All the zones for the roof have an area greater than 10 thus 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 can be used.

Table 11-2: External wind pressure for duo pitched roof with an angle of 15 ᵒ angle pitch
Zones for wind direction θ= 0

Zones F G H I J

Suction -0.9 -0.8 -0.3 -0.4 -1

Compression 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0

Zones for wind direction θ= 90

Zones F G H I

Suction -1.3 -1.3 -0.6 -0.5

We = q p (ze ) cpe
q p (ze ) = 0.558 KN/m2
We = 0558 ∗ cpe
ze = h (Art 7.2.5 (3) ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004)

Internal wind pressure

The internal wind pressure is the wind pressure acting on the inside surface of the
building and depends on the number of openings such as windows, doors,
chimneys…etc. It can be calculated using Article 5.2 (2) Expression 5.2 ES-EN 1991-1-
4:2004.

Wi = qp (zi ) cpi (11-10)

Where:
qp(Zi) Peak velocity pressure
Zi Reference height for the internal pressure
Cpi Pressure coefficient for the internal pressure

For conditions where it is not possible to estimate the size of openings Eurocode
recommends the internal pressure coefficient to be taken as the more onerous of +0,2 and
-0,3. (Article 7.2.9 (6) Note 2, ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004)

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Wi = q p (zi ) cpi
q p (zi ) = 0.558 KN/m2
Wi = 0.558 ∗ cpi
zi = h (Article 7.2.9, ES-EN 1991-1-4:2004)
Net wind pressure

Table 11-3: Net wind pressure for θ= 0

𝒄𝒑𝒆,𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒑𝒊 𝑾𝒆 = 0.558*𝒄𝒑𝒆 𝑾𝒊 = 0.558*𝒄𝒑𝒊 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑾𝒆 -𝑾𝒊 )
(KN/m2) (KN/m2) (KN/m2)
F Suction -0.9 -0.3 -0.502 -0.167 -0.614
Compression 0.2 0.2 0.112 0.112 0.279
G Suction -0.8 -0.3 -0.446 -0.167 -0.558
Compression 0.2 0.2 0.112 0.112 0.279
H Suction -0.3 -0.3 -0.167 -0.167 -0.279
Compression 0.2 0.2 0.112 0.112 0.279
I Suction -0.4 -0.3 -0.223 -0.167 -0.335
Compression 0 0.2 0.000 0.112 0.167
J Suction -1 -0.3 -0.558 -0.167 -0.670
Compression 0 0.2 0.000 0.112 0.167
Max Suction -0.670
Compression 0.279

Table 11-4: Net wind pressure for θ= 90

𝒄𝒑𝒆,𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒑𝒊 𝑾𝒆 = 0.558*𝒄𝒑𝒆 𝑾𝒊 = 0.558*𝒄𝒑𝒊 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑾𝒆 -𝑾𝒊 )
(KN/m2) (KN/m2) (KN/m2)
F Suction -1.3 -0.3 -0.725 -0.167 -0.837
Compression 0.2 0.000 0.112 0.167
G Suction -1.3 -0.3 -0.725 -0.167 -0.837
Compression 0.2 0.000 0.112 0.167
H Suction -0.6 -0.3 -0.335 -0.167 -0.446
Compression 0.2 0.000 0.112 0.167
I Suction -0.5 -0.3 -0.279 -0.167 -0.391
Compression 0.2 0.112 0.167
Max Suction -0.837
Compression 0.167

The maximum wind load on the roof will be;

Compression= 0.2791 KN/m2

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Suction= -0.837 KN/m2

11.3.2 Selection of EGA sheet

The EGA sheet should be able to support the wind load acting on it. The net pressure
calculated in Table 11-4 and Table 11-5 indicate the worst-case scenario when both
suction and compression wind load is exerted on it. Taking the maximum net calculated
wind load 0.837 KN/m2 and the maximum purlin spacing assumed to be 1.5, the EGA
sheet can be selected from Kaliti Metal Products Factory Manual. The sheet selected will
be revised after the design of the truss if the purlin spacing used is greater than 1.5m.

From Kaliti Metal Product Factory manual EGA 300 with a thickness of 0.35 mm for
purlin spacing 1.5m has a capacity of 0.96 KPa which is adequate.

Table 11-5: Summary of selected EGA sheet parameter values

Parameter Type Max purlin Thickness Weight per Load carrying
spacing meter capacity
Value EGA 300 1.5 m 0.35 mm 2.75 Kg/m 0.96 KN/m2

11.4 Analysis and design of purlin

The purlin structure of a building is designed in accordance with the type of roofing to be
used. The nature of the roofing in particular, directly influences the spacing between
purlins; it also determines what purlin-roofing interaction we can expect for
dimensioning the purlins.

The loads to be considered during design are primarily:

• The actual weight of the purlins and their accessories

• The maintenance load of the roofing

• Wind

There are different types of purlins used in the market today. The most common ones
are:

• Hot-rolled beam purlins

• Thin gauge cold-formed purlins

• Lattice purlins

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The purlin used in our building is a Lattice Purlin. Lattice purlin is used to connect
trusses through a composition of structural steel and reinforcement bar. Nowadays lattice
purlin is widely used in the construction sector. The reason behind is its strength and cost
efficiency (economy).

Figure 11-7: Lattice purlin

11.4.1 Load Transfer to Purlin

Live load

Roofs are categorized in to three categories according to their accessibility in ES-EN

1991-1-1:2001, Table 6.9 (Categorization of roofs). Since the roof is taken from a typical
warehouse, we consider it to be accessible only for maintenance. Thus, category H is
selected from the table which is roofs not accessible for normal maintenance and repair.
Referring EN 1991-1-1:2001, Table 6.10 (Imposed loads on the roofs of Category H), for
category H 𝑄𝑘 may be selected within the range of 0.00 KN/m2 to 1.0 KN/m2 and 𝑄𝑘
may be selected within the range 0,9 KN to 1.5 KN. Taking the recommended value, 𝑄𝑘
= 0.4 KN/m2 and 𝑄𝑘 = 1.0 KN. The concentrated value is given to consider the worst-
case scenario in which all the weight during maintenance is concentrated on one purlin.

Dead load

Dead load is self-weight of different components of the structure itself. Its magnitude
and point of application does not appreciably change with time. Dead load on a purlin
will compromise loads of roof coverings (EGA Sheet) and self-load of the purlin.
• Own weight of EGA sheet
0.82 KN/𝑚2
• Own weight of Purlin
To be considered in SAP software.

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Wind load

Maximum compression= 0.2791 KN/m2

Maximum suction= -0.837 KN/m2
Summary of loads on purlin

Areal load

Table 11-6: Summary of load on purlin

Type of load Areal Load (KN/m2)
Dead load Purlin own weight Determined from SAP
Live load 0.4
Wind load Suction -0.837
Compression 0.2791

Line load
The line load is determined by multiplying the areal load by half the purlin spacing on
both sides of the purlin.

1.375 + 1.425
Length = = 1.4 𝑚
2

Table 11-7: Line load calculation

Type of load Areal load (KN/m2) Line load (KN/m)
Dead load (EGA) 0.0275
Live load 0.4 0.560
Wind load(suction) -0.837 -1.172
Wind load (compression) 0.279 0.391

11.4.2 Load Combination

Effects of actions that cannot exist simultaneously due to physical or functional reasons
should not be considered together in combinations of actions. (Annex A1-A1.2.1, ES-EN
1990:2001) The wind load and live load that acts on the purlin have a low probability of
occurring simultaneously thus various combinations for ultimate limit state transient and
persistent design situations are used for the design.
Recommended value of ψ to be used for the combination of the actions can be found in
Annex A1- Table A1.1, ES-EN 1990:2001.

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ψ0 = 0 ………. For Imposed load of Category H (roofs)

ψ0 = 0.6 ……...For Wind loads on buildings
Design values of actions in persistent and transient design situations
“Design of structural members (STR) not involving geotechnical actions should be
verified using the design values of actions from Table A1.2 (B)”. (Annex A1-A1.3.1 (4),
ES-EN 1990:2001).
“STR can be defined as internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or
structural members, including footings, piles, and basement walls, etc., where the
strength of construction materials of the structure governs”. (Article 6.4.1(B), ES-EN
1990:2001). From Equation 6.10 on Table A1.2 (B), ES-EN 1990:2001 we have

𝛶Gj, sup GKj,sup + 𝛶Q,1QK,1 + 𝛶Q.i ψ0,iQK,i (11-11)

Where:
𝛶Gj,sup The factor of safety for the dead load, recommended to be 1.35
GKj,sup Dead load
𝛶Q,1 The factor of safety for the imposed load for the leading variable, recommended to be
1.5
QK,1 Leading variable imposed load
QK,i Accompanying variable imposed load
ψ0,i Multiplier for load combination
Combination 1; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (suction)
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,i(suc)
Combination 2; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (suction)
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,i(suc)
Combination 3; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (compression)
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,i(com)
Combination 4; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (compression)
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,i(com)
Combination 5; wind load (suction) leading and Imposed load accompanying

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1.3 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,1(com) + (0)QK,i

Combination 6; wind load (compression) leading and Imposed load accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,i(suc) + (0)QK,i

11.4.3 Analysis and design using SAP

Three different purlins with varying depth were analyzed using SAP v14 to get an
optimized section. The depth used for analysis is:

• 200mm

• 250mm

• 300mm

The materials used are 30x30x3mm Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) for the main
steel structure and also 30x30x3mm to connect the main structure.

After comparing the results acquired from the software, it was found that the sections
provided with a depth of 250mm was adequate in terms of strength, i.e. no failure will
occur.

Figure 11-8 Analysis and design of Purlin on SAP

11.4.4 Comparison between Lattice Purlin, Standard RHS and I beam

Lattice purlin, standard RHS and I beam were compared to justify why we chose lattice
purlin. These three sections are analyzed on SAP v14 for the combination which gave the

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maximum effect on purlin analysis previously done. The sections 100x100x4.5 RHS and
175x90 IS was found to be adequate. The sections are compared by their cost. Since the
cost is directly proportional with the weight. The weight of each section can be used for
comparison.

Mass comparison

• Lattice Purlin

The weight can be calculated by multiplying the weight per meter of the SHS section
30x30x3 found in the Kality manual by the length and add the weight of the rebar. The
upper SHS section has a length of 6 m and the bottom section has a length of 5.4 m. The
weight per meter of the 14mm diameter rebar is multiplied by the length and number.

Length of SHS = 6 + 5.4= 21.4m

Mass of SHS = 21.4m x 2.36kg/m = 26.9 kg

Mass of Rebar = 1.209 Kg/m x 0.25 m x 40 = 12.09 Kg

Total Mass = 26.9 + 12.09 = 38.99 Kg

• Simple RHS Section

For RHS section of 100x60x4.5, the weight per meter can be determined from Kality
manual.

Length = 6m

Total Mass = 6m *10.26kg/m = 61.56kg

• Simple I- Beam

For I Section 175x90 the weight per meter can be found from Continental Steel PTE
LTD catalog.

Length = 6 = 6m

Total Mass = 6m *18 Kg/m = 108 Kg

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N.B From the calculation above it can be seen that the lattice purlin has a smaller mass
which indicates a smaller cost and also reduces the weight that will be carried by the
truss.

Table 11-8: Selected purlin section properties

Type Parameter Nominal size Thickness Weight per meter
Lattice purlin Value 30X30 (mm2) 3 mm 2.36 Kg/m
11.5 Analysis and design of truss

The truss provided for the warehouse has a span of 20 meters with 6 meters spacing.
Interior trusses receive load from two purlins whereas the edge trusses experience half of
that load. The strength of the truss is achieved from the combined effect of the geometry
and the sectional capacity of each member. To have an economical truss with adequate
strength optimization should be done. British standard has set different optimized
configuration and section for various span lengths. This configuration and sections serve
as an initial estimate and are adjusted when it is inadequate to support the load or when it
is not locally available.

11.5.1 Optimized truss section

Figure 11-9 Optimized truss configuration

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Figure 11-10 Optimized sections provided for the truss

11.5.2 Loads on the node of the truss

The truss carries its own weight and the load transferred from the purlin. Purlins are
placed at the nodes and carry dead load from the EGA sheet, wind load and live load
coming from half the node spacing in both sides. Six different unfactored purlin
reactions for each load type were determined for the varied node spacing and applied at
the respective nodes. Since these reactions are applied with some degree of inclination
(slope of the truss) a horizontal and vertical component of each load is applied at the
node.

Figure 11-11 Load transferred from purlin to truss

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Table 11-9 Horizontal and vertical components of the unfactored reactions at the purlin
Live load Live load Wind load Wind load
Tributary Dead load
(distributed)( (concentrated) (compression) (suction)
Purlin length (KN)
KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)
(m)
Hor. Ver. Hor. Ver. Hor. Ver. Hor. Ver. Hor. Ver.
P1 0.38 0.16 0.58 0.23 0.87 0.26 0.97 0.16 0.60 -0.49 -1.82
P2 0.98 0.16 0.58 0.61 2.26 0.26 0.97 0.42 1.58 -1.27 -4.73
P3 1.29 0.16 0.58 0.80 2.98 0.26 0.97 0.56 2.09 -1.67 -6.24
P4 1.38 0.16 0.58 0.85 3.19 0.26 0.97 0.60 2.22 -1.79 -6.67
P5 1.60 0.16 0.58 0.99 3.71 0.26 0.97 0.69 2.59 -2.08 -7.77
P6 0.76 0.16 0.58 0.47 1.76 0.26 0.97 0.33 1.24 -0.99 -3.69

11.5.3 Load combination

The combination used for the analysis and design of the truss is similar to that of the
purlin except for the combination of the wind load. Persistent and transient design
situation is used which combines the dead load, live load (concentrated), live load
(distributed), wind load (compression) and wind load (suction). The wind load applied at
the truss might be idealized as indicated in Figure 11-12

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 11-12 Possible combination of wind load: (a)Left and right side under compression;
(b) Left and right side under suction; (c) Left side under compression and right side under
suction; (d) Left side under suction and right side under compression.

Twelve different combinations can be created by interchanging the leading and

accompanying variable from the wind and live load. Live load includes the reaction

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found when distributed line load is applied and when concentrated load is applied at the
center. The wind load can also be classified as suction and compression depending on the
direction of the wind load.

Combination 1; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (Both sides under
suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc2)
Combination 2; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (Both sides under
suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc2)
Combination 3; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (Both sides under
compression) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 2)
Combination 4; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (Both sides under
compression) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 2)
Combination 5; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (left side under
compression and right side under suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc 2)
Combination 6; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (left side under
compression and right side under suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 1) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc 2)
Combination 7; Imposed load leading (distributed) and wind load (right side under
compression and left side under suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(dis) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 2) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc 1)
Combination 8; Imposed load leading (concentrated) and wind load (right side under
compression and left side under suction) accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5QK,1(conc) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(com 2) + 1.5 (0.6)QK,2(suc 1)
Combination 9; wind load (both side under compression) leading and Imposed load
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,1(com 1) + 1.5 QK,1(com 2) + (0)QK,i
Combination 10; wind load (Both sides under suction) leading and Imposed load
accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,i(suc 1) + 1.5 QK,i(suc 2) + (0)QK,i

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Combination 11; wind load (left side under compression and right side under suction)
leading and Imposed load accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,i(com 1) + 1.5 QK,i(suc 2) + (0)QK,i
Combination 12; wind load (right side under compression and left side under suction)
leading and Imposed load accompanying
1.35 GKj,sup + 1.5 QK,i(com 2) + 1.5 QK,i(suc 1) + (0)QK,i

11.5.4 Analysis and design of the truss using SAP

By modeling the optimized section and loading the truss with the unfactoed vertical and
horizontal component of the load determined from purlin analysis, the truss’s members
are checked for compression or tension failure. If there is a tension failure the section is
increased and if it fails in compression either the section is increased or the length of the
member is shortened by adding another member to prevent buckling failure. From the
design and analysis it was determined that combination 10 (wind load (Both sides under
suction) leading and Imposed load accompanying) governed.

Figure 11-13 Design check of the optimized section

The design check of the optimized section indicated that some of the sections provided
were not adequate to support the load. The truss members with red color in Figure 11-14:
Design check of trial 4 indicate failed sections. Four different trial trusses were analyzed
until an adequate section was found. (Refer Appendix J)

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Figure 11-14: Design check of trial 4

11.5.5 Design verification using hand calculation

The design verification is done for a compression member with high compression force
and longer length. For the member to be adequate the cross sectional and the buckling
resistance must be greater than the axial force it experiences. There are three basic types
of column failure; material failure which occurs in short columns and is characterized by
the material crushing, buckling failure which occurs in slender column and is
characterized by lateral bending and the other failure is due to the combination of the two

11.5.5.1 Selected member

Member with an axial compressive force of 130.6 KN, length of 3.89 m and 100x100x4
section is selected for the verification.

Figure 11-15 SAP analysis result of member to be verified

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11.5.5.2 Cross sectional resistance

The cross-sectional resistance should be greater than the design compressive force. From
Expression 6.9 Article 6.2.4 of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001 we have,

NED (11-12)
≤1
Nc,RD

Where:

NED Design compressive force

Nc,Rd Design cross sectional resistance

The design cross sectional resistance can be calculated depending on the class of the
cross section which can be determined using table 5.2 in Article 5.5.4 of ES-EN 1993-1-
1:2001

𝑐 𝑏 − 3𝑡 100 − 3(4)
= = = 29.33
𝑡 3 3

235 235
ε= √ = √ = 0.766
fy 400

c⁄
t = 29.33 = 38.3
ε 0.766

38.3 < 42 thus the section is classified under class three.

For class three members the cross sectional resistance can be determined using
Expression 6.9 Article 6.2.4(2) of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001

Afy (11-13)
Nc,Rd =
γmo

Where:

Nc,Rd Design cross sectional resistance

A Area of the section, from kality product catalogue A= 14.95 cm2
Fy Yield capacity of the steel, fy = 400 MPa
𝛶mo Factor of safety, 𝛶mo = 1

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14.95 ∗ 400
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = 598 𝐾𝑁
1

598 > 130.6 KN

The resistance is greater than the load thus the section is safe.

11.5.5.3 Buckling resistance of the member

A cross sectional capacity of a compression member will decrease as its length increase.
This decrease in resistance is caused by the action of the applied compressive load N
which causes bending in a member with initial deflection caused by imperfection or
other factors. As the load is increased it reaches a point where the member will deflect
laterally without increase in load thus the member will fail due to excessive deflection.
(N.S. Trahair, M.A. Bradford, D.A. Nethercot, and L. Gardner (2008)). The buckling
resistance should be greater than the design compressive force. From Expression 6.4
Article 6.3.1.1 of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001 we have,

NED (11-14)
≤1
Nb,RD

Where:

NED Design compressive force

Nb,Rd Design buckling resistance

“For hot rolled and welded steel member with the type of cross section according Table
6.2 the relevant buckling mode is generally flexural buckling” (Article 6.3.1.1(1) Note 1
ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001)

For class three the buckling resistance can be calculated by using Expression 6.41 in
Article 6.3.1.1(3) of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001.

Afy (11-15)
Nb,Rd = x
γm1

Where:

Nb,Rd Design buckling resistance

A Area of the section, from kality product catalogue A= 14.95 cm2
Fy Yield capacity of the steel, fy = 400 MPa

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𝛶m1 Factor of safety, 𝛶m1 = 1

x Reduction factor

The buckling resistance of a member is less than its cross-sectional capacity thus the
value of x is always less than or equal to one. The reduction factor takes into account the
instability caused by the slenderness of a member (ƛ) and imperfections during
construction (α).

The reduction factor can be determined using the buckling curve in Figure 6.3 Article
6.3.1.2 of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001. The proper buckling curve and the non-dimensional
slenderness ratio should first be determined.

For hollow hot rolled section buckling curve ‘a’ can be selected from Table 6.2 of ES-
EN 1993-1-1:2001.

The non-dimensional slenderness ratio for flexural buckling depends on the critical
length of the member and can be determined using expression 6.4.3 of ES-EN 1993-1-
1:2001

(11-16)
Afy Lcr 1
ƛ= √ = ∗
Ncr i λ1

Where:

λ Non-dimensional slenderness ratio

i Radius of gyration about the relevant axis, i=3.13 cm from Kality product catalogue.
Lcr Buckling length
λ1 = 93.9ε
𝜆1 = 93.9𝜀 = 93.9 * 0.7665 = 71.97

Article 6.3.1.3(2) of ES-EN 1993-1-1:2001 states that if the member is effectively held
in position laterally Lcr can be taken as the length of the member.

𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 3.89 1
ƛ= ∗ = ∗
𝑖 𝜆1 3.13 71.97

ƛ = 1.727

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The reduction factor for slenderness ratio is 1.73 and buckling curve ‘a’ is 0.3 using the
buckling curve diagram.

Afy 0.3 ∗ (14.95)(400)

Nb,Rd = x = = 179.4
γm1 1

179.4 > 130

The buckling resistance is greater than the load thus the section is adequate.

11.6 Connections

Connections are used to transfer the load from one member to the other, from purlin to
truss member and from the truss to the columns so that they will act together as one unit.
The main types of connections used for steel members are bolts and welds. Welded
connection can be classified as butt and fillet welds. Butt weld connects the full thickness
of each member where as fillet welds are applied at an angle. The connections should be
detailed properly because (N. Subramanian)

• Connection failure has a catastrophic effect

• The failure that occurs is brittle and gives no warning

Connection of the truss to the column

(a) (b)

Figure 11-16 Connection of truss to column: (a) pin connection; (b) Planar view of roller
connection

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Four J bolts and a steel plate are used to connect the truss to the column. For a roller type
of support a hole is provided to allow a limited amount of movement which gives
flexibility to the truss.

Connection of the truss members

Depending on the location of the members bolted, welded or combination of both can be
used. Three different locations with varied connection type can be identified. This are;

• Edge members ; uses butt weld

• Interior members; uses bolted joint with gusset plate
• Members at the apex of the truss; uses combination of fillet weld and bolts.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 11-17: Connection of truss members: (a) Edge truss members; (b) interior truss
members; (c) truss members at the apex (Adopted from the fourth edition of The Behavior
and Design of Steel Structures to EC3 by N.S. Trahair, M.A. Bradford, D.A. Nethercot, and
L. Gardner

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Connection for member with length greater than 6

Butt weld can be used to join members exceed the length that is available.

Figure 11-18 Connection for members with length greater than 6m

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CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

12.1 Conclusion

In this final year project which required a lot struggle to fruit out the final design of this
structural design of medium ductile G+10 apartment building. And each part of the
building we carefully analysis and design as much as possible to get the final design
result.

In design of this building, the 3 basic questions of design are tr to be answered. Design of
members was made economical, safe and workable with good aesthetics. In doing this
building standard of the new Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ES-EN2015) was
largely referred in deciding on size and proportions of reinforced concrete.

Final year project enables students to search and to learn more than what have been
discussed through the class discussion. It helps the students to summarize what have
been learnt during their study. It also helps students to develop working in teams,
understanding with each other and develop good interaction with those who are above
them in knowledge and experience. Doing this project enables us to develop self-
confidence up on what we learnt in class and introduce to what we have to decide in
designing building.

12.2 Recommendation

It has been quite cumbersome to prepare a precise reinforcement detail; however, as it is

essential to achieve a quality performance of a structure under the situation it has been
designed for. The detailing must be done seriously.

Since the complexity of the structure and the number of structural element is so many
revisions of the whole work are needed because for high rise building the p-delta effect
should be considered to come up to safe and economical structure.

Strict supervision is necessary at site during construction. The minimum concrete grade
specified by the designer, for instance, should be achieved.

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REFERENCES

European Standard. (1990). Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design. European Committee

for Standardization.

European Standard. (1991). Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. European Committee for

Standardization.

European Standard. (1992). Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. European

Committee for Standardization.

European Standard. (1993). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. European Committee

for Standardization.

European Standard. (1997). Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. European Committee for

Standardization.

European Standard. (1998). Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance.

European Committee for Standardization.

N.S. Trahair, M.A. Bradford, D.A. Nethercot, and L. Gardner (2008). The Behavior and
Design of Steel Structures to EC3(4th edition ed). USA and Canada: Taylor &
Francis group.

N Subramanian (2010). Steel structures design and practice. India : Oxford University
press.

Prestressed Concrete Structures, Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon

Timoshenko, S. Woinowsky, Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Company,

London (1987)

R. Szilard, Theories and Applications of Plate Analysis: Classical, Numerical and

Engineering Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, Hoboken (2004)

British Concrete Standard, BS 8110-1: 1997, ISBN 0 580 26208 1.

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Design of Concrete Structures, Arthur H. Nilson, David Darwin, Charles W. Dolan,

Fourteenth Edition

Estimation of Bending Moment Coefficients of Two Way RC Slabs: Finite Element

Approach, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Udit Agrawal*,
AkshayGarg, Vansh Dhingra and Visuvasam Joseph Antony

A Simplified Method for Deigning RC Slabs under Concentrated Loading, Morteza

Fadaee, Atefeh Iranmanesh, and Mohammad J. Fadaee

Designers’ guide to EN 1998-1 and EN 1998-5 Eurocode 8: design of structures for

earthquake resistance general rules, seismic actions, design rules for buildings
and retaining structures, M. Fardis, E. Carvalho, A. Elnashai, E. Faccioli, P. Pinto
and A. Plumier, First published 2005 Reprinted 2009

Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, James K. Wight, James G. Macgregor,

Sixth edition

Seismic Design of Buildings to Eurocode 8, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009

Practical Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, Uncertainty in Structural

Engineering, William M.Bulleit, M.ASCE, February 2008

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APPENDIX A (Rigorous crack &deflection calculation using our software

‘SLS’)

Using simple software demonstration by SLS Design, the rigorous method for crack
control and deflection are calculated.

Crack width

Stair – Flight 1

Step-1: Selecting the needed stimulation from the interface of the software

Figure A-1-Initial interface of the software

Step-2: Choosing design code and type

Figure A-2-New design interface

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Step-3: Feeding general data, section property, span property, factors and assumption

Figure A-3-Crack width calculation interface

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Step-4: Calculated output for crack width calculation

Figure A-4-Calculated output for crack width interface

Step-5: Final result

Figure-A-5-Final result interface

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Step-6: Comparison

Figure A-6-Comparision interface

Stair – Flight 2

Following the same procedure as flight 1, the final result becomes:

Figure A-7-Final result interface for flight 2

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Figure A-8-Comparision interface for flight 2

Slab

Slab’s area of steel provided is similar with flight 1 for 1 m strip width. Thus, the crack
width final result is also similar.

Deflection

Slab and Stair – Worst case (Flight 2)

Step-1: Selecting the needed stimulation from the interface of the software

Figure A-9-Initial interface of the software

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Step-2: Choosing design code and type

Figure A-10-New design interface

Step-3: Feeding general data, section property, span property, factors and assumption

Figure A-11-Deflection rigorous method interface

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Step-4: Calculated output for rigorous method of calculation

Figure A-12-Calculated output for rigorous method interface

Step-5: Final result

Figure A-13-Final result for rigorous method interface

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Table A-12-1: Summary of output

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APPENDIX B (Center of mass calculation)

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APPENDIX C (Flowchart of Earthquake Analysis)

APPENDIX B (Flowchart of Design for Earthquake Resistance)

Method of Analysis

ES-EN 1998, Article

Linear-Elastic Analysis Non-Linear Analysis 4.3.3.1

Modal Response Method of

Regularity: Plan , Elevation X
Analysis ES-EN 1998, Article
Regularity: Plan X , Elevation X
Yes 4.2.3.1 Table 4.1

Lateral Force Method of Regularity: Plan, Elevation

Analysis
Regularity: Plan X , Elevation 

Base Shear Force, 𝐹𝑏 ; 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇1 ) . 𝑚 . 𝜆 ES-EN 1998, Article

4.3.2.2, Equation 4.5

Design Spectrum Acceleration, 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇1 ); Ƒ (ag, q, S, TB, TC, TD, T1) ES-EN 1998, Article
3.2.2.5

Design Ground Acceleration, 𝑎𝑔 ; 𝑎𝑔 = 𝛾1 . 𝑎𝑔𝑅

I – Minor importance
Importance factor, 𝛾1 II – Ordinary ES-EN 1998, Article
III – Medium Importance 4.2.5 Table 4.3
IV – Vital importance
Peak Ground Acceleration, 𝑎𝑔𝑅
Zone – 1 – 0.01g

Zone – 2 – 0.05g

Zone – 3 – 0.1g

Behavior Factor, q; 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜 . 𝐾𝑤

DCL
ES-EN 1998 Article
Ductility Class
DCM 5.2.2.2, Table 5.1

DCH

Type of elastic response spectra, S, TB, TC, TD

Type A
Ground Condition
ES-EN 1998 Article
Type B 3.12, Table 3.1

Type C

Type D

Type E

Type S1

Type S2

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Type 1 elastic response spectrum, Ms > 5.5 (High or moderate seismicity regions) ES-EN 1998 Article
3.2.2.2, Table 3.2
Type 2 elastic response spectrum, Ms ≤ 5.5 (Low seismicity regions) ES-EN 1998 Article
3.2.2.2, Table 3.3
3 ES-EN 1998 Article
Fundamental Period, T1; T1 = Ct ⋅ 𝐻 4 ≤ Min (4Tc, 2) 4.3.3.2.1, Equation 4.4
and Article 4.3.3.2.2
Recommended value
ES-EN 1998 Article
Ct
4.3.3.2.2., Equation 4.7
0.075
Structures with shear wall, Ct=
√𝐴𝑐

𝑙𝑤𝑖 2
Effective area of shear wall, Ac; 𝐴𝑐 = ∑[𝐴𝑖 ∗ (0.2 + ( ) )]
𝐻

Height of the building from foundation or top of rigid basement, H

2 𝑇 2.5 2 ES-EN 1998 Article

0 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐵 ∶ 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 . 𝑆 . + .( − ) 3.2.2.5, Equations 3.13,
3 𝑇𝐵 𝑞 3
3.14, 3.15 and 3.16

2.5
𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐶 ∶ 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 . 𝑆 . 𝛽 = 0.2 (Recommended ES-EN 1998 Article
𝑞
value) Lower bound 3.2.2.5, (4)P
factor for horizontal
2.5 𝑇
= 𝑎𝑔 . 𝑆 . . design spectrum
𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐷 ∶ 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) 𝑞 𝑇𝐵
≥ 𝛽 . 𝑎𝑔

2.5 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐷
= 𝑎𝑔 . 𝑆 . .
𝑇𝐷 ≤ 𝑇 ∶ 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) 𝑞 𝑇2
≥ 𝛽 . 𝑎𝑔

λ = 0.85, T1 ≤ 2Tc and more than 2 stories

Correction Factor, λ
λ = 1, other building

ES-EN 1998 Article

Building mass, m ; m = ΣGk, j “+” Σ ψE,i.Qk,i 3.2.4
ES-EN 1998 Article
4.2.4
Combination coefficient for variable action, ψE,i; ψE,i = ϕ.ψ2i Roof – 1.0

Category A-C Story occupancy – 0.8 ES-EN 1998 Article

4.2.4, Table 4.2
Category of the building, ϕ
Category D-F & Archive-1.0 Independent occupancy – 0.5

Actions on Category, ψ2 Depends on Load type and Category of the building

ES-EN 1990, Table
A1.1

Distribution of base shear force, Fi; Fi=FbZimi / (∑Zjmj) Base Shear Force, Fb
ES-EN 1998 Article
4.3.3.2.3, Equation 4.11
Height of application seismic action, Zi, Zj

Story Mass, mi,mj

Accidental torsional effects, eai = ±0.05⋅ Li ES-EN 1998 Article
4.3.2, Equation 4.3

Floor dimension perpendicular to direction of seismic action, Li

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APPENDIX D (Italian and Ethiopian Earthquake magnitude history)

Table D-1: Italian Earthquake History

Date Region Magnitude

2017 Campanian, Abruzzo 4.2, 5.7
2016 Umbria, Lazio 6.6, 6.2
2013 Tuscany 5.2
2012 Emilia-Romanagna (twice) 5.8, 6.1
2009 L’Aquila 6.3
2004 Lombardy 5.1
2003 Emilia-Romanagna (twice), Piedmont 5.3,4.7, 5.0
2002 Molise (twice), Sicily 5.8, 5.9, 6.0
2001 Tuscany, Trentio 4.6, 4.7
2000 Piedmont 4.9
1998 Basilicata 5.6
1997 Umbria 6.1
1997 Umbria 5.7
1991 Basilicata 5.1
1990 Silcily, Basilicata 5.6, 5.8
1908 Strait of Messina 7.1
1857 Basilicata 7.0
1688 Sannio 7.0
1638 Calabria 7.0

Table D-2: Ethiopian Earthquake History

Date Region Magnitude

2010 Jimma, Hosaena, Shenkola, Wenjela 5.1
1993 Nazret 6.0
1989 Dobo (Central Afar) 6.3
1987 Rift Valley Area 6.2
1985 Langano 6.2
1973 Ethiopia-Djibouti border 5.9
1969 Sardo 6.2
1961 Karakore 6.5
1921 Massawa Sub-region 5.9
1875 Tigray 6.2

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APPENDIX E (Simple beam design for DCL and DCM)

Cross-section: b / D / d = 250 mm / 500 mm / 450 mm

Action: Design moment = 120 KNm

Material: C 20/25 , S-400 , fctm = 2.2 MPa , Ec = 30 GPa , Creep coefficient = 2.63

Design values

Fcd = (0.85)*(20) / (1.5) = 11.33 MPa

Fyd = 400 / 1.15 = 347.83 MPa

Evaluate

µsd = Msd,s / (fcd * bd2)

µsd = 0.29 < µsd* = 0.295 (The cross-section has sufficient ductility)

Read kz from chart

kz = 0.88 = z/d

z = 396 mm

Calculate Ast

Ast = Msd / (Z * fyd)

Ast = 870.21 mm2

Minimum requirement for DCL and DCM

For DCL

ρmin, tension side = max (0.26 * fctm/fyk , 0.13%) = 0.00143

As tension, min = max (0.26 * (fctm/fyk) * (b*d), 0.0013 (b * d)) = 160.75 mm2

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For DCM

ρmin, tension side = 0.5 * fctm/fyk = 0.00275

As tension, min = 0.5 * (fctm/fyk) * (b*d) = 309.375 mm2

Determine Mcr

For DCL

𝑏ℎ2
+ (𝛼𝑒 − 1)(𝐴𝑠𝑡)(𝑑)
𝑋= 2
𝑏ℎ + (𝛼𝑒 − 1)(𝐴𝑠𝑡)

αe = Es / (Ecm / (1+Creep coefficient)) = 24.2

X = 255.799 mm

2
𝑏ℎ3 ℎ
𝐼1 = + 𝑏ℎ ( − 𝑋) + (𝛼𝑒 − 1)(𝐴𝑠)(𝑑 − 𝑥)2
12 2

I1 = 3.370 *109 mm4

Mcr = (fctm * I1) / (D-X)

Mcr = 30.360 KNm

My = Ast,min * Z * fyd

My = 22.159 KNm

Mcr > My

Comment: This shows that before the concrete cracks the reinforcement yields for the
provision of ρmin which is Ast,min. For DCL buildings ρmin is provided for shrinkage
rather than concerned for energy dissipation.

For DCM

Following the same procedure like DCL.

X = 260.860 mm

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I1 = 3.341 *109 mm4

Mcr = 30.736 KNm

My = 22.159 KNm

Mcr < My

Comment: The reinforcement yields after the concrete is cracked due to the provision of
ρmin which is Ast,min. Since it is a medium ductile building the crack of concrete helps
to loss or dissipate energy safely without yielding of rebar.

Comparison: Coefficient

of ρmin,t for DCM (0.5) is greater than DCL (0.26) due to the requirement of dissipating
energy.

Figure 12-1: Comparison of cracked moment and yielded moment for DCL and DCM

Parameter DCL DCM

Mcr (KNm) 30.360 30.736
My (KNm) 22.159 42.614

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APPENDIX F (Sway column verification)

A. Hand calculation

D.l = 800KN

L.L= 200KN

Section 50/50

Concrete grade –C 30/37

Rebar grade - 5400

Checking θ;

ρtot dr
θ; = v tot h

1860
θ; = × (0.018472)
100

θ; = 0.16 → 0.1 < 𝜃 < 0.2 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑆 𝑤𝑎𝑦

Iteration # 1

Δ1 = 47.927mm P = 1D. L + 0.3L. L = 800 + 0.3(200) = 860KN

(εp)×Δ 860×47.927
H1 = = = 13.739KN
l 3000

Iteration #2

Δ2 = 54.512mm ∗∗∗ 12.08% increase

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(εp)×Δ 860×54.512
H2 = = = 15.627KN
l 3000

Iteration #3

Δ3 = 55.417mm ∗∗∗ 1.633% increase

(εp)×Δ 860×55.417
H3 = = = 15.886KN
l 3000

Iteration #4

Δ4 = 55.541mm ∗∗∗ 0.223% increase

(εp) × Δ 860 × 55.541

H4 = = = 15.922KN
l 3000

Iteration #5

Δ5 = 55.558mm ∗∗∗ 0.0305% increase

Stop iteration!

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Therefore, due to second – order effect the moment developed is;

Mp−Δ = (15.922 × 3)KNm

MP−Δ = 47.766KNm

Total moment = MT = Mstatic + Mp−Δ

MT = (100KN × 3m) + (15.922KN × 3m)

MT = 300KNm + 47.766KNm

MT = 347.766KNm

B. Software stimulation

→ Scale Factor = 1.35: 1.5

MT = 389.8954KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 1

MT = 359.2732KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 0.3

MT = 349.3383KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 0.25

MT = 348.693KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 0.22

MT = 348.243KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 0.15

MT = 347.292KNm

→ Scale Factor = 1: 0.12

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MT = 346.886KNm

→ 1: 0.12
→ is near to the hand calculation but since for normal load combination 1: 0.3 is used.

Thus it is fair to apply (consider) 30% of live load .

Therefore, use 1 DL and 0.3L.L

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APPENDIX G (Slender column verification)

A. Hand calculation

1650KN D. L = 1000KN, L. L = 650KN L = 0.7l (for fixed)

Binomial curvature method:

Iteration #1 e2 = 0mm

Msd = 157.3242KNm

Iteration #2 e2 = 16.485mm

Msd = 184.525KNm

Iteration #3 e2 = 17.575mm

Msd = 186.323KNm

B. Software stimulation

Scale Factor = 1: 1

M = 156.9899KNm

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APPENDIX H (Sway frame verification)

A. Hand Calculation

Concrete Grade- C-30/37

Rebar Grade- S400

• Checking θi

θi= Ptotdr/(Vtoth)

Ptot= D.L + 0.3 L.L = (2000) + 0.3(400)

= 2120 KN

The value of dr/h can be determined from ETABS analysis. For this case it has a
value of 0.006909

θi= (2120*0.006909)/(100) = 0.146

The value of θi is between 0.1 and o.2 thus it is a sway system.

Iteration #1

Δ1 = 34.547 mm (Determined from ETABS)

H1 = (∑P*Δ)/l = 2120*4.547/ 5000 = 14.648 KN

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Iteration #2

Δ2 = 39.608 mm (14.655% increase)

H1 = (∑P*Δ)/l = 2120*39.608/ 5000 = 16.79 KN

Iteration #3

Δ3 = 40.349 mm (1.836% increase)

H1 = (∑P*Δ)/l = 2120*40.349/ 5000 = 17.108 KN

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Iteration #4

Δ4 = 40.458 mm (0.269% increase)

H1 = (∑P*Δ)/l = 2120*40.458/ 5000 = 17.154 KN

Iteration #5

Δ5 = 40.473 mm (0.037% increase)

Therefore due to second order effect the moment developed is:

Mp- Δ= (17.154 *5)/2 = 42.885 KNm

Total Moment: Mstatic + Mp- Δ

MT = (100*5)/2 + 42.885 = 292.885 KNm

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B. Software simulation

For scale factor = 1:1

MT = 270.0381 KNm

For scale factor = 1:0.3

MT = 263.8681 KNm

For scale factor = 1.35:1.5

MT = 292.0413 KNm

Thus, Scale factor of 1.35:1.5 can be used.

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APPENDIX I (Roof SAP trials)

This appendix contains design result of trial sections using SAP

Figure I-1: Trial 1

Figure I-2: Trial 2

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Figure I-3: Trial 3

Figure I-4: Trial 4

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APPENDIX J (Detailing)

Beam

Column

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Slab

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Stair

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Foundation

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