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Last Minute Notes – Computer Networks
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OSI Layers,data units and Functions:

in
LAYERS DATA UNITS Hire with us! FUNCTIONS

Application Data Mail Services,Directory Serices,FTAM

Layer

Presentation Data Encryption/Decryption, Compression

Layer

Session Layer Data Session Establishment, Synchronization,Dialog

Controller

Transport Layer Segments,Datagram Segementation

Network Layer Packets Tra c control,Fragmentation,Routing

Data Link Layer Frames Flow control,Error control,Access control

Physical Layer Bits Bit Synchronization,Bit rate control,Physical

Topologies

Layers and their uses –

Physical Layer

Network Topologies:

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Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via particular channel.If suppose,
N number of devices are connected with each other, then total number of links required to
connect NC2.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. If N devices are connected, then the number of cables required 1 which is known
as backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. If N devices are
connected to each other, then the no. of cables required N.
Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two neighboring devices.

Transmission Modes:

Simplex Mode: the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
Half-duplex Mode: each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
Full-duplex Mode: both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Manchester Encoding: When there is a long sequence of 0s and 1s, there is a problem at the
receiving end. The problem is that the synchronization is lost due to lack of transmissions.

NRZ-level encoding : The polarity of signals changes when incoming siganl changes from ‘1’ to
‘0’ or from ‘0’ to ‘1’. It considers the rst bit data as polarity change.
NRZ-Inverted/ Differential encoding:In this, the transitions at the beginning of bit interval is
equal to 1 and if there is no transition at the beginning of bit interval is equal to 0.

Data Link Layer

1. Flow Control
N = Sender’s Window Size. (in SR both sender and receiver window are same)
a = Tp /Tt

2. Sequence No. >= (Sender’s Window Size) + (Reciever’s Window Size )

3. E ciency in TDM(polling) = T t / (Tpoll + Tt)
4. In CSMA/CD, Tt >= 2*Tp
Hence, min frame length = 2*Tp*B

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5. In CSMA/CD, E ciency = 1/(1 + 6.44a)

6. Back-off Algorithm for CSMA/CD
Waiting time = back–off time
Let n = collision number or re-transmission serial number.
Then, Waiting time = K * Tslot
where K = [0, 2n – 1 ]
7. N = No. of stations
Early Token Reinsertion : E ciency = 1/(1 + a/N)
Delayed Token Reinsertion : E ciency = 1/(1 + (N+1)a/N)
8. Pure Aloha E ciency = 18.4 %
Slotted Aloha E ciency = 36.8%
9. Maximum data rate (channel capacity) for noiseless and noisy channels
Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L)
where,L is the number of signal levels used to represent data.
Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity
Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR)
where, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
 

10. Error Control

Hamming Code: is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and correct the
errors that can occur when the data is moved or stored from the sender to the receiver.
Redundant bits:
2r ≥ m + r + 1
where, r = redundant bit, m = data bit
Framing in DLL: It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver.
Character/Byte Stu ng: Used when frames consist of character. If data contains ED then, byte
is stuffed into data to diffentiate it from ED.
Bit stu ng: Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern i.e. here appends a 0 in data = 011101.

Network Layer

Class Full Addressing Table:

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IPv4 header datagram:

IP version 6 Header Format

Internet Control Message Protocol: Since IP does not have a inbuilt mechanism for sending error and
control messages. It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error
control.

1. Source quench message

2. Parameter problem
3. Time exceeded message
4. Destination un-reachable
 
Difference between DVR and LSR
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Open shortest path rst (OSPF): Open shortest path rst (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol which
is used to nd the best path between the source and the destination router using its own SPF
algorithm.
Designated Router(DR) and Backup Designated Router(BDR) election takes place in broadcast
network or multi-access network.
Criteria for the election:

1. Router having the highest router priority will be declared as DR.

2. If there is a tie in router priority then highest router will be considered. First, highest loopback
address is considered. If no loopback is con gured then the highest active IP address on the
interface of the router is considered.
Routing Information Protocol(RIP): is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop count as a routing
metric to nd the best path between the source and the destination network. It is a distance vector
routing protocol which has AD value 120 and works on the application layer of OSI model. RIP uses
port number 520.
Hop Count :

1. Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination network.
The path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a network and
therefore placed in the routing table.
2. The maximum hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and hop count of 16 is considered as network
unreachable.

Transport Layer

TCP header

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In TCP congestion control Algorithm

When Time Out Occurs Algorithm Enters Slow Start Phase
When 3 Duplicate occurs algorithm enters congestion avoidance phase

TCP 3-Way Handshake Process

Step 1 (SYN) : In the rst step, client wants to establish a connection with server, so it sends a
segment with SYN(Synchronize Sequence Number) which informs server that client is likely to start
communication and with what sequence number it starts segments with
Step 2 (SYN + ACK): Server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal bits set.
Acknowledgement(ACK) signi es the response of segment it received and SYN signi es with what
sequence number it is likely to start the segments with
Step 3 (ACK) : In the nal part client acknowledges the response of server and they both establish a
reliable connection with which they will start eh actual data transfer.
 

UDP header

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Refer the Differences between TCP and UDP

Application Layer

Domain Name Server: DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed
database implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for message
exchange between clients and servers.

Dynamic Host Con guration Protocol(DHCP) is an application layer protocol which is used to
provide:
Subnet Mask (Option 1 – e.g., 255.255.255.0)
Router Address (Option 3 – e.g., 192.168.1.1)
DNS Address (Option 6 – e.g., 8.8.8.8)
Vendor Class Identi er (Option 43 – e.g., ‘uni ’ = 192.168.1.9 ##where uni = controller)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) : SNMP is an application layer protocol which uses
UDP port number 161/162.SNMP is used to monitor network, detect network faults and sometimes
even used to con gure remote devices.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants
to send the mail opens a TCP connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the
connection. The SMTP server is always on listening mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection
from any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection on that port (25). After successfully
establishing the TCP connection the client process sends the mail instantly.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol which moves
les between local and remote le systems. It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a le, 2
TCP connections are used by FTP in parallel: control connection and data connection.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is an application-level protocol that uses TCP as an underlying
transport and typically runs on port 80. HTTP is a stateless protocol i.e. server maintains no
information about past client requests.

Network Security

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For Symmetric Key : n*(n-1)/2 keys are required.

For Public Key : 2*n key are required ( each node will have private and public key).

RSA Algorithm in Cryptography

De e Hellman Key Exchange

R1 = gx mod p
R2 = gy mod q
Both will have same key = gxy mod p.

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Article Tags : Computer Networks GATE CS

Practice Tags : Computer Networks

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Shivangi • a year ago

I guess..Polling and token ring are out of GATE CSE syllybus
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SHIVAM KUMAR > Shivangi • 9 months ago

yes
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Jay Singh • 2 years ago

I found this helpful
http://infotech4share.blogs...
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Sachin Pal > Jay Singh • 2 years ago

These notes also cover those topics which are NOT
required for CSE.
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LearningGiraffe • 2 years ago

Two error are there.
Efficiency of GoBackN and SR should be N/(1+2a)
Deffie Hellman Key Exchange should be

R1 = gx mod p

R2 = gy mod p
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