Other Macmillan tites of interest to civil engineers Hulse/Mosley Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer Bolton Guide ro Soil Mechanics Boxer Work Out Fluid Mechantes Tackson/Dhic Chil Engineering Materials, th edition John Work Our Engineering Material Newton Structural Design Salter Highway Derign and Construction, 2n6 edition Salier Highway Trafic Analysis and Design, 2nd edition Seeley Chil Engineering Contract Administration and Control Seeley Civil Engineering Quantities Secley Chil Engineering Specification Spencer Fundamcental Seructural Analysis Stone Management of Engineering Projects Uren/Price Surveying for Engineers, 2nd edition Wion Engineering Hyadrotogy, sth edition REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN W. H. Mosley end J. H. Bungey Department of Civil Engineering University of Liverpool FOURTH EDITION M MACMILLANa (©W. H. Mosley and J. H, Bungey 1976, 1982, 1987, 1990 Al tights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. [No paragreph of this publication may be reproduced, copied, ‘or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance ‘with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WC1E 7DP. ‘Any person who does any unauthorised actin relation to ‘this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 1976 Reprinted 1977, 1978, 1980, 1981 (twice) Second edition 1982 Reprinted 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986 ‘Third edition 1987 Reprinted 1988, 1989 Fourth edition 1990 Published by ‘MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives uoughout the world Printed in Hong Kong British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Mosley, W. H. (William Henry) Reinforced concrete design. - 4th ed. 1. Reinforced concrete structural components, Design Title 11, Bungey, 3-H. (John Henry), 1944 624, 18341 ISBN 0-333-53717-3 Contents Preface to Fourth Edition Notation 1 Properties of Reinforced Concrete 11 Composite Action 1.2. Stress-Strain Relations 13 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement 14 Creep LS) Durability 1.6 Specification of Materials 2 Limit State Design 2.1 Limit States 2.2 Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads 23 Partial Factors of Safety 24 Global Factor of Safety 3. Analysis ofthe Structure 3.1 Loads 3.2 Load Combinations 33. Analysis of Beams and Frames 344 Redistribution of Moments 4 Analysis of the Section 4,1. Stress-Strain Relations 42. The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section 43. Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 44. Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending 45. Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design EquationsCONTENTS 48 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State 3 49 The Rectangular-Parabolio Stress Block 88 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block 1 Shess, Bond and Torsion 98 Sil Shear 98 5.2 Anchorage Bond 103 5.3 , Laps in Reinforcement 106 34" Analysis of Section Subject to Torsional Moments 107 Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements uz 6.1 Detailing Requirements 43 62. Span-Effective Depth Ratios 7 6.3 Calculation of Deflections ng 6.4 Flexural Cracking 134 6.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking 141 6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements 144 6.7 Stability 147 ‘Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 154 7.1 Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing 156 7.2. Design for Bending 159 73. Design for Shear 174 7.4 Bar Spacing 180 7.5 Continuous Beams 180 7.6 Cantilever Beams 187 7.7_Design for Torsion 188 Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 5 192 8.1 Simplified Analysis 192 8.2 Shear in Slabs 193 8.3 Span-Effective Depth Rs 198 8.4 Reinforcement Details 200 8.5 Solid Slabs Spanning in One Direction 201 8.6 Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 209 8.7 Flat Slab Floors 24 8.8 Ribbed and Hollow Block Floors m2 8.9 Stair Slabs 226 8.10 Yield Line and Strip Methods 230 Column Design 239 Jl Loading and Moments 29 5.2 Short and Slender Columns 2a 83 Reinforcement Details 244, ¥4 Design of Short Columns 246 g ‘Non-rectangular Sections 261 6 264 ‘Design of Slender Columns ‘CONTENTS 10 Foundations 2 10.1 Pad Footings 10.2 Combined Footings 103 Strap Footings 10.4 Strip Footings 10.5. Raft Foundations 10.6 Piled Fouiidations Water-retaining Structures and Retaining Walls 111 Watersetaining Structures 11.2 Joints in Water-retaining Structures 113 Reinforcement Details 11.4 Design Methods 115 Retaining Walls Prestressed Concrete 12.1 Principles of Prestressing 12 Methods of Prestressing 123 Analysis of Concrete Section Under Working Loads 12.4 Design forthe Serviceability Limit State 1255 Analysis and Design at che Utimate Limit State Appendix: Further Reading Index Cyt Yh 1049 270 273 280 284 286 289 291 296 296 298 302 304 318 329 329 332 335 367 382 386 388Preface to Fourth Edition ‘The purpose ofthis book is to provide @ straightforward introduction to the principles and methods of design for conczete structures Its directed primarily in understanding of the basic theory and a concise guide to design procedures, Although the detailed design methods are generally according to British Standards, much of the theory and prectice is at students and young designers who requ of a fundamental nature and should, therefore, be useful to engineers in other Countries. Limit state concepts, as recently introduced in the new Codes of Practice, are used and the calculations are in ST units throughout, ‘The subject matter has been arranged so that chapters | to 5 deal mostly with theory and analysis while the subsequent chapters cover the design and detailing of various types of member and structure. In order to include topics that are usually in an undergraduate course, there is a chapter on eerth-retaining and ‘water-etaining structures, and also a final chapter on prestressed concrete Important equations that have been derived within the text are highlighted by ‘an asterisk adjacent to the equation number. In preparing the fourth edition of this book, the principal aim has been to incorporate new information relating to the design of water-etaining structures, 83 proposed by British Standard BS 8007. The remainder ofthe text, which relates to DS 6110, remains esseutally unchanged with only very minor amendments, It should be mentioned that standard Codes of Practice such as BS 8110 are always liable to be revised, and readers should ensure that they are using the latest edition of any relevant standard, Extracts from the British Standards are reproduced by permission of the British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London WIA 2BS, from whom ‘complete copies can be obtained. Finally, the authors wish to thank Mrs B. Cotgreave who prepared the diagrams ‘and Mrs F. Zimmermann who typed most ofthe draft and final copies of the ‘manuscript. Notation Notation is generally in accordance with BS 8110, and the principal symbols are listed below. Other symbols are defined in the text where necessary. The symbols «for strain and f for stress have been adopted throughout, with the general system of subseripts such that the first subscript refers to the material, ¢ — concrete, s~ steel, and the second subscript refers to the type of stress, c ~ compression, t= tension. Ag Croseseetionsl area of tension reinforcement ‘AL Crosescetional area of compression reinforcement ‘Aye —Crosesectional area of shear reinforcement in the form of bentup bars Ay Crossseetional aea of shear reinforcement in the form of links a” Deflection @q Distance from surface crack position to point of zero strain 5 Width of section by Breadth of web or rib of a member by Breadth of web or sib of a member d” Effective depth of tension reinforcement a’ Depth to compression reinforcement Ez Staiie secant modulus of elasticity of concrete E, Modulus of elasticity of steel, Eccentricity F Ultimate load fo Characteristic concrete cube strength Ju Characteristic strength of prestresing tendons Gf Service stressor steel stress Jy Characteristic strength of reinforcement Yov — Characterstc strength of link reinforcement Gz Characteristic dead load fe Characteristic dead load per unit length or area iY Gxerall depth of section in plane of Bending he Thickness of flange 1’ Second moment of area ‘ky Average compressive stress in the concrete fora rectangular-parabolic stress BlockNOTATION ‘A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular parabolic stress block and the depth of the neutral axis Effective height of a column or wall Bending moment Ultimate moment of resistance ‘Axial load ‘Ultimate foad per unit area ‘Axial load on a column corresponding to the bslanced condition Final prestrss force (chapter 12) ‘Characteristic imposed load (Characteristic live load per unit length or area Curvature of & beam at point x Critical steal ratio to control thecmal cracks Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block ‘Maximum likely erack spacing Spacing of links along the member Torsional moment Perimeter Shear force Shear stress Untimate shear stress in concrete Characteristic wind load Maximum likely surface crack width Ultimate load per unit length Neutral axis depth Lever arm Coefficient of thermal expansion of mature concrete Modular ratio Partial safety Factor for load Partial safety factor for strength Shrinkage strain Coefficient of friction : Dar size Creep coefficient 1 Properties of Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete isa strong durable building material that can be formed into ‘many varied shapes and sizes ranging from 2 simple rectangular column, to a lender curved dome or shel. Its utility and verstaility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel, Consider some of the widely differing properties of ‘these two materials that are listed below. Concrete Steel strength in tension | Poot good strength in compression good good, but slender bars vail buckle strength in shear fair good durability good corrodes if unprotected fire resistance good poor — suffers rapid loss of Strength at high temperatures It.can be seen from this list that the materials are more or less complementary. ‘Tins, when they are combined, the steel ie ablo to provids the tensile strength and probably some of the shear strongth while the concrete, strong in compression, ‘protects the steel to give durability and fire resistance. This chapter can present Only a brief introduction to the basic properties of concrets and its steel reinforce ment, For a moze comprehensive study, it is recommended that reference should ‘be made to the specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book. 1.1 Composite Action ‘The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive -stength. Because ofthis, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on ‘the assumption that the Concrete doos not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement SS decigned to cay thes tense Torts hich av tatatered by bond between ‘the interface of the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite action. Thus members should be detailed so chet the concrete can be well compacted sround the reinforcement dusing construction. In edition, some bars ae ribbed or twisted so that there is an extre mechanical ip, Tin the analyse and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, i is scsomed that there is perfect bond, so thatthe strain inthe reinforcement is ‘dential to the strain in he adjacent concete. This ensures that there is whats ‘known as ‘compatibility of strains’ across the erosssection of the member) ‘The coefficients of thermal expansion fo ste] and for concrete are ofthe aider of 10x 10~* per °C and 7-12 x 10-* per °C respectively. These vlues are sufficiently close that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expan- sion between the two materials over normal temperature ranges 4 Yi ssron seston Distribution az Loo 8 i Tension ee % hacking Figure 1. Composite action Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to ‘ending and shows the position of stel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, ‘hile the compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete. Wherever tension occurs itis likely that cracking of the conerete will take place. ‘This cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided ‘there is good reinforcement bond to ensure thatthe eracks are restrained from opening 6 that the embeddad eteal continues to be protected from earrasion ‘When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then seel reinforcement must again be provided, but in these cases it is only Fequired to sipplement the load-cirrylng pacity of the concrete. For example, compression reinforcement is generally requced in a coluran, where i takes the form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To prevent these bars buckling, steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete. 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations ‘The loads on a structure cause distortion ofits members with resulting stresses and streins in the concrete and the stel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and design of a member itis necessary to have a knowledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case-the analysis PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 3 of the stresses on a cross-section of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and steel, and also the compatibility of the strains across ‘the cross-section. 1.2.1 Concrete Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress strain curves, A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2 ‘As the load is applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually 2 full recovery of displacement if the load is removed:"Eventually, the curve is no longer lineer and the conezete behaves more and more as plastic material. Ifthe load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be com: plete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most Structural coneretes tends to be 2 constant value of approximately 0.0035, ies ppective of the strength of the concrete. The precise shape of the curve is very dependent on the length of time the load is applied, a factor which will be further discussed in section I.4 on creep. Figure 1.2 is typical for a short-term loading. stress irae igure 1.2. Stres-troin eurve for concrete i compresion Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic i illustra- ted by the graph in figure 1.3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more gradual later, Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the design load, A typical variation in strength of an adequately cured Ordinary Portland cement concrete, as suggested by BS 8110, is 7days month months 3months 6 months 1 year 2 30 33 35 36 37 Nim? 'BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greeter than the 28-day value in calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account forage as shown overleaf.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN a Compressive strength win? °F 7283S doy days coys months year yeors: age of concrete (log scole) Figure 1.3 Inorese of eonerete strength with age. Typical curve for an Ordinary ‘Porland cement concrete ‘Modulus of Elatictty of Concrete tis seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour may be assumed for stress below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship is not truly linear. Consequently it is necessary to define precisely what value isto be taken as the modulus of elasticity rein Ee ‘A number of alternative definiticss exist, but the most commonly adopted is E=B, where E, is known as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in which a cylinder is loaded to just hove one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to zero sess. This removes the effect of intial "bedding in’ and minor stress redistr- ‘butions in the concreta under load. Load is then reapplied and the behaviour will, then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified stress is taken asthe value for E,. The testis described in detail in BS 1881 and the result js generally Known 2s the instantaneous static modulus of elasticity. "The dynamic modulus of elasticity ,Ezq, is Sometimes referred to since this is imuch easier to measure in the laboratory and there i a fairly well-defined relation- ship between E- and cq. The standard testis based on determining the resonant Frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1881. It is also possible to obtain a good estimate of Fy from ultrasonic measuring techni- ‘ques, which may sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual structure. The standard test for Eze is on an unstressed specimen. It can be seen from figure 1.4 that the value obtained represents the slope of the tangent at zer0 stress and Fog is therefore higher than Ee. The relationship between the two ‘moduli is given by Static modulus E. 1.25 Beg ~ 19) kN/mm? PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 5 stress oe stain ‘This equation is suficently accurate for nonnal design purpores ‘he acta vlo of Ef conte depends on many fectors elated othe nix, bute oneal reatonsip is consdeed to exist between the modulus of chaity end the compressive cube sagt Ranges of Be for various concrete trades which are sltgle for eesign are shown in fable 1.1, The magnitode ofthe dots of easy is equied when investing the deflection snd cracking of f etactre. When considering short term effects, member siffoesies wl be bated on the static modulus Zy a5 Gfined above. I long erm effect are bing conse £5, tan be shown that te elles of ceed canbe represented by modifying the valu of; and iis is dscuted in ection 63.2. Table 1.1 Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete 28 day characteristic Static modulus Beas ‘cube strength ‘GN/mm?) fev. (jmm*) ‘Typical range Mean 25 19.31 25 30 20-32 26 40 22-34 8 50 24-36 30 60 26-38 32 ‘The elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from Eee = Bo,20(0-4 + 0.6 feu,tlfou,28)[ 6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 02% roo! stress| (0) High yiets stae! stress 3008 Strain Figure 1.5. Stre-arein cwres for steel 1.2.2Steel Figure 1.5 shows typical stress-strain curves for (3) mild steel, and (b) high yield steel, Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the ‘sttess up to the yield, at which point there is a sudden increase in strain with no cchange in stress After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic material and the ‘strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value, High yield stee] on the other hand, does not have a definite yield point but shows « more gradual change from an elastic to a plastic behaviour. ‘The specified strength used in design Is based on the yield stress for mild steel, ‘whereas for high yield steel the strength is based on a specified proof stress, A 0.2 per cant proof stress is defined in figure 1.5 by the broken line drawn parallel to ‘he linear part of the stress-strain curve. ‘Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following a line approximately parallel to the loading portion ~ see line BCiin figure 1.6. The steel willbe left with a permanent strain AC, which is known as"sip’ If the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the un- Toading curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it wll eurve in the direction of the frat loading. Thus, the proportional timit far the second. Ioading is higher than for the Initial loading. This action is referred to as ‘strain bbardening’ or ‘work hardening’ stress Y stroin Pgs Cet PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 7 The deformation ofthe stel i also dependent on the length of time the load is applied. Under a constant stress the stains will gradually increase ~ this pheno- ‘enon is known a ‘creep’ or relaxation’ The amount of creep that takes place ver period of time depends on the grade of see! and the magnitude of the stes. Creep ofthe steel sof lite significance in norms! reinforced concrete work, but itis an important faetor in prestressed concrete where the prestresing tee! Is very highly stressed. | 13 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement [As concrete hardens there isa reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of the conorete, but {tao has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bond between the concrete and the steel zeinforcement, Shrinkage begins to take place a8 soon as the concrete is mixed, and is caused initially by the absorption of fhe water by the concrete and the eggregate, Further shrinkage is caused by evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface. During the setting process the hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, ind asthe conerete cools further shriakage takes place asa result of thermal contraction, Even after the concrete has hardened, shrinkage continues as drying foot persists over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also cause swelling and shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by sestecting the temperature rise during hydration, which may be achieved by the following procedures, (1) Use a mix design with 2 low cement content. (2) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible. G) Keep aggregates and mixing water cool (@) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray. (5) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to diss ‘A low water-cement ratio will help to seduce drying shrinkage by Keeping to a ‘minimum the volume of moisture that can be lst. If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely without restraint, there will be no stress change within the concrete, Restraint of the sSinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The vestraint ray be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface, end internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For along. ‘wall or floor sab, the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by using a system of constructing successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the Tree end of every bay to contract before the next bay is cast ‘Day-to-day thermal expansion of the concrete can be greater than the move~ iments caused by shrinkage. Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the correct positioning of movement or expansion joints in a structure. For example, the joints should be placed at an abrupt change in crostsection and they should, in general, pass completely through the structure in one plane, ‘When the tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the strength of the conerete, cracking will occur. To control the crack widths, steel reinforcement must be provided close to the concrete surface; the codes of8 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN practice specify minimum quantities of reinforcement in a member for this purpose. ateutation of Stresses Induced by Shrinkage (2) Shuinkage Restrained by the Reinforcement ‘The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an otherwise unvestrained mem- ‘ber may be calculated quite simply. The member shown in figure 1.7 has a free shrinkage strain ey, if made of plain concrete, but this overall movement is origina! member 5 cost ee “investrcines he = fy Reinforced concrete fully restrained Figure 1.7 Shrine sce reduced by the inclusion of reinforement, giving compressive strain eg inthe Heel and causing an effective tenslle stain eg in the concrete. Thus ena tbe fos, fe es where fois the tensile stress in eonorete area A, and fi isthe compressive stress insteel area Ay. Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives Ache = Ashe (1.2) an therefore As Sox a Substituting for fo in equation J.1 werk) PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 9 Thos if & Ee wp, ( 2040 2 wah (3t +z) = fe (tds +) is \Ae ‘Therefore stel stress = ene 1.3) toe ned a3) Example I.] Caleulation of Shrinkage Srresses in Concrete chat is Restrained by Reinforcement Only ‘A member contain 1.0 per ezat selaforcement, and the fee shvinkage stain &yy ofthe concrete is 200 x 10". For steel, Ey = 200 xN/mm? and for concrete E,= 15 eNiinm?. Hence from equation 13 cobs Tee Ae Ae stress in reinforcement fue = 200 x 10® x 200 x 10° 1+ 22 xo 15 5.3 Nimm? compression stra in concrete fix 135 N/mm? tension ‘The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally small asin the above example, and can be easily withstood both by the steel and the conerete (©) Shrinkage Fuly Restrained If the member is fully restrained, then the steel cannot be in compression since “qe * O and hence fag = 0 (Figure 1.7). In this case the tensile stain indeed in the concrete eg, most be equal to the fee shrinkage strain eq, and the coresponding stress will probably be high enough to cause cracking in inuature concrete,10 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Example 1.2 Calculation of Fully Restrained Shrinkage Stresses If the member in example 1.1 were fully restrsined, the stress in the conerete is given by where eet = Gn) = 200 x 10% then for = 200 10 x 15x 10° N/mm When cracking occurs, the uncracked lengths of concrete try to contract so that ‘the embedded steel between cracks isin compression while the steel across the cracks is in tension. This feature is accompanied by localised bond breakdown, adjacent to each crack. The equilibrium of the concrete and reinforcement is shown in figure 1.8 and calculations may be developed to relate crack widths and spacings to properties of the cross-section; this is examined in more detall in chapter 6, which deals with serviceability requirements, Figure 1.8. Sirintage forceracjacent roa crac Thermal Movement As the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete (a, and a,) are similar, differential movement between the steel and concrete will only be very smal] and is unlikely to cause cracking. ‘The differential thermal strain due to a temperature change T may be caleu- lated ae Tle. ~ a) and should be added to the shrinkage strain ey if significant ‘The overall thermal contraction of concrete i, however, frequently effective in producing the first crack ina restrained member, since the required temperature changes could easily occur overnight in a newly cast member, even with good control ofthe heat generated during the hydration processes, Example 1.3 Thermal Shrinkage Find the fll in temperature required to cause cracking in a restrained member if ultimate tensile strength of the concrete f= 2 Nimm?, £, = 16 KN/mm? and PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE u a, = a, = 10x 10~ per °C. Ultimate tensile strain of concrete fil 2 eat 125 x 10% E. 16x10? Minimum temperature drop to cause cracking eu - 125 25°C a 10 It should be noted that full restraint, as assumed in this example, is unlikely to ‘ecur in practice thus the tempereture change required to cause cracking is increased. 1.4 Creep (Creep isthe continuous deformation of a member under sustained load, It is phenomenon associated with many materials, but i¢ is particularly evident with concrete. The precise behaviour ofa particular concrete depends on the aggregutes and the mix design, but the general pattern is illustrated by considering a member ‘subjected to axial compression. For such « member, 2 typical varietion of defor. ‘mation with time is shown by the curve in figure 1.9 etormation a a) Time - yeers Figure 1.9. Typice inereate of deformation with ie for concrete ‘The characteristics of ereep are (1) The final deformation of the member can be three to four times the short-term elastic deformation (@) The deformation is roughly proportional tothe intensity of loading and to the inverse of the concrete strength. © Irithe load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover ~ the plastic deformation wil not (A) There isa redistribution of load between the concrete and any steel present.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being ‘transferred to the reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the stel are ‘increased so that the steel takes a larger proportion of the loe. ‘The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections mey cause the opening of cracks, damage to finishes, and the non: alignment of mechanical equipment, Redistribution of stress between concrete ang stee] occurs primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has litle effect fon the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some Instances. The provision of reinforcement in the compressive zone of a flexural ‘member, however, often helps to restrain the deflections due to creep. 1.5 Durability Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are Jong lasting and should require litle msintenance, The durability of the concrete is influenced by (Q) the exposure conditions (2) the concrete quality (3) the cover to the reinforcement (@) the width of any cracks. Concrete can be exposed to 2 wide range of conditions such as the soil, sea water, stored chemicals or the atmosphere. The severity of the exposure governs the type ‘of conorete mix required and the minimum cover to the reinforcing steel. What ver the exposure, the concrete mix should be made from impervious and chemi. cally inert aggregates. A dense, well-compacted concrete with alow water-cement ratio is all important and for some soil conditions itis advisable to use a sulphate- resisting cement. ‘Adequate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents reaching the reinforce: ‘ment through cracks and pervious concrete. The thickness of cover required depends oon the severity of the exposure and the quality of the concrete (as shown in table 6.1). The cover is aso necessary to protect the reinforcement against e rapid rise in temperature and subsequent loss of strength during 2 fire. Information concezn- ing this is given in Part 2 of BS 8110, while durability requirements with related design calculations to check and control crack widths and depths are described in chapter 6, 1.6 Specification of Materials 1.6.1 Concrete ‘The selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength required, which in turn depends on the intensity of loading and the form and size of the structural members. For example, in the lower columns of « multistorey ‘building a higher strength concrete may be chosen in preference to greatly incre ing the size of the column section with a resultant los in clear floor space. ‘The concrete strength is assesced by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are usually cured, and tested after PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE B twenty-eight days according to standard procedures. Concrete of a given strength is identified by its ‘grade’ —e grade 25 concrete has a charscteristic cube crushing strength of 25 N/mm?. Table 1.2 shows a list of commonly uted grades and also the lowest grade appropriate for various types of construction. Exposure conditions and durability can also affect the choice of the mix design and the grade of concrete. A siructure subject to corrosive conditions in a chemical plant, for example, would require 2 denser and higher erade of conerete than, say, ‘the interior members ofa school or office block. Although Ordinery Portland cement would be used in most structures, other cement types can also be used to advantage. Blast furnace or sulphate-esisting cement may be used to resist chemi- cal attack, low-heat cements in massive sections to reduoe the heat of hydration, Table 1.2 Grades of conerete Grade Lowest grade for use as specified a Plain concrete cio cis Reinforced concrete with 20 lightweight aggregate 025 Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate 30 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons c40 Concrete with pre-tensfoned tendons cso cso or rapid-hardening cement when a high early strength is required. Generally, natural agregates found locally are prefened; however, manufactured lightweight ‘material may be used when sefsveigh is important, ora special dense aggregate When radiation shilding is required. The concrete mix may either be classified as ‘designed’ or ‘presribed’. “designed mix’ is one where the contractor is response for selecting the mix proportions to achieve the required strength and workability, whereas fora "prescribed mix’ the engineer specifies the mix proportions, andthe contractor is responsible only for providing a propesly mixed concrete containing the correct, constituents inthe prescribed proportions 1.6.2 Reinforcing Steet Table 1.3 lists the characteristic design strengths of several of the more common ‘ype: of einforoemeot, The nominal sizeof a basis the diameter of an equiaent14 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Table 1.3 Strength of reinforcement Specified Designation ‘Nominal sizes characteristic (oi) strength fy (Nim?) Hot rolled mild steel (BS 4449) All sizes 250 Hot-olled high yield (BS 4448) reas 460 Cold-worked high yield (BS 4461) Hlarddrawn steel wire (BS 4482) Up to and including 12 485 Hot rolled mildstesl bars usually have « smooth surface so thatthe Bond with the concrete is by adhesion only. Mil-steel bars can readily be bent, so they are often used where small radius bends are necessary, suchas for links in narrow beams or columns igh-yild bars are manufsctured either with ribbed surface or in the form of a twisted square. Ribbed bars are usually described by the British Standards as type 2 bars provided specified requirements are sstisied, and these ae the bars ‘most commonly used. Square twisted bars have inferior bond characteristics and ace usually classified as type 1 bas, although these are more or less obsolete. All {deformed bars have en additional mechanical bond with the conerete so that higher ultimate bond stresses may be specified as described in section 5.2. The bending of high-yield bars through asia radius is Hable to cause tension cracking of the steel, and to avoid this the radius of the bend should not be less than three times the nominal ba siz (ee figure 5.6). “High yield steel bars are only slightly more expensive than mildsteel bars. ‘Therefore, because of thee significant stres advantage, high-yield bars ere the tore economical, Nevertheless, mildsteel bars are sometimes prefered in water- retaining structures, where the maximum stel stresses are limited inorder to reduce the tensile strains and cracking of the concrete. Foor slabs, walls, shells and roads may be reinforoed with a welded fabric of reinforcement, supplied in roll and having a square or ectangulas mesh. This can five large economies in the detailing ofthe reinforcement and also in ste labour costs of handling ana fing ‘The cross sectional areas and perimeters of various sted bars, and the eros sectional area per unit width of slabs ae listed inthe appendix. Reinforcing bas Jina member should either be straight or bent to standard shapes. These shapes ‘must be fully dimensioned and listed in a schedule of the reinforcement which i used on sit for the bending and fixing ofthe bars. Standard bar shapes and a ‘method of scheduling are specified in BS 4466, The bar types as previously des- cried are commonly identified by the following codes: R for mild steel; ¥ for high yield deformed stel, type 1; T for high yield deformed steel, type 2; this notation is generaly used throughout this book, 2 Limit State Design ‘The design of an engineering structure must ensure that (1) under the worst load. {ngs the structure is safe, nd (2) during normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure. Despite the difficulty in asessing the precise loading and variations in the strength of the concrete and steel, these requirements have to be inet. Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have ‘been developed; they are (1) The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses which are usually within the elastic range. {2) The load factor method in Which the working loads are multiplied by @ factor of safety. (@) The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial factors of safety and also divides the materials’ ultimate strengths by further partial factors of safety. ‘The permisible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method but it does have some serious inconsistencies. Because itis based on an elastic stress distribution, ite not zeally applicable to a semi-plastic material suchas concrete, nor si sustable wnen the deformations are nat proportional to the 1024, en Slender columns. It has also been found to be unsafe when dealing with the stability of structures subject to overturning forces (See example 22) ‘In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in the caloulations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the material streses it cannot dizecly take account ofthe vaviabiity of the materials, and also it eannot be used to calculate the deflections or cracking at working loads. ‘The limit state method of design overcomes many of the disadvantages of the previous two methods. Thisis done by applying pertil factors of sefety, both to the loads and to the mateval strengths, and the magnitude ofthe fectors may be varied so that they may be used either with the plastic conditions in the ultimate state or with the more elastic stress range at Working loads. This flexibility is particulary important if full benefits aze to be obtained from development of improved concrete and steel properties.16 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 2.1 Limit States ‘The puxpose of design isto achieve acceptable probabilities thet a structure will not become unfit forts intended use — that is, that it will not reach a limit state, ‘Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to be fit for use will constitute @ Limit state and the design aim isto avoid any such condition being reached during the expected life of the structure. ‘The two principal types of limit state are the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state (@) Utimate Limit State ‘This requires thatthe structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety against collapse, the loads for which itis designed. The possiblity of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility of accidental damage as caused, for example, by an internal explosion. (b) Serviceability Limit States Generally the most important serviceability limit states are (1) Deflection — the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be adversely affected by deflections. (2) Cracking — local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure (3) Durability — this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure and its conditions of exposure. Other limit states thet may be reached include (@) Excessive vibration — which may cause discomfort or slarm as well as damage. (5) Fatigue — must be considered if cyclic loading is ikely. (6), Fice resistance ~ this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse, flame penetration and heet trensfer (7) Special circumstances ~ any special requirements of the structure ‘which are not covered by say of the more common limit stater, euch as earthquake resistance, must be taken into account. ‘The relative importance of each limit state will vary according to the nature of the structure. The usual procedure is to decide which is the crucial limit state for particular structure and base the design on this, although durability and fire resistance requirements may well influence initial member sizing and concrete grade selection. Checks must also be made to ensure that all other relevant limit States are satisfied by the results produced. Except in special cases, such as water- rotsining structures, the ultimate limit state is generaly critical for reinforced conerete although subsequent serviceability checks may affect some of the details of the design, Prestressed concrete design, however, is generaly based on service. ability conditions with checks on the ultimate limit state. In assessing particular limit state for a structure it is necessary to consider all ‘the possible variable parameters such as the loads, material steengths and construc tional tolerances. LIMIT STATE DESIGN "7 2.2 Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads 2.2.1 Characteristic Material Strengths ‘The strengths of materials upon which design is based are those strengths below Which results are unlikely to fall. These aze called ‘cheracterstic' strengths, [tis assumed that for a given materia, the distribution of strength will be approxi- mately ‘normal, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large mumber of semple results would be of the form shown in figure 2.1. The characteristic strength is taken as that value below which itis unlikely that more than 5 per cent of the results will fll. This is given by fic = fay — 1.645 ‘where fi = characteristic strength, fy = mean strength, $= standard devia The relationship between characteristic and mean velues accounts for variations sn results of test specimens and will, therefore, reflect the method and control of manufacture, quality of constituents, and nature of the materia Mean strength (lm) sezcinen | choroctaristiy ‘Strength Figure 2.1. Wormalfrequeney aisrbution of trensthe 2.2.2 Characteristic Loads oally it should elso be possible to eases loads statistically, in which case characteristic Ioad = mean load + 1.64 standard deviations In most cases itis the maximum loading on a structural member thet is critical and the upper, postive value given by this expression is used, but the lower, minimum value may apply when considering stability or the behaviour of continuous members, ‘These characteristic values represent the limits within which atleast 90 per cent of values wall Ie in practice, Its to be expected that not more than 5 per cent of cases will exceed the upper limit and not more than S per cent will fall below the lower limit, They are design values which take into account the accuracy ‘with which the loads can be predicted. Usually, however, there is insufficient statistical data to allow loading to be ‘teated in this way, and in this case the standard loadings, given in BS 6399 Design Loads for Buildings, Part 1: Code of Practice for dead and imposed loads, should be used as representing characteristic values.ssed dn 18 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 2.3 Partial Factors of Safety Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial factors of safety applied to the strength of the materials and to the load ‘ngs. It should theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a mathe- ‘matical assessment of the probability of reaching each limit state. Lack of adequate data, however, makes this unrealistic and in practice the values adopted are based on experience and simplified caleulations. 2.3.1 Partial Factors of Safety for Material (1,,) characteristic strangth (fi) partial factor of safety (pq) Design strength: ‘The following factors are considered when selecting 2 suitable value for Yq, (1) The strength of the material in an actual member, This strength will differ from that measured in a carefully prepared test specimen and It is particularly true for concrete where placing, compaction and curing are so important to the strength. Steel, on the other hand, is a relatively consistent material requiring a small partial factor of safety. (2) The severity of the lint state being considered. Thus, higher values are taken for the ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state. ‘Recommended values for 7, are given in table 2.1 although it should be noted ‘hat for precast factory conditions it may be possible to reduce the value for concrete at the ultimate limit state ‘Table 2.1 Peril factors of safety applied to materials (7) Matec Limit state Concrete Steel Utinate Flewore qe dD . Bond 1 Serviceabilty 10 10 2.3.2 Partial Factors of Safety for Loods (14) Errors and inaccuracies may be due to @ number of causes: (1) design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation (2) possitle unusual load increases (3) unforeseen stessredistributions (4) constructional insccuracies, LIMIT STATE DESIGN 19 ‘These cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of safety (4) on the loadings 0 that design load = characteristic load x partial factor ofsfety (19) ‘The value of ths factor should also take into account the importance of the limit state under consideration and reflect to some extent the accuracy with which different types of loading ean be predicted, and the probability of particular load combinations occuring, Recommended values are given in table 2.2 Tt should be noted that design errors and constructional inaccuracies have similar effects and are thus sensbly grouped together. These factors wil account adequately for normal conditions although gross errors in design or construction obviously can not be catered for ‘Table 2.2 Partial factors of safety for loadings: SS Load combination serviceability /) Dea Impored Barth Wad UAL Water on (1) @)__%@)._—_ rw) Cartan) Deadaimpoed ia 16 ie (bath awa) (@r1.0) (200) DegeWing 4 = “oe ao (bath & Wet) (6r10) Dead & imposed Wind 212 21a (Bath & Water) ‘Tho lewer values in bgackts applied to dead or imposed loads atthe Ulsmste Limit Sate ‘Should be used when minimum loading i ere. 24 Global Factor of Safety ‘The uso of partial factors of eafety on materials and loeds offers considerable flexibility, which may be used to allow for special conditions such as very high standards of construction and control or, at the other extreme, where structural failure would be particularly disastrous, ‘The global factor of safety against a particular type of failure may be obtsined by multiplying the appropriate partial factors of safety. For instance, a beam failure caused by yielding of tensile reinforcement would havea factor of Ym X= ISK 14= 1.61 — for deed loads only 115xL6=1.84 forlive loads only ‘Thus the practical case will have # value between these, depending on the relative loading proportions, and this can be compared with the value of 1.8 which has generally been used as the overall factor in the load factor design approach,20 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Similarly, failure by crushing of the concrete in the compression zone has @ factor of 1.5 x 1.6 = 2.40 due to live loads only, which reflects the fact that such failure is generally without warning and may be very serious. Thus the basio values ff partial factors chosen are such that under normal circumstances the global factor of safety is similar to that used in earlier design methods. Example 2.1 Determine the cross-sectional ares of a mild steel cable which supports « total ead load of 3.0 KN and a lve load of 2.0 KN as shown in figure 2.2. “The characteristic yield stress of the mild steel is 250 N/mm? Carry out the caleblations using (1) The load factor method with a load factor = 1.8. (2) A permissible stress design with a factor of safety of 1.8 om the yield stress. (3) A limit state design with the following factors of safety. “Yo * 1.4 for the dead load, ¥q = 1.6 for the live load, 7,4 = 1.15 for the steel strength, Mile steel cable Live tood = 20kN aad loos « 30kN Figure 22 (@) Load Factor Method Desig load = load factor (eed load + ve load) =1.8 (042.0) =9.04N design fond ‘yield stress = 90x10" 90210" = 36 mm? 350, Required cross-sectional area = LIMIT STATE DESIGN 2 (b) Permissible Stress Method Design load = 3.0 + 2.0 = 5.0 KN Permissible stress = Wield stress safety factor 350 7 250 = 139 Nim? 18 z design load permissible stess 0x10 _ 139 Required cross-sectional area 36 mm? (©) Limit State Method Design loac ‘yg * dead load + 1g x live load 14x 3.04 1.6x2.0=7.40N characteristic yield stress ‘Design stress = Yn 250 2217 Njmam? 1s Required erossectional ares = 22888 oa design stress 1x10 27 #34. mm? ‘These different design methods all give similar results for the cross-sectional aes. Fewer calculations are required for the permissible stress and the load factor ‘methods, so reducing the chances of an arithmetical eror. The limit state method. provides much better control over the factors of safety, which are applied to each of the variables. For convenience, the partil factors of safety in the example are the same as those recommended in BS 8110. Probably, in @ practical design, higher factors of safety would be preferred fora single supporting cable, in view of the ‘consequences ofa failure Example 2.2 Figure 2.3 shows a beam supported on foundations at A and B, The loads'sup- ported by the beam are its own uniformly distributed dead weight of 20 N/m2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN and 4 170 KN live load concentrated at end C. Determine the weight of founda- tion required at A in order to resist uplift (1) by applying a factor of safety of 2.0 to the resction caleulated for the ‘working loads (2) using a limit state approach with partial factors of safety of ¥q = 1.4 (or 1,0 for the dead load and yg = 1.6 forthe live load. Investigate the effect on these designs of a 7 per-cent increase in the live load. Y7OKN tive load feeeertes, tae to0d= 208m) fourdotion|_| | Jroundation ; sm 2m rey 18x live food exc 10 x Gead toad | toe a ee {ib} Loading orrangamant for uplift ct A at the ultimate limit state Figue 23 (a) Factor of Safety on Uplift =2.0 Taking moments about 8 = (170x220 8x2) Uplift Ry, a 23.33 KN Weight of foundation required = 3.33 x safety factor =3.33x20=6.7 KN With @ 7 per cent increase inthe live load = (0.07x170%2=20%8%2) a3 ay 60 ‘Thus with a slight increasé in the live load there is significant increase in the up- lift and the structure becomes unsafe. Uplit Ra LIMIT STATE DESIGN B (b) Limit State Method The arrangement of the loads for the maximum uplift at A is shown in igure 2.3. Design dead load over BC Yq X20x2 = 14x20%2= 56KN Design dead load over AB = 4g x 206 = 1.0 206 = 120 fq * 170 = 1.6 170=272 KN Taking moments about B forthe ultimate loads = Q72x2+56x 1 ~ 120x3) 60 Therefore weight of foundation required = 40 KN, Design live load Uphit Ry =40 kN A 7 per cent increase in the live load will not endanger the structure, since the actual uplift wil only be 7.3 KN as calculated previously. Infact in this case it would require en increase of 65 per cent in the live load before the uplift would exceed the waight of a 40 KN foundation,oe Analysis of the Structure A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, columns, slabs and walls, rigidly connected together to form a monolith frame. Each individual ‘member must be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, so that the determi tion of these forees isan essential part of the design process, The full analysis of a ‘gid concrete frame i rarely simple; but simplified calculations of adequate precision can often be made if the basic action of the structure is understood, ‘The analysis must begin with an evaluation of all the loads carried by the structure, ineluding its own weight. Many of the loads are variable in magnitude and position, and all possible critical arrangements of loads must be considered. Fret the structure isef is rationalised into simplified forms that represent the load-carrying action of the prototype, The forces in each member can then be etermined by one of the following methods. (2) Applying moment and shear coefficients. @) Manual calculations. @) Computer methods, ‘Tabulated coefficients are suitable for use only with simple, regular structures such as equal-span continuous besms cerrying uniform loads. Manual calculations are postible for the vast mejority of structures, but may be tedious for lage or complicated ones, The computer can be an invaluable help in the analysis of even auite small frames, and for some calculations it is almost indispensable. However, the amount of output from a computer analysis is sometimes almost overwhelming; ‘and then the results are most readily interpreted when they are presented diagram ‘matically by means of 2 graph plotter or other visual device. Since the design ofa reinforced concrete member is generally based on the ultimate limit state, the analysis is usually performed for loadings corresponding to that state. Prestressed concrete members. however, are normally designed for serviceability loadings, as discussed in chapter 12, 3.1 Loads ‘The loads on a structure are divided into two types: ‘dead loads, and ‘live’ (or imposed) loads. Dead loads are those which are normally permanent and constant ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 25 uring the structure's life, Live loads, on the other hand, are transient and are Variable in magnitude as for exemple those due to wind or to human occupants, Recommendations for the loadings on buildings are given ia the British Standards, numbers BS 6399: Pat 1, Design loads for Bullings, and CP3: Chapter V: Part 2 Wind loads. Bridge loadings are specified in BS 5400: Part 2, Specification for Loads. ‘A table of values for some useful dead loads and imposed loads is ven in the appendix. 3.1.1 Dead Loads Dead loads include the weight of the structure itself, and all architectural com- Prien a ever eng pssst ngs Ea ea Fachinary. when permanent Caters ae ake ofl oeidced ae arte ead Teed One thes of alte suc moder ea te dea toe inn egetemera teammates nom peony on tae can be caleulated quite accurately; but first of all, preliminary design calculations Sa poral roused ioevacets co palsuscue tne emeaeae acy tndutd Coote ener B Fase a pe tae cabie nate, bt higher deny shovi etaken for healy tanto tor aoe acest nce os ag cana ert een ne IMedfiom the aches’ devin, Aria presen oneaed ecg 1.0 KN pér square metre is usually specified, but this is only adequate for light- Seperpertane Brn loads we geneay czlted ona shy conte bss that member wil ct need edging rs ot sealchage ie ae rerestiaton, weve sould be dane with se, doe edad ender oen tery reduer de of the foes n prt of te sta swe ne ae case of the hogging moments in the continuous beam of figure 3.1. 5.1.2 Imposed Loads ‘These loads are more difficult to determine accurately, For many of them, itis ‘only possible to make conservative estimates based on standard codes of practice ‘or past experience. Examples of imposed loads on buildings are: the weights of its ‘occupants, furniture, or machinery; the pressures of wind, the weight of snow, and of retained earth or water; and the forces caused by thermal expansion or shriak- age of the concrete A large building is unlikely to be carrying its full imposed load simultaneously ‘onallits floors, For ths eason the British Standard Code of Practice allow a reduction in the total imposed floor loads when the columns, walls or foundations ae designed, for a building more than two storeys high. Similarly, the imposed load may be reduced when designing a beam spen which supports floor area greater than 40 square metres. “Although the wind load is an imposed load, itis kept in a separate category when its partial factors of safety are specified, and when the load combinations on the structure are being considered.26 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3.2 Load Combinations 3.2.1 Lood Combinations for the Ultimate State ‘Various combinations of the characteristic values of dead load Gy, imposed load Q., wind load W, and their partial factors of safety must be considered for the loading ofthe structure. The partial factors of safety specified by BS 8110 are discussed in chapter 2, and for the ultimate limit state the loading combinations to be considered are a follows. (2) Dead and imposed load 14G + 1.6Qx (2) Dead and wind load 100, +14 Wy, (G) Dead, imposed and wind load 12G, 41.20, 41.2, ‘The imposed load can usually cover all or any part of the structure and, therefore, should be arranged to cause the most severe stresses, Load combination I should also be associated with a minimum design dead load of 1 0G, applied to such parts of the structure as will give the most unfavourable condition For load combination 1,4 three-span continuous beam would have the loading arrangement shown in figure 3.1, in order to ceuse the maximum sagging moment in the outer spans and the maximum possible hogging moment in the centze span, A study of the deflected shepe of the beam would confirm this to be the case Figure 3.2 shows the arrangements of vertical loading on a multi-span contin- ‘wous beam to cause (#) maximum sagging moments in alternate spans and maximum ‘possible hogging moments in adjacent spans, and (i) maximum hogging moments at support A. As a simplification, BS 8110 allows the ultimate design moments at the supports to be caleulated from one loading condition with al spens fully covered with the ultimate load 1 4G, + 1.60 as shown in part (ii) of figure 3.2, 1404416 04 1404+ 16 4 105 = T fa) Loacing Arrongement for Moximum ‘Sogging Moment ct A ohd C. acerca OO Teena {b) Detlectes Shape Figure: Trreespan Beart ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 7 1-464 8, 145.2160, rage 160, aye 106. 108, 40% J in the Spons 145.1604 14604 1608 y (i) Loading Arrangement for Moximum Moments “4x2 16, +008 5 [_t06. A oF tT Git) Lood Arrangement tor Maximum Supper Moment ot A, i Gi) Loosing for Design Moments at the Susports eccording to Bs8n0 Figure 3.2. Mulzispon boom loading eangensents. ‘Under load combination 2, dead and wind load, it is possible that a critical stability condition may occur if, on certain parts ofa structure, the dead loed is taken a8 1.4G,.. An example ofthis i iUustrated in figure 3.3, depicting how the ead load of the cantilever section increases the overturning moment about support B. am Figure’3.3._Laed combination desd plu wind 3.2.2 Load Combinatins for the Serviceability Limit State A puttial factor of safety of 7, = 1.0 is usually applied to all losd combinations at the serviceability limit state2B REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In considering deflections, the imposed load should be arranged to give the ‘worst effects, The deflections calculated from the load combinations are the immediate deflections ofa structure, Deflection increases due to the creep of the concrete should be based only on the dead load plus any part of the imposed load Which is permanently on the structure, this being considered fully in chapter 6, Which deals wih serviceability requirements. 33 Analysis of Beams and Frames To design a structure itis necessary to know the bending moments, torsional ‘moments, shearing forces and axial forces in each member. An elastic analysis s generally used to determine the distribution ofthese foroes within the structure; but because — to some extent ~ reinforced concrete ia plastic material, limited redistribution ofthe elastic moments is sometimes allowed. A plastic yiedine theory may be used to calculate the moments in concrete slabs. The properties of the materials, such as Young's modulus, which ae used in the structural analysis should be those associated with their characteristic strengths. The stiffnesses of the ‘embers canbe calculated on the bass of any one ofthe following. (1) The entire concrete crosssection (ignoring the reinforcement). V/ @ The concrete cross-section plus the transformed area of reinforcement based on the modular rato, @) The compression area only of the concrete cross-section, pus the transformed are of reinforcement based on the modula rato ‘The concrete cross-section described in (J) isthe simpler to caloulate and would normally be chosen, A structure should be analysed for each ofthe critical loading conditions which produce the maximum stresses at any particular section. This procedure will be illustrated in the examples for a continuous beam and a building frame. For these structures itis conventional to draw the bending-moment diagram on the tension side of the members ~ r Sign Conventions, vf (0) For the momentistribation analyses an et moments spon a for example in table 31 forthe Fixed end moments aN, (2) For subsequently calculating the moments along the span of a member, moments causing sagging are positive, while moments causing hogging are negative, as illustrated in figure 3.5. 3.3.1 Non-continuous Beams ‘One span, simply supported beams or slabs are statically determinate and the analysis for bending moments and shearing forces is readily performed manually. For the ultimate limit state we need only consider the maximum load of 1.4G +1.6y on the span, ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 2» Example 3.1 Analysis of a Non-continuous Beam ‘The one-span simply supported beam shown in figure 3.4a carries distributed dead load including self weight of 25 kN/m, a permanent concentrated partition load of 30 KN at mid-span, and s distributed imposed load of 10 kN/m. Figure 3.4 shows the values of ultimate load required in the celculations of the shearing forces and bending moments. yor M4A30 242K @) ltimots Loas sak a a 23kN (b) Shesring Force Diagram Nd (c) Bending Moment Diagram Figure 3.4 Analysis of onespon beara ‘Maximum shear force = 42 + 204 2 4x4 Maximum bending moment = *=* ‘The analysis is completed by drawing the shearing-force and bending-moment diagrams which would later be used in the design and detailing of the shear and bending reinforcement, 33.2 Continuous Beams ‘The methods of analysis for continuous beams may also be applied to continuous slabs which span in one direction. A continuous beam is considered to have no fixity with the supports so that the beam is free to rotate. This assumption is aot strictly true for beams framing into columns and for thst type of continuous beara it is more accurate to analyse them as part of a frame, as described in section 3.3.3, ‘A simplified method of analysis that can be applied t0 slabs is deseribed in chapter 8. AA continuous beam should be analysed for the loading arrangements which give the maximum stresses at each section, as described in section 3,2.] and dlustrated30 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 31 in figures 3.1 end 3.2. The analysis to calculate the bending moments can be : A similar analysis can be applied to beams that do not support a uniformly dis- carried out manually by moment distribution or equivalent methods, but tabulated tributed load. In manual calculations itis usually not considered necessary to shear and moment coefficients may be adequate for continuous beams having caleulate the distances a} a3 and a, which locate the points of contraflexure and approximately equal spans and uniformly distributed loads ‘maximum moment ~ a sketch of the bending moment is often adequate ~ but if a computer is performing the calculations these distances may as well be determined Continuous Beams ~ The General Case also, Having determined the moments at the supports by, say, moment distribution, it is necessary to calculate the moments in the spans and also the shear forces on the ‘beam. For a uniformly distributed load, the equations for the shears and the maxi- ‘mum spaa moments can be derived from the following analysis Tag — 2 yy May=0 , TS se ro Ma | A Mia ArembQ@denimetre 8 and Von =wh Vag 6D Figure 3.8 Shears and moments in Beart Maximum span moment Magy Occurs at ero shear, and distance to 2er0 shear Example 3.2 Analysis of a Continuous Beam 63) ‘The continuous beam shown in figure 3.6 has» constant erosssection and supports “ 4 uniformly distributed dead load including its self-weight of Gy, = 25 KN/m and en imposed load Q, = 10 KN/m, therefore ‘The exitical loading arrangements for the uldmate limit state are shown in figure 3.6 where the heavy line indlcates the repion of maximum moments, sagging Van? ’ 7 64) he Em fe a ey se8hatim, 2B 40m 2 The pis of contrac at = 0, ht Ind Yao ~ 2 saya =0 —= 7 2 (4.25. 160018 where x is the distance from support A. Taking the roots of this equation gives SEES por A. Taking auton wo[ e200 L884 Seay ve = Yan £VU aut +2085) ¥ (14x25 +16 x10)4 rothat ; 10125:6 | soaen | =u eC feeeoe] ay = Yap = Vas! # 2lns) ea md © s0skw [20a | 305mm anen— Yant via! #2) rr} Figur 16 Continuous beam lading arengementt32 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘Table 3.1 Moment distribution for the first loading case r a o} Stifiness (8) Oy Bee a ei ab 025 a6 Destin | — <_425_—_ aaas +038 = 3 213 | 3 esta |__ 306 306 rem fo ate iooxd | 3066 5 2 a . 0 Distribution Factors Joints A and D 1 Joints Band C 94135 +058 9 DF.gq =DFep= 2 =032 2A 5 135 DF ive =DFcs = 135 ona Dies = $35 = 048 DF ox = 258 2m ‘The critical loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state are identical to those {for the continuous beam in example 3.2, and they are illustrated in figure 3.6. The ‘moment distribution for the first loading arrangement is shown in table 3.2. In the table, the distributions for each upper and lower column have been combined, since this simplifies the layout for the calculations, ‘The shearing forces and the maximum span moments cen be calculated from ‘the formulae of section 3.3.2. For the frst loading arrangement and span AB: Shes Yan = 288 a= Mad ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 9 285 CBAH269 seayy 2 Van T00d ~ Vg =306 ~143 = 163 &N Moxa manent sas ABH 2A et — 73.4126 KN m 2x3 Distance from A, 29 = Bor Figore 3.14 shows the bending moments in the beams for each loading arrange- ‘ment: figure 3.15 shows the shearing forces. These diagrams have been combined in figure 3.16 to give the design envelopes for bending moments and shearing forces ‘A comparison of the design envelopes of figure 3.16 and figure 3.9 will empha- sise the advantages of considering the concrete beam as part of e frame, not as # continuous beam as in example 3.2, Not only is the analysis of a subicame more precise, but many moments and shears in the beam are smaller in megnitude ‘The moment in each column is given by Meo = 2Megy x Kool Tksols "hw orang sep nag om E32 et cana manent iy 743 232 =o g= 1x 22 48 does 92) 22500 027 Myp = 46 x 227 = 21 Nm eee 056) ‘This loading arrangement gives the maximum columa moments, as plotied in figure 3.17.a ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 29 2ON3S a 136 490 74 : : 3 3 & 2 af . fs 3 ® Y 5 2 9 y 8 8 | g (/8 A] 8 Y s ° 3 ° i 8[ 72 slag ‘2 i #8 s 2 is eg & : 2 2 | wee] vee over] esr] €o6 £06 oer ree] re] ona st | ez oe | ot] sy s og ex | st va se og as as sfc es 09 ey | ex ze | sy | st sit] ay | oy ei | op a oz 5 rp var as azr 9 se en vee | rst] ese zoe | rst en | se ea vet MK 99° he sis Ea 09 tes} €66 eve | oer | sus Sis] 6ge £86] ves ra wy est et | | eee eke ar} | waa poe mE Nxpeer eco | 190 zo | ovo, | sro evo |oco, | zo wo| co] “Sra e)| Ws) wa) ra) si09|_oa ao _| seo] ao oa | ‘to | va ay | se a 2 a v ‘500 Supeoy iit} ayy 10} wor NGI oO Z'¢ a19EL Figure 3.15 Beem shearing force ciapems (kN)2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 102 1124450 744N 0 7 or SS a 126 735 143 102 166 Hc 388 102 al Figure 3.16 Bending-moment ond shearing force envelopes \ J y 40. 25, 25 40) 36 Ear 34 Figure 3.17 Column bending moment (RN m) 1a 06, by 7a0emN —, sT00KN aOBKN a 40m 6.0m 20m Figure 3.18. Substitute frame Example 3.4 Analysis ofa Substitute Frame for a Column Th ubtate fame fo th example shown niga 3.18, i ako from the building frame in figure 3.11. The loading to cause maximum column moments is shown in the figure for Gy = 25 kN) and Qj = 10 KN/m. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 8 ‘The stffnesses ofthese members are identical to those celeulated in exemple 43.3, except that for this type of frame the beam stiffnesses are halved. Thus 09x 10 =0.45 x 107% Ree = 3 x1.35% 10? = 0675 x 107 upper column ky =0.31 x 10- lower column ky, =0.27x 107% Dk = (0.45 + 0,675 +031 40.27) x 10 = 1.705 x 10-* fees ont May =2064 § =153188 Sxedend moment Myc =100% 4 =333kNm Column moments are oat vppercaluma My =(153—333)x 23! <2 10Vm a iy (1 yx 23 lower column My, =(153-33.3)x 227 = 194m 70s ‘The column moments are illustrated in figure 3.19. They should be compared with the corresponding moments for the internal columa in figure 3.17. 22. hokNm Figure 3.19 Column momente In.examples 3.3 and 3.4 the second moment of area of the beam was calculated 1s bh? /12 for a rectangular section for simplicity, but where an in sit slab forms 8 flange to the beam, the second moment of area may be calculated for the T. section or Leection,44 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Frames Supporting Vertical and Lateral Loads Lateral loads on a strmetize may be caused by wind pressures, by retained earth, orby seismic forces. An unbraced frame subjected to Wind forces, must be analysed forall the three loading combinations described in section 3.2.1. The vertical loading analysis can be carried out by the methods described previously for braced frames (sce page 35). Th analysis forthe leterl loads should be kept separate and the forces may be calculated by an elastic analysis or by a simplified approximate method. For preliminary design calculations, and also for madium-ie regular structures a simplified analysis may well be adequate, BS 8110 recommends that eny simplified form of analysis should assume points of contraflecure at the midJengths of al the columns and beams. A suit able approximate analysis isthe cantilever method. It assures thet (Q) Points of contreflexure are located at the mid-points of al columns and beams; and (2) The direct axial toads in the columns ae in proportion to ther distances from the centre of gravity of the frame. Its also usual to assume that all the columns ina storey are of equal cross-sectional ares. Application of this method is probably best llustrated by an example, ss follows. Example 3.5 Simplified Anolyss for Lateral Loods ~ Cantilever Method Figure 3.20 shows a building frame subjected to a characteristic wind load of 3.0 KN per metre height of the frame. This load is assumed to be transferred to the frame as s concentrated load at each floor level as indicated inthe figure. By inspection, there is tension in the two columns to the left and compression in the columns to the right; and by assumption 2 the axial forces in columns are proportional to thelr distances fiom the centre line of the frame. Thus axial force in exterior column: sxial force in interior column = 4.0P : 1,0P ‘The analysis of the frame continues by considering a section through the top- storey columns: the removal ofthe frame below this ection gives the remainder shown in figure 3.21, The forces in this subframe are calculated as follows. (@) Axial Forces in the Columns ‘Taking moments about point s, EM, = 0, therefore 5.25 x 1.19 +P x 6.0~Px 10.0~ 4P x 16,0=0 and therefore P= 0,135 KN thus My = Ng =4.0P=054N Nye -Ny = 1.07 = 0.135 KN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 45 S250 é 4 35 osu ail 3 § BE) sel ana | Fl zl g 25 seo free aan 7 g —+ ter 4 9 5.0m 40m, 80m Figure 3.20 Frame with irra! load (b) Vertical Shearing Forces Fin the Beams For each part of the subframe, EF'=0, therefore 1 =Ny = 0.54 KN Fy =Ny +N; =0.675 KN (©) Horizontal Shearing Forces Hin the Columns Taking moments about the points of contraflexure of each beam, EM =0, therefore Hy x1.75 Ny x3.0=0 Hy =0934N and (y+ Ha) 1,75 — My x8.0 Ny x 2.020 Ha =1.70N ‘The calculations of the equivalent forces for the fourth floor (Figure 3.216) follow a similar procedure as follows. (@) Axial Forces in the Columns For the frame above section tt’, DM, =O, therefore 5.25 (3 x1.15) + 10.5 x 1.75 +P x 6.0-Px 10.0 -4P x 16.0=0 P= 0.675 kN therefore WN, = 4.07 =2,70kN Nz = L0P=0.68 kN“ REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 5:25, t i t TT iyi . pe 1 1 (a) Root * ee oot wel inl” ont al t ; i : Ty hes peewee eae 4 4 i peas ais Figure3.21.Subjramer tthe roofed fourth floor (© Beam Shears Fy =2.70~054=2.163N ", = 2.70 + 0.68 — 0,54 ~ 0.135 = 2.705 kN (Q) Column Shears Hy x1.15 40.93 x 1.75 — (2.70 — 0.54)3.0= 0 Hy = 2.78 Hy = 4(105 45.25) — 2.78 =5.1 Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are third floor Ny =7.03 kN I6kN Fy =433N A KN Hy = 4.64 N ADKN second floor My, = 14.14 kN S3KN FL=TIDEN Fy =8.88KN Hy =661KN Hy = 12.14 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 47 first floor Ny = 2437 KN Ny =6.09 KN Fy =1023KN 7 = 12.79 Hy=8.744N Hy = 16.01 kN The bending moments in the beams and volumns at their connections can be calculated from these results by the following formulae beams Mg =F x $ beam span columns Me =x $ sory height so the 10's extemal conection My =058x4x60 =161Nm 93x4x35 6m Me 16 16 6 Te Ta Te a es] 54 16 2] a] 30 40 RS sa [es 8s “9 330] 08) al a5 = io fos [iso i aa 2 ah, vs 149 lara ire bs ee 202) 35 303] ved i567 Be bor 7 ws, FF po aa + aa Extarno! 7 eee 244 osarnol Cokenn Beara Column Figure 3.22, Moments (kW m) end resetions (RN} ‘Asa check at each joint, DMp = 2Mo. ‘The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columas and ‘beams of this structure are shown in figure 3.22,48 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3.4 Redistribution of Moments Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to calculate the forees in a eon- crete structure, despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load. The assumption of elastic behaviour i reasonably tre for low stress levels; but asa section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plestic deformation wil occur. This i recognised in BS 8110, by allowing redistribution of the elastic moments subject to certain imitations. Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steel and conerete. The stress-strain curve for the two materials (Sgures 1.5 and 1.2) show the clastoplastic behaviour of stel and the plastic behaviour of concrete, The latter will fai-st& relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour ofa reinforced concrete section depends on the relative quantities andthe individual properties of ‘the two materials. However, such a section may be considered virtually elastic until the sel yields, and then plastic until the concrete fails in compression, Thus ‘the plastic beBaviouris limited by the concrete feiluce; or more specifically, the cconereie fellure limits the rotation that may take place ata section in bending, A ‘typical moment-Curvaturé disgram for a reinforced concrete member is shown in figure 3.23. Tt vleto . Conerate : ‘crushing i ast Crock 3 2 curvoture Figure3.23. Typical momentfeursanwve diagam ‘Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of resistance Mg} it then behaves asa plastic hinge resisting a constant ‘moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other parts of the struc ture, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if rel hinge existed. Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the concrete, further hingés will be formed until a mechanism is produced. This requirement is considered in more detail in chapter 4 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 49 Example 3.6 Moment Redistriburion — Single Span Fixed-end Beams ‘The beam shown in figure 3.24 is subjected to an incveasing uniformly distributed load. . wet Baste support moment = es a wt? “Bhastic span moment = G 24 In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the supports; and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional lodd w,, ‘which the member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found, vomit length po ag L008 (ar oe Elestic amo. 2 8 ma steet, x = © oe Adgitianol eomants disgram ee Ginges at Aard ©) Collapse Machorism fr-Elastic BMD (Coliopse 'o0ss) a Final Collapse & MD. = Figure 3.24. Moment redcribution = onevpan beam At collapse wh? _ wh? My = WE 2 YE’ + additional mid-span moment m 24 ® 2 (41) as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C. Thus wi? wht, wal? WD 28 Hence 3 where w is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the bear may carry a load of 1.33 with redistribution,50 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN From the design point of view; the elastic bending-moment diagram can be abtsined forthe required iltimate loading in the ordinary way. Some ofthese roments may then be reduced; but this will necessitate increasing others to main ‘ain the static equilibrium ofthe structure, Usual its the maximum support ‘moments which are reduced, s0 ecanomising in reinforcing sel and also seducing congestion a the columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution (8) Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained, hhence itis necessary to recalculate the span bending moments and the shear forces forthe load case involved. (®) At sections of lugest moment the depth of neutral axis, x, is limited by PG -04)a ‘where d= the effective depth, and moment at section after redistribution ~ inoment at section before redistribution This rule effectively prevents any reduction of the moments in columas Which are primarily compression members with large values of x, and this is dealt with more fully in chapter 4. Elastic moments Redisiribuled moments = 10% of elostic moments Redistributes design moments Figure3.25 Redluribuson of hogging momente ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE Bt (©) The moment of resistance of any section should be atleast 70 per cent of the moment from the elastic analysis, hence allowing up to 30 per cent redistribution. This requirement ensures that there can be no! ‘movement in the postion of the points of contraflexure obtained from ‘the elastic analysis ax shown by figure 3.25. It thus lso ensures that » sufficient length of tension reinforcement is provided to resist cracking at the serviceability limit state. For unbraced structures over four storeys the redistribution is limited to 10 per cent, to prevent lateral instability, Example 3.7 Moment Redistribution a example 3.3, figure 3.14 its required to reduce the maximum support moment Of Mag. = 150 KN m as much as possible, but without increasing the span moment above the present maximum value of 126 KN m. 150912 4424150 Tai Tar fa} Original Moments, mt 1 42, 12 a fe on ” 126 ae bl Redistributes Moments yet 302 165 1 163 ea ur lel Sheers, tua) Figure 3.26 Moinents and shear with reismibution Figure 3.26a duplicates the orginal bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure 3.14) of example 3.3 while figure 3.26b shows the redistributed moments, with the span moment set at 126 KN m. The moment et support B can be calculated, using 4 rearrangement of equations 3.4 and 3.1. Thus Van = Vi(Mimuc ~ Max) 20) and Mn (Ys . Bost2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN For span AB,w =51 kN/m, thezefore Yap © VI(126 + 70) x2 51] = 141 KN 51x60 2 sags (2482) 69-7 2-142 KN im and Vag =306 ~ 141 65 KN Reduction in Mya = 150— 142 Nm = 8100 150 In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B are not changed by the distribution, moment Mg must also be reduced by 8 KN m. Therefore Mye =112—-8=104KNm hogging Figure 3.26c shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the redistri- buted moments, ‘This example illustrates how, with redistribution (1) the moments at a section of beam can be reduced without exceeding the maximum design moments at other sections (2) the values ofthe column moments are not affected; and (3) the equilibrium between external loads and internal forces is maintained, =5.3 per cent 4 Analysis of the Section ‘A satisfactory and economic design of a concrete structure rarely depends on a complex theoretical analysis. tis achieved more by deciding on a practical over- al layout of the structure, careful attention to detail and sound constructional practice. Nevertheless the total design of a structure does depend on the analysis and design of the individual member sections. Wherever possible the analysis should be kept simple, yet it should be based on. the observed and tested behaviour of reinforced concrete members. The manipula- tion and juggling with equations should never be allowed to obscure the funda- ‘mental principles that unite the analysis. The three most important principles are (1) ‘The stresses and strains are related by the material properties, including the stress-strain curves for concrete and steel (2) The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the cross-section, (3) The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads for static equillorium, ‘These principles ae true irespective of how the stresses and strains are distributed, ‘or how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape of the cross-section, ‘This chapter deseribes and analyses the action of 2 member section under load, 1 derives the basic equations used in design and also those equations required for the preperation of design charts. Emphasis has been placed mostly on the analysis associated with the ultimate limit state but the behaviour ofthe section within the elastic range and the serviceability limit state has also been considered. Section 4.7 deals with the redistribution of the moments from an elastic analysis Of the structure, and the effect it has on the equations derived and the design procedure, 4.1 Stress-Strain Relations Shosttecin stress-strain curves are presented in BS 8110. These curves are in an ‘idealised form which can be used in the analysis of member sections. a34 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 35 4.1.1 Concrete 1 "The behaviour of structural concrete (figure 4.1) is represented by a parabolic stress-strain relationship, up to # strain é, from which point the strain increases ‘while the stress remains constant, Strain ep is specified as a function of the characteristic strength of the concrete (fz), a8 also the tangent modulus at the origin. The ultimate design stress is given by OST O57 Tension ond OST fa « O51 447 fag 045 fo Las = OF at 0.487 fe 0881 conperdoe where the factor of 0.67 allows for the difference between the bending strength Inlet cng sng le conte and y= the pes reyes fr tn hemp of ont en Seg mone ct Sahn sean er 00535 pie orl pn of one 200kN/mm? Strain Figure 4.2 Shorter design spess-ttcin curv for reinforcement O87 Parabolic Ya At the ultimate limit for fy = 460 N/mm? . ey = 460)(1.15 x 200 10°) Eo co.008 5 stress eae sien? andfor fy = 250 N/mm? = 250)(1.15 x 200 x 10°) =0.00109 ‘ fee Ted ] ee fo 24x [Ex 00838 4 aca strain 1 tae J | | Figure 4. Shore term desi srex-ean curve for conrete in compesion : 5 a) oS) (et 4.1.2 Relnforcng Steel triongular rectangular: equivalent ‘The representative short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement is given parobalis —rectongular in figure 4.2. The behaviour of the ste! i identical in tension and compression, . being linear inthe elastic range up tothe design yield stress Of fy where fy is Section —_Straing Stress stocks Sa the characteristic yield stress and Yq is the partial factor of safety a Within the elas ange, the estonship between testes andetala i Figue4.3Seeson wih in dagam endsres Blocks stress = elastic modulus x strain 42 The Distribution of Strains ad Streses across a Section is etah on ‘The theory of bending for reinforced concrete astumes thatthe conorete wall 450 that the design yield strain is t crack in the regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is,56 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN carried by the reinforcement. Its also assumed that plane sections of a structural i ‘member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must be @ linear distribution of strain. Figure 4.3 shows the cross-section of 2 member subjected to bending, and the test stain diagram, togeter with thee different types of sas dstebution in the concrete, (2) The teiangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very ' nearly proportional to the strains, which generally occurs atthe loading levels encountered under working conditions and i, therefore, used at the serviceability Limit state (2) The rectengular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the compressive strains axe within the plastic range and it fs associated with the design for the ultimate limit state (@) The equivalent rectangular stress block is simplified alternative to the rectangular-parabolic distribution, AAs there is compatibility of stains between the reinforcement andthe adjacent conerete, the steel strain eq in tension and ein compression can be determined from the strain diagram. The relationship between the depth of neutral axis @) and the maxtmianreocvete stain (¢,<) nd the steel straind if en by v earee (424) \ «2 and here d is the effective depth ofthe beam’and d’ isthe depth ofthe compression reinforcement. Having determined the strsins, we can evaluate the stresses inthe reinforcement from the stress-strain curve of figure 42, together with the equations developed insection 4.1.2. For analysis of section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis can be determined by earranging equation 4.2 es Vx Gay 1+ At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as J eee = 0.0035 For steel with fy = 460 N/mm? the yield strain is 0.002 Inserting these values Into equation 474 : ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 a —L__ = 06364 r+ 0.002 0.0035 Hence, to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state: x 0.636¢ At the ultimate limi state i is important thet member sections in flexure should be ductile and that faire should occur with the gredual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete, Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that ‘edsttbution of acinus moments en oso Teruling in ster andenoes eeondanical stricture. To be very certain ofthe tension stel yielding, the code of | ractice limits the depth of neutral axis so that, P 2 = gp anttiodlen Bla 094 by Seo where moment at th section aftr redistribution imomest atthe section before reistabution Thus with moment redistribution not geater than 10 per cen, and 0.9 Y@059) fo entre a durch tye -f fibre ‘This Limit wil normally be adopted for(ltimate limit state design)but larger Gegrees of moment redistribution will requite «smaller limit (ox to ensure that plastic hinges can form, providing adequate rotation at tho critical sections (see yo Mecton 4 fone atte #35 a 1} Hasnain (8 ier 4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block For the design of most reinforced concrete structures it is usual to commence the design for the conditions atthe ultimate limit state, which is then followed by shocks to ensure thatthe structure adequate forthe serviceability limit state without excessive deflection or cracking of the concrete, For this reason the analysis in this chapter wil fist consier the simplified rectangular stress block Which can be used for the design atthe ultimate limit state “The zectangula stress block es shown in figure 4.4 may be wed in preference to the more rigorous rectengular-parabolic stess block. This simplified stress distribution wil facilitate the anelyss and provide more manageable design ‘equations, in particuas when dealing with non rectangular cross-sestions. Ttean be seen from the igue that the stress block does not extend tothe neutral axis of the section but has a depth s = 0.9 x. This will eslt inthe centroid ofthe stress block being s/2 = 0.45 x fom the top edge of the section, which is ‘ery nearly the same location es forthe more precise rectangula-parabelle stess block; also the areas of the two types of stress block are approximately equal (see section 4.9), Thus the moment of resistance ofthe section Wil be similr using ‘aleulations based on ether of the two stress blocksyorsd oe 8 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN . 0.0035 0-67 feu/tnw : el mi sterg wood | aL FB Tr 4) 7 q Poled od 06k ' ere] CI a . Section Strains Stress Block Figure44 Singly reinforced section with rectangular eres block Cre design equations dened in wections 4 to 46 ae for edisbuton of ‘moments being not greater than 10 pee cent) When a greater moment reditr¥ba- tion i applied, reference should be made to section 47 which desrbes how to soditythe desig equations 44 Singly Reinforced Rectengular Section in Bending Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Fy in the reinforcing Ste anda estat comprasae force in ine anaes Fes hich cs hog the cntold ofthe effete sen of concrete in sompeeason at town a For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M-must be balanced by the mower oT Tene ofthe elon We tat eM Foc KE Fat (45) ‘where z isthe lever arm between the resultant foreas Fz and Fi. Fe cre x area of actin AS fox x bs : 2 “6 So that substituting in equation 4.5 M=OA45 foybs Kz and replacing s fom equation 4.6 M=09 fab (a-2)2 an Rearanging nd abating @ = Mba 7 (2/a)? — (z/d) + K/0.9 =0 Solving this quadratic equation-——~"~ $a [05+ VOIS~ KID) and S (48)* : lovey aye fh Yenhan ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 9 ‘which isthe equation in the code of practice BS 8110 for the lever arm, 2, of a singly reinforced section, In equation 4.5, Fa=CyliglA with yg, = 1.15 = O87 fyAy Hence oy ‘Equations 4.8 and 4.9 can be used to design the zrea of tension ceinforcement jn s chctete ston io eset ay Ome omen Gilets Romeat, Me as ik =1/oat,]o0s [ous [oar Joos Joos Jove Jour [ova Jorn [ove Jove [ove| Sor | \ Nie o-s9| + orm ‘O05 O70 0-15 OSE Ke M/b? fey The % values on the K axis mark the limits . for singly reinforced sections with moment redistribution applied (see Section 4.7) Figure4.s.Leverarm curve ‘Equation 4.8 for the ever arm z can be used to set up a table and draw a lever- arm curve as shown in figure 4.5, and the curve may be used to determine the lever arm, z, instead of solving equation 4.8.Cy REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘The upper limit of the leveratm curve, z = 0.95, is specified by BS 8110, The liver limit of z = 0.775 d is when the depth of neutral axis x= d/2, which is the ‘maximum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced section in order to provide a ductile section which will hve 2 gradual tension type failure as lveady Gescribed, With z= 0.775 d fram equation 4.7: M=03 fyb 20.195 )x0.7754 or KX. M0156 foy ba? 4.10)" calculated using the concrete stress as more pr8@ively equal to 0.67 feulYq = 0.447 fey, instead of 0.45 fos When ee bd" fou compression reinforcement is also required to supplement the moment of resist- ance of the concrete Example 4.1 Design of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the setion in figure 4.6 is 185 KN m, Determine the area of tension reinforcement (4,) required given the characteristic ‘material strengths are f= 460 Nm? and fey = 30 N/mm? >0:156 Hoe 260 “ ae Re > 440 Figure 4.6 Design exomple ~ singly reinfored tection - oo ihe 7 185 x 108 260 x 440* x30, <0156. ‘therefore compression ste] is not required =0122 a ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 61 Laver arm: , seafos+ /(o2s- St sass /eas-422)} =369 mm (Or alternatively, the velue of z= Iyd could be obtained from the lever-arm diagram, figure 4.5.) M dari = _28sic108 Ta1 x63 Am = 1253 ma* Analysis Equations for a Singly Reinforced Section ‘The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of @ siven section with a known area of stel reinforcement. For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel in figure 4.4 045 fyb x5~087 fy 4 ‘Therefore depth of ses block i 08 fyAs ra oS fab aa wes109 ee M=Faxt =087f,4, @—s/2) ests) a087%4, (4- a2 Fy As ( O09 foyb (4.12) ‘These equations assume the tension seinforcement hes yielded, which will be she case if 0.6369 It eh snot the cas, the problems woud requis solving by trying suctessive values of x untiloe REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Fos Fa with the steel strains and hence stresses being determined from equations 4.2 and 4.1, to be used in equation 4.12 Instead of 0.87 fy. Example 4.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Seetion in Bending Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 4.7 given that the characteristic strengths are fy = 460 N/mm? for the reinfosce- iment and fey = 30 N/mm? for the concrete, oh a Te wana DHE aia cae 42520 oe . Figure 4.7 Anyss example — singly reinforced section For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces om the section therefore 0.45 x 30 x 300 x5 = 0.87 x 460. 1470 therefore 2145 mm and x=5/0.9= 145/09 =161 mm ‘This value of x is less than the value of 0.636 d derived from section 4.2, and ‘therefore the steel has yielded and fa = 0.87, as assumed. “Moment of resistance of the section is MaPgxt VS ' = 0.87 yA, (4 812) : =0.87 x 460 x 1470 (520 ~ 145/2) x 10~* =263 kN m ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 6 4.5 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State (a) Derivation of Basie Equations It should be noted that the equations inthis section have been derived forthe case Where the reduction in moment at a section due to moment redistribution is not greater than 10 per cent. When this isnot the case, reference should be made to section 4.7 which deals with the effect of moment redistribution. 0035 045 fou | Beal Pfoonl FRESE ; [fe hiss one — section Sree erenioee Fig 8. Scion wth companion rfocoment From the section dealing with the analy ofa gy reinforced tetion whan | M>0.156 fey bd?[ the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the concreie and ‘hevtore compres ieiforeement is feqused: Fort condition the dopo? neutel ais £2205. the mau alae ated y the ede in ret eure psn fale wth dtl seston Gpetsl Cee od ead—s/2-d—-O0.9x/2 aaa d~09x onsa For equbrivm ofthe section in figure 4.8 Fat Fee + Frc. so that with the reinforcement at yield ghal gee come aj an teal assen Sd O87 fy y= O45 fants *OBTIGAR uy em cx with 50.9 xd/2=0.45 a 0.87 fyAg=0.201 foybd* 0.87 fA (43) and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel, Ay64 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ea X24 Fee (d= a’) 201 foy bd 0,775 d+ 087 fy; (4 ~ 0.215, then it is necessary to calculate the strain eg from equation 4.19 and then determine from 4 : fe bse e088 hd ese Fa Ba xe? 2000005 wa This value of ses for Tie compressive steel must then be used in the denominator of equation 4.15 in place of O87 f inorder to eleulate the area A, of compres sion steeL. The area of tension steel i ealeulate from a modified oquation 416 such that = SE Seybd? yr fe a A cara SX aang FG O28 (8) Design Charts “9 wal x7er03 | ee ersroe | a wk ereros . +08 os je 2 ° rT se 100 4, 700 Figure 4.9. Typical devin chart for doubly reinforced beems ‘The equations for the design charts are obtained by taking moments about the neti Ths, Se ta tet a = 5 = M045 foy 09 X ( ~ 0.9312) + feds — 0) + fads (dx) This equation and 4.13 may be written in the form + ont6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN A rap 4s fg At =0.201 fen = + fe an fo hg M 2 xa’ A AE = 0401 fog 2 (1-045) + fe A8(2- 2) 45 Ae pai Aa De: a ) fs aC For specified ratios of Ai/bd, x/d and d’/d the two non-dimensional equations cen be solved to give values for Ay/bd and M/bd? so that set of design charts such as the one shown in figure 4.9 may be plotted. Before the equations can be solved, the steel strestes fz and fi, must be calculated for each vale of 2/4. This is achieved by fist determining the relevant strains from the strain dagram (or by applying equations 4.2 and 4.3) and then by evaluating the stresses from the stres- strain cure of figure 4.2. Values of x/d below 0.5 apply when moments are redistributed, Example 4.3 Design of @ Rectangular Section with Compresion Reinforcement (Moment Redistribution Factor by 0.9) ‘The section shown in figure 4.10 is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285 kN m, The characteristic material strengths are fy 160 Nfmm? and ‘fox = 30 Nim? Determine the areas of reinforoement required. * 260 440? x30 Me ba few 285 x 108 0.189 >61s6 ‘therefore compression stel is required afd = 50/440 = 0.11 <02 asin equation 4.21 and the compression steel will have yielded, Compression steel: AS ‘Tension steel Ay ~ K=KVfosbd* 087 f (d- a’) ‘e (Q.189 — 0.156) 30 x 260 x 440? ‘O17 x 460 (440 —50) =319mm | oe K'fesbd? ys O87: 0.9 Example 4.4 Analysis of a Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 4.11 given that the characteristic strengths are fj = 460 N/mm? for the reinforce ment and fay =30 N/mm? for the concrete O°45%uy ~ sas0 Ife fete] Toe] | SEES a=s10| J section stress siock Figure 4.11. Analysis exemple, doubly reinforced section For equilibrium of the tensile and comprosive forces onthe section: Fat Fat Fe Assuming initially that the steel stresses fs, and fee are the design yield values, then O87 fy Ay = O45 foulltyt 0.87 ft ‘Therefore reas he Fr ak 087 fy (Ay - As) 0.45 fey = 187 x 460 (2410 — 628) 0.45 x 30 x 280 = 189mm@ REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN x =410.9= 210mm x/d=210/510= 041 <0.636 so th tension sel will have yielded. Ako % a'hx=50/210=024<043 ' +0 the compression steel will also have yielded, e¢ assumed. Taking moments about the tension steel ec (@~ 512) + Fig (= a’) 45 fobs (d ~ 5/2) +087 fy AL (@~ 2’) 5 x 30 x 280 x 189 (510 ~ 189/2) + 0.87 x 460 x 620 (510 ~ 50) = 412% 10° N mm Jf the depth of neutral axis was such thatthe compressive or tensile stel had not yielded, it would have been necessary to try successive values of x until Fa= Feet Fe: balances, withthe stel strains and stresses bring calculated from equations 42, 443 and 41 \The steel stresses at balance would then be used to caleulate the moment of esstancl\, Ms 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State ones a fe —————1 4 J oss] [S52 | | neutral axis Sr. s z A oa ale x Oe by Section Siress Block Figure 4.12 Teeton, stress block within the flange, s hr, then the procedure would then be similar to that in example 4.7, 462 lange Secon ~ the Depth ofthe ‘Streis Block Extends Below the Flange, shy For the.desgn of afanged section, the procedure described in section 4.6.1 will checkif the depth ofthe stress block extends below the flange. An alternative procedure isto calculate the moment of resistance, Me, ofthe section with s =, ‘he depth ofthe flange (see equation 4.22 of example 4.6 following). Hence ifthe design moment, Mf, is such that M>M; then the stress block must extend below the flange, and sD hy In this case the design can be cartied out by either: aocay Mount > Hgts @ Rosen st . (8) using an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis, asin BATE Oa Hak fe mtn Fog 3, oe On Pate ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION n (8) designing for the conservative condition of x = d/2 as deseribed at the ‘end of this section Example 4.6 Design of a Flanged Section with the Depth of the Stress Block Below the Flange ‘The T-section beam showm in figure 4.14 is requized to resist an ultimate design moment of 180 kN m. The characteristic matetial strengths are f= 460 N/mm? and fog “30 N/mm, Calculate the area of reinforcement reqused TE Vow - ae + |! 2-350| ae = Few au Ts a Ft Figure 4.14 Design example, Pseeton with s> hy In the figure Fer isthe force developed in the flange Fo isthe force developed in the area of web in compression Moment of resistance, Mr, of the flange is Me= Fog 2, My= OS fou Br hy (@— Rel) (a2 = 0.45 x 30 x 400 x 100 (350 — 100/2) x 10° = 162 KN m <180 KN m, the design momest ‘Therefore, the stress block must extend below the flange cis now necessary to determine the depth, sy, of the web in compression, where Sy" 5 = fg For equilibrium: @ ayia of anion ce! Applied moment 180 © Fog X24 + Few X23 = 162 + 0.45 fox baybw X23ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION B n REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN = 162+ 0.45 x 30 x 200 sy (250 — 5/2) x 10-6 5 ray = 162 +2700 sy (250 ~ 5/2) x 10° r pean aes 2150. se 7 This equation canbe rearranged into Yigg oes] $0054 4 1338x108 =0 e040 a s ‘Solving this quadratic equation [ eae =28 ooo [e280 H 7 sy = 28 mm mY ean ( So thatthe depth of neutral axis 1 144=300 + dB x= /0.9= (100 + 2810.9 se aera =m Section Block Asx Sd)?, compression reinforozment is not requised. Figure 415 Anaiyts example of@ Puen, s> by Firth equibrium of the section Ad the force in he web ‘ Fas Feat Pow oe ' £ Foye = 045 fos Bu (6h) gu SVR o = 0.45 « 30 x 300 (¢ ~ 150) x 1077 O87 fy Ay = 0.45 fea shs +045 fea Pw Sw = 4.05 (6 - 150) 0.87 x 460 x4, = 0.45 x 30 (400 x 100 + 200 x 28) For equilibrium Therefore Fou * Fa ~ Fet = 616 x10 o 4,05 (5-150) = 964.5 ~ 9112 S087 «460 Fence = 1540 mm? ' 5= 163 mm x=510.9* 181 mm Example 4.7 Analysis ofa Flanged Section With this depth of neutral axis the reinforcement has yielded, as assumed, and Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-beam section shan in Foy = 405 (163 ~ 150) = 53 KN figure 4.15, given f, = 460 Nj? and fa, = 30 Nim (Fe: > Fi en de sss block would noY extend beyond the flange and the ‘The compresive force in the flange is section would be analysed asin example 4.2 fora rectangular section of dimensions - iexd) Fer= 0.45 febrhy i fees 5 Taking moments about the centroid ofthe reinforoument 45 «30 x 450x 150 107 . =911.2kN : ‘Then tensile force in the reinforcing steel, assuring it has yielded, is = (911.2 (440 - 151 =163/2 ~ 150/2)] x 10> _— ° =348 kN m Fax O87 fA, 87 460 x2410%10-* rample 48 Dein of «Flanged Seton with Depth of Nel Axi pean A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > hy can be achieved by Therefore Fu > Fog setting the depth of neutral axis to x = d/2, the maximum depth allowed in the es code. Design equations can be derived for this condition as follows.” REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 85 fu bn os) to] Eh q nz f Mo > Msosge = ae « spaaggioe coh pte compas oa Section Stress dock ot ” raysnd Figure 4.16 Flanged section with depth of neu exit x= 82 Depth of stress block, s= 0.9 x =0.45 d Divide the flanged section within the depth of the streés block into areas | and 2 asshowm in figure 4.16, so that Area 1 = by XS=0.45 bd Area2= (bp — By) xp aot and the compression forces developed by these areas are Fey 2045 fay KO4S bay = 0.2 fey Fea = O45 felts (bt ~ bw) Taking moments about Fea atthe centroid of the flange M= Foy (dhe /2) — Fey (812 = bg 2) = O87 fyAy (4 he!) — 02 feybya (045 d — hl? Therefore _ M#0.1 foubird (0.45 d ~ he) 57 O87 fy (@— 0.5 he) This i the equation given in clause 3.4.4.5 of BSB110. It should not be used when hg > 0.45 a. “Applying this equation to example 4.6: = 180 108 + 0.1 x 30 x 200 x 350 (0.45 «350 (0.87 x 460 (350 — 100/2) = 1600 mm? (compare with 1540 mm? of example 4.6) Before using equation 4.23 for calculating 4, it is necessary to confirm that compression reinforcement isnot required. This is achieved by using equation 4.24 to check that the moment of resistance of the concrete, Me, i greater than the design moment, M, (4.23) ie (00) ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a 4.6.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement ‘With x = 2 in figure 4.16 and taking moments adout As, the maximum resistance ‘moment of the concrete is Zi A-Rod oF . Me- ome ' otic soagfrbn (81-5) 30156 fab d™¥ 045 fog (p—by)(@— hel) (4.24 196 fesbu a x (Note that the value of 0.156 Was derived previously for the rectangular section.) Dividing through by fay Drd® i by tig (, _ Bw he HL, =0156 2» +o4s Be (y- bw) (Ae 7 Faded? a OG (: a) ( i) Ce ‘hich is smilar tothe equation given in BS 8110. 1 the applied design moment, > Me, compression reinforcement is required In which cas the aeas of steel canbe eaiulated from 1 MoM : O87 @-a) snd considering the equilibrium of forts on he section = g.oHfyae! Fe Fey + Fa + Feo Fev + orustew Of 25,4 t se tur ouctor (4.26) so that 0.2 fou bwd + 0.45 feuhe (bp — bw) 2 yr Ags 22feabud + 045 feahe Or— Du) 4 42 : 087 f ‘Again, de> 0.43, otherwise the design compressive see stress is less than os7f,. When, because of moment redistribution, f, < 0.9 the limiting depth of neutral ‘axis is less than d/2 end these equations will require modification using the factors given in the table 4.1 of section 4.7 which deals with moment redistribution, 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Desiga Equations ‘The plastic behaviour of reinforced concrete at the ultimate imit state affects the distribution of moments ina structure. To allow for this, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the assumption that plastic hinges have formed atthe sections with the largest moments. The formation of plastic hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding ofthe tension ren- forcement. To ensure lyge strains in the tension steel, the code of practice cestricts the depth ofthe nebtal wef ection sanidng tothe Tetuction of eet moment so that x} Gy —04)d where dis the effective depth AO* > (he onkld (4.28) a net yer16 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN = _omtnatsecton after redistribution 4 ‘moment at section before redistibution and So, for the design of a section with compression reinforcement after moment re- distribution the depth of neutral axisx will take the maximum value from equation 4.28. ‘Therefore the depth ofthe stress block is 5209 (6,-0.4) and the level arm is s Ae 2 =4-09Gs—04) 4/2 (429) The moment of resistance ofthe concrete in compression is Me Fog X28 085 fagbs x2 = 0.45 foyb X0.9 (By ~0.4)dx [2 ~ 0.9 (By —0.4) a2} Therefore Me. Bagg 704509 Be -04) [1 -045 Gy ~ 04] = 0.402 (By ~ 0.4) ~ 0.18 (6, ~ 04)? So that rearranging Me=K'ba fog where "= 0,402 (By ~ 0.4) ~ 0.18 (fy —0.4)? (430 Thisis the equation for K” given in BS 8110. (should be noted that in calculating the coefficients 0,402 and 0.18, the more precise value of conciete stress ez = 0.67 fey/15 het been used and not the value 043 fou) When the ultimate design moment is such that M>K'ddfoy or K>K then compression stelis required such that y= BK Veuba? 7 087 f, (d-d’) on and Age Kft? 087 fez +4, (432)* ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION n ane bd fax ‘These equations are identical in form to those derived previously for the design of a section with compression reinforcement for By 0.9. Teble 4.1 shows the various design factors associeted with the moment redis- tribution, If the value of d'/d for the section exceeds thst shown in the table, the compression steel wil not have yielded and the compressive stress wil be less then 087 f,. In such cases. the compressive stress fag Will be Eyége where the strain eq. is obtained from the proportions of the strain diagram. This value off should replace 0.87 fy in equation 4.31, and equation 4.32 becomes = Kifestl yg fe where K (433)" oar he 4°" 087y ‘Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors Redistribution be xia a ¥ la (Ger cent) <10 S09 os OS O16 2S 15 oss 9450797. lak 0.193 20 os- 04 = 082032, 23 0.75 035 0.842 oT 0.150 30 07 03 ©0865 =e. .129 It should be noted that for a singly reinforced section (K K" ‘therefore compression steel iszequired. Compression stoe!: 1 KK Vega Oa @ = (Q.151 ~ 0.132) 30 x 260 x 440* (0.87 x 460 (440 — 50) = 184mm? (The variation with the previous result is due to rounding.off errors in the arith ‘metic and the subtraction af two numbers of similar magnitude in the numerator.) Tension steel: zed (05 + (025-K'/09)) =a [0.5 + v0.25 - 0.132)0.9)) = 0824 2 Ki fegbd? O87 he 1082 30 «260 x 440? 0.87 460x082 x 440 = 1381 +184 = 1565 mm? is Ay +184 4.8 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State ‘The applied axial force may be tensile or compressive, In the analysis that follows, 1 compressive force is considered. Fore tensile load the same basic principles of equilibrium, compatibility of strains, and stress-strain relationships, would apply, but it would be necessary to change the sign of the applied load (N} when we consider the equilibrium of forces on the cross-section. (The area of concrete in Compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by the compression steel, This could be taken into account by reducing the stress fi in the compression steel by an amount equal to 0.45 fa.) Figure 4.18 represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and stress distributions for varying positions of the neutral axis. The cross-section is subject to a moment M and an axial compressive force NY, and in the figure the direction of the moment is such as to eause compression on the upper part of the section and tension on the lower part.REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 0035 045 fy eis, «| 7 0 4 neutral of ef a 4 ae fs “ section er 0.0035 Oo, a Le ke se h || tin sen a. oeeen Oo Strains stresses tb) Nam W/o? Figure 4.18 Berding plus axel lad with varying postions ofthe neutral axis so (es = 30N/mm?, 4 «t80N/ami, 2 = 080 a ey ee o > bey s al 4 rT = 4 > 7 4 6 8 0 Bu 6 Mah N/mm? Figure 419. Typlce column design chare ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a1 Let ‘Fac be the compresive free developed in the concrete and acting through the centroid of the stress block Fe: be the compressive free in the reinforcement area Aj and acting through its centroid Fy. be the tensile or compressive force inthe reinforcement area 4 and acting through its centroid. (i) Basic Equations and Design Charts ‘The applied force (IV) must be balanced by the foroes developed within the cross. séction, therefore NaFuet Fat Fy In tis equation, F, will be negative whenever the position ofthe neutral ass Such tat the reinforemert Aisin tension sin Rg 4,18, Substituting into this equation the terms for the stresses and areas fs 6 ¥< ¥ yah ‘This type of future Wassociatdd with large eccentricities (¢) end small depths of neuteal axis (x), Failure begins with yielding of the tensile reinforcement, followed by crushing ofthe concrete as the tensile strains rapidly increase, (b) Balunced Faure, ¢.= ey, pointb on figue 420» fae < 0 .844y When failure occurs with yielding of the tension steel and crushing of the concrete atthe same instant its deweribed a a ‘balanced? failure, With ¢ = e, and from equation 4.38 = Xtal = 7 ce 10035 | ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 8 For example, substituting the values of ¢, = 0.002 for grade 460 steel and O45 fyb X 0.9 X01 + fyeAl — 0.87 fyAy (4.40) dos =ta( = 2288) oze (8-2) +m (0-2) — fe S087 fy [At point b on the interaction diagram of figure 4.20, N= Nog, M= Mya and fa%— 0.87 fy. When the design load V> pay the section will fallin compression, ‘whilst if N'< Nyy there willbe an inital tensile felure, with yielding of reinforce. ment As. comorension, €& = fy : Toe Sr oxo “et pr ox BY 67 bel tension Soture Be 7 By. x aya and N> Noa ‘The change in slope at point rin figure 4.20 occurs when 0 fy and from equation 439 x, = 0.0035 d'/(0.0035 — 6) = 2.33 d' for grade 460 steel Point: wil occur in the tension failure zone of the interaction diagram if oe SS:84 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Whenx d {5087 f, and compressive When x = 2.33 d, then from equation 4.39 = 0.002 = ey for grade 460 steel AL this stage, both layers of stee] will have yielded and there will be zero moment of resistance with a symmetrical section, so that No = 045 fey bh + 0.87 fy (4a + As) Such M-N interaction diagrams can be constructed for any shape of cross-section ‘which has an axis of symmetry by applying the basic equilibrium and strain com- patibility equations with the stress-strain relations, as demonstrated in the follow. ing examples. These diagrams can be very useful for design purposes. Example 4.10 M-N Interactive Diagram for an Unsymmetrial Section ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 85 as the ‘plastic centroid’. The ultimate axial load Ng acting through the plastic centroid causes «uniform strain across the section with compression yleding of all the reinforcement, and thus there is zero moment of resistance. With uniform strain the nevtral-axis depth, x, i at infinity “The location ofthe plastic centroid is determined by tking moments ofa the stress resultents about an arbitrary axis such a8 AA in figure 4.21 so that ; frat Bahi2thed tig | EE B Feet Pat Pd “= 0.45 FeaAce x 50/2 + 0.87 fA x 60+ 0.87 fyAy x390 0.45 feyAce +087 fyAs ¥ O87 yA __ 045 x 30 « 350 x 4502/2 + 0.87 460 (1610 x 60 4 982 x 390) 0.45 x 30 x 350 x 450 + 0.87 x 460 (1610 + 982) = 212 mm from AA The fundamental equation for calculating points on the interaction diagram ‘with varying depths of neutral axis are () Compatibility of strains (used in table 4.2, columns 2 ané 3): ro) Construct the intertcton diagram forthe seston shown in gue 4.21 with ean ‘fou = 30 Ninn and fy ~ 460 N/mmn?. The bending eaves maximum compression «0.0035 (22 ‘on the Face adjacent tothe steel area A‘. s 5 Preea e (j) Stress-stran relations for the stel (able 4.2, columns 4 and 5): ™ 4 ad eRe=0002, f=087K ale” 7° ° “ (a2) AT fF "AJ +1610 So Una val | a emcees x x (Gai) Equilibrium (table 4.2, columns 6 and 7): OI | nasa} 390] 7] re ' NeFetFotF, af Pen | Aree | ois or O9ek N=045 fob ht fel + As ae ‘Taking moments about the plastic centroid oil section oon O9x0.002 0 -087f, - 138 117 >0002 087s, — 847257 0.002 O87f, -O87f, 1306 274 4=390 >0002 0 087s, 0 2303158 233d=909 _>0.002 >0.002 O87f, O87f, N64 0 Example 4.11 M-N Interaction Diagram for a Non-rectangular Section. Construct the interaction diagram for the equilateral triangular column section in figure 4.23 with fay = 30 N/mm? and fy = 460 N/mm. The bending is about an ‘axis parallel to the side AA and causes maximum compression on the corner adjacent to the steel area A. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a In 2246 igre 4.25 Nonestongular section M-N interaction example For this triangular section, the plastic centroid is at the same location as the geometric centroid, since the moment of Fy: equals the moment of F, about this ‘xis when all the bars have yielded in compression, ‘The fundamental equations for strain compatibility ane the steels stress-strain relations are as presented in example 4.9 and are used agaln in this example, The ‘equilibrium equations for the triangular section become Naat hath 09xh N= OAS fot X400/2+ feds * feds 09xh M= Fy, Qh/3 a) ~ F, (@— 24/3) tensile stres, and from the geometry of figure 4.23 F, is negative when f, al 5 v3 ‘Table 4.3 has been calculated using the fundamental equations with the values fx shown, The interaction diagram is shown constructed in figure 4.24. With a non-rectangular section, it could be advisable to construct a more accurate interaction diagram using other intermediate values of x. This would certainly be the case with, say, a flanged section where there is sudden change in bresdth,88 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN N-kN T T T (0.1523) 1000 (554,750) soo} o L L ! 20, 40 60 Mk (730,-81 Figure 424 M-N interaction diagram for @nomestengulr section Table 4.3 AEN interaction values for example 4.10 yw x fe (kN) (kN) d= 100 0 > 0.002 0 -O87f, — 330 365 Fed ooo16 oom 308-087 - (9 720 assa'=233 0002000095 087f, —189 354-689 2-296 = >0002 «0-87, 0150 SS 2334-690 >0002 >0002 O87f, O8Tf, 152 0 4.9 The Rectangular-Parabolic Stress Block A rectangular-parabolic stress block may be used to provide a more rigorous analysis of the reinforced concrete section. The stress block i similar in shape to the stress-strain curve for concrete in figure 4.1, having a maximum stress of 0.45 fay a¢ the ultimate strain of 0.0035. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 89 Ta figure 4.25 ‘é = the concrete strain at the end of the parabolic section w= the distance from the neutral axis to strain ep x = depth of the neutral axis 4ey_= the mean concrete stress axe = depth to the centroid of the stress block, 0038 O45 fu | -4e Er Stross Block Section Strains Figee 4.25 Section i Bending with rectangular-porbolie trers block (@) To Determine the Mean Concrete Stress, From the strain diagram Bons * therefore we -2eo 0035 Substituting for ég = 2.4.x 107* V(feu Yq) (see figure 4.1) ae with 4p “LS (4.43) tea rst properties of a parabola as shown in figure 4.26, we have 045 fou 0.45 fog.W/3 ‘Thus, using the ct‘Substituting for w from equation 4.43 gives 0.15 vf, ) areos Position of centroids Figure 4.26. Propertir of ¢parabole (b) To Determine the Depth of the Controid kx ‘kg is determined for a rectangular section by taking area moments of the stress Dlock about the neutral axis ~ see figures 4.25 and 4.26, Thus (x ~ tax) = BE BOE XH/2 ~ area tx we ‘area of seas block = (0.45 fn) xP? ~ (0.45 fay wi3) lt hax 2 045 fn 3? /2 = W711) hax Substituting for w fram equation 4.49 fe tyne O45 fen? [yg Sos” bommne Mee [as hence iy O83 fes [gs feu 7 i bs za co Values of ky and ky for varying characteristic concrete strengths have been tabulated in table 4.4 Once we know the properties of the stress block, the magnitude and position of ‘the resultant compressive force in the concrete can be determined, and hence the ‘moment of resistance of the section calculated using procedures similar to those for the rectangular stress block, ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a Table 4.4 Values of ky and kz for different concrete grades Tes 7 inin?) a) ka Mfew ky eM fo “a 829 ~~ Oa2s=*«iSSS*«C 25 10.200 0.408 0.456 0895 30 12.120 0.04 0.452 0.894 40 15.875 0397 0.445 0.892 50 19.531 0.391 0.439 0,890 60 23.097 0.385 0434 0887 Typical values 04 os 089 Using typical ales from table 4.4, 2 comparison of the rectangular-parabolic and the rectangular stress blocks provides (@ Suess resultant, Foc sectangulaz-parabolic: Ky be * 0.4 fay bx rectangular: 0.45 fo x 0.9 bx ~ 04 foubx Gi) Lever arm, z rectangular parabolic: d— k,x=d— 0.45% rectangular: d ~$x0.9x=d—0.45x So both stress blocks have almost the same moment of resistance, Fae x2, showing it i adequate to use the simpler rectangular stress block for design calculations. 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block ‘The triangular stress block applies to elastic conditions during the serviceability limit state. In practice itis not generally used in design calculations except for liguid-retaining structure, or for the calculations of crack widths and deflections 22 described in chapter 6. With the triangular strx block, the croze section con be ‘considered as, (9) cracked in the tension zone, or Gi) uncracked with the concrete resisting’a small amount of tension. 4.10.1 Cracked Seetion ‘Accracked section is shown in figure 4.27 with a stress resultant Fig acting through the centroid of the steel and Fa acting through the centroid of the triengular stress block. For equilibrium of the section Foc* Fag or OS bxfee = Ashe (4.46)2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 2 re Ee te “ TT T Z we. 5 tapdyx aeAyd =O | 4 nevtret S Solving this quadratic equation gives " axis 7 . x= Beds EVI (Ges)? +26 ceded} 4.48)" b eae 4 ne Equation 4.48 may be solved using a chart such as the one shown in figure 4.28. os ‘Equations 4.46 to 4.48 can be used to analyse a specified reinforced concrete es section Section Strain stress ie Figue 427 Trangular sen block ~ racked section oe osoz 10 and the moment of resistance Me Fog Xt" FaXt or M=05 bxfec (d — x/3) = Ashe (@ - x/3) Gan o3 (i) Analysis of a Specified Section ‘The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by converting the section into : 2 an equivalent area of conezete 28 shown in figure 4.28, where dg = E,/Ec, the Loe modular ratio. Taking area moments about the upper edge: e Z (ax) A on dl Aranstorm ° ry oa o6 > Steet Aree = x8 Egy = 04s: & ‘Figure 4.29. Newtral-axis depths for cracked rectangular sections — elastic behaviour _ : (G) Design of Stet Area, Ay with Stresses f, and F Specified Fite 4.28, Eeutolens transformed section withthe concrete racked ‘The depth ofthe neutral axis can also be expressed in terms of the stains and stress ofthe concrete and stel. Therefore From the linear strain distribution of figure 4.27 = BEKH/2+ aude a Suxlbe bx + OA, tte feciEct fale34 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Therefore oe a9)" ay Safec Equations 4.47 and 4.49 may be used to design the area of tension steel required, ata specified stres, in order to resist a given moment, Example 4.12 Analysis of a Cracked Section using a Triangular Stress Block For the section shown in figure 4.30, determine the concrete and steel stresses caused by a moment of 120 kN m, assuming a cracked section, Take Ey/E = ay = 15 >= 300 2 460 he $20 3728= eee 170mm z Figure 4.30 Analysis example with triangular tres block Ag. 151970 | bd 300x460 Using the chart of figure 4.29 or equation 4.48 gives x= 197 mm. From equation 4.47 we) 016 therefore 120x 108 therefore feo = 10:3 Nim? From equation 4.45 1 Fads= 5B fee ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 98 ‘therefore ae f= 300x 197 x 103 2 * i470 207 N fmm 4.10.2 Triangular Stress Block — Uncracked Section The concrete may be considered to resis a small zmount of tension. In this case a tonsil stress resultant Fy, acts through the centroid of the triangular stress block in the tension zone as shown in figure 4.31 Eee ‘ee a BAe cies —— Eu te re Section Strain Stress Figure 4.31. Teianguler stress Blok ~ unerocked tection For equilibrium of the section Fant Fat Fe (4.50) where Foc= 05 bx fos Fa 205 b(h-2fa and Fa Agha YYaking moments about Fee, the moment of resistance of the section is given by wenyateaseyetax(2e20-3) ase ‘The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by taking area moments about the upper edge AA of the equivalent concrete section shown in figure 4.32, such that BAX) TA 5 a is termed the modular ratio terme .96 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN —4 4 - . Tronstormes Steel Areo= | acne aT SSS Figure 4.32 Equivalent ransformed secon withthe concrete uncracked Therefore PRK HD+ aus xd bi ads ha Digrd = At 2eerd (say T# 2a ae where re Agoh From the linear proportions ofthe strain diagram in igure 431 fe (453) fa FF cee ‘Therefore as stress = £ x strain: For = Ectece (asaye Hence if the maximum tensile stzain or stress is specified, itis possible to calculate the corresponding concrete compressive and steel tensile stresses from equations 454. ‘The equations derived can be used to analyse a given cross-section in order to determine the moment of resistance of the uncracked section, as for liquid- retsining structures. This is illustrated further by examples in chapter 11 Example 4.12 Analysis of an Uneracked Section For the section shown in figure 4.30, calculate the serviceability moment of resistance with no cracking of the concrete, given fy = 3 N/mm?, £, = 30kN/mmm? and £, = 200 N/mm? ! ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION ” 4s, 1470 in” 50x52 Ex. 200 E, ye He Pagrd Tose 1 520+2 6.67 x0.0094 «460 2¥2 x667 x 00094 Sat ¢ =) ete (460 ~ 272) 6.67 x3 (520 — 272) MAS (- 2)+h9@-Dex ae = 667 =272.mm 15.2. N/mm? ++ ans) =1470x152 (40-22) rot + 1 x300(520-272)x3 x (2 «272+ 2620-272) 10 3 3 383 +38.7=47kNmShear, Bond and Torsion ‘This chapter deals with the theory and derivation of the design equations for sheer, ‘bond and torsion. Some of the more practical factors governing the choice and srrangoment of the reinforcement are dealt with in the chapters on member design, particularly chapter 7, which contains examples of the design and detailing of shear nd torsion reinforcement in besms. Punching shear caused by concentrated loads on slabs is covered in section 8.2 of the chapter on slab design. 5.1 Shear Figure 5.1 represents the distribution of principal stresses across the span of a homogeneous concrete beam. The diection of the principal compressive stresses ‘takes the form of an arch, while the tensile stresses have the curve ofa catenaty or suspended chain, Towards mid-pan, where the shear is low and the bending stresses are dominant, the direction of the stresses tens to be parallel to the beam xis, Near the supports, where the shearing forces are greater, the principal stresses are inclined at a steeper angle, so that the tensile stresses ae liable to cause ‘agonal cracking. Ifthe diagonal teasion exceeds the limited tensile strength of ‘the concrete then shear reinfoccement must be provided. This reinforrament is ‘either in the form of (1) stirrups, or (2) inclined bars (used in conjunction with stirrups). ‘Diagonal tension Téhsion Figure S.1-Prinipel eres ina bear. 38 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 99 ‘The shear in a reinforced concrete besm without shear reinforcement is carried by a combination of three main components. These are (concrete in the compression zone (3) doweling action of tensile reinforcement (Gi) aggregate interlock across flexural cracks. ‘The actual behaviour is complex, and difficult to analyse theoretically, but by applying the results from many experimental investigations, reasonable simplified procedures for analysis and design have been developed. SLI Stirrups {In order to derive simplified equations the action ofa reinforced concrete beam in shear is represented by an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement forms the bottom chord, the stirrups are the vertical members and the concrete acts as the diagonal and top chord compression members as indicated in figure 5.2. In the truss shown, the stirrups are spaced ata distance equal to the effective depth (2) of the beam so that the diagonal concrete compression members are at tn angle of 45°, which more or less agrees with experimental observations of the cracking of reinforced concrete beams close to their supports. Figure 5.2 Stimupe andthe enalogous truss100 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In the analogous tras, et Age be the crosesectonsl aes of the tw legs ofthe stip fy be the chareteristic strength ofthe sirup reinforcement be the shear force due to the ultimate loads Using the method of sections it can be son section XX in the figure that a the ultimate imi tate the fore fn. the vetalstnrup member must equal he. shear force V, that is 1 087 fyvdey = 7 or - 087 fyAey = bd - 6.1) where y= V/ba isthe average shear stress on the section, ‘When the stirrup spacing i less than the effective depth, a series of super- {imposed equivalent trusses may be considered, so thatthe force to be resisted by the stinup is reduced proportionally. Thus ifs, = the stirrup spacing equation 5.1 becomes 087 Fd =e (%) with chin Uf Ag 2%. wy ORT iy Since the concrete is also capable of resisting a limited amount of shear this ‘equation is rewritten as, (6.2 in stes that can be resisted by the concrete, Vales of Ye are fen infable'S Tecan be en Font he ble Wat Fores for callow Temblrs and those with larger personage of ten reinforcement, The lng. inal tension bars contribute to the shear resistance by their dowelling action and they aso help to prevent shear cracks fom sonmencing at small tenon crack, Tobe active, thes Sension bar should continue an effective depth, beyond ‘the section, or at a support they should be adequately curtailed and anchored. Cost supports, sections he an enhanced shear esistance owing apart to the induced compressive stretses fom ihe concentrated reaction andthe steeper angle of the failure plane, which would normally occur at angle of 30° to the hortontal for an outelnforeed section. Within distance of 2d from a sppott or a concentrated load the design concrete shear stress ¥, may. reased to Fil The sane 6 nesured fom the suppor or concentated load to lion boing deine This echancement is useful when designing beams with Concentrated lads near oa support, or with corbels and pie cap, "Asa simplified approach for beans carying mainly uniformly distributed loads, the critical section for design may be taken at a distance d from the face of the SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 101 “Table 51 Value of ultimate shear stress v= (N/mim®) for a concrete strength of fa, = 30 N/mm? Effective depth (am) Wood, ba 150 175200225280 300-400 <015 046 (044 «043041040 (0.38(_ 036 025 0S4 «02050049 O08 050 068 = 0.66.4 = 62089 OST 053 O75 076 075 072 070 069 064 061 100 086 «083080 0.78 «0.75, 0.72 0.87 150 098 095 091 088 086) 083 0.76 200 1.08 «1041.01.87 085 OT 08s 33000 «123 «119115, 1081.04 0.97 "For characterise stengts other than 30 N/mm? the values inthe table may be multiplied by (e251? ).06. The valve of fey should not be greater than 40 N/mm? support using the value of yg from table 5.1 in equation 5.2. The shear links ‘equired shoufd then continue to the face ofthe support ‘Lage shearing forces ae also liable to cause crushing of the concrete along the directions of the principal compressive stresses, and therefore atthe face of a support the average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8 Wifey OF SN/mav "The areas and spacings ofthe stizups can be calculated from equation 5.2 Rearrangement ofthe equation gives the shearing resistance fora given stirrup size and spacing thus: aaa Shear resistance =» b= (= x 087 Soe * 9) a 63) Further information on the practicel details end design examples are given in section 7.3 (Design for Shea). 5.12 Benup Bars ‘To resist the shearing forces, bars may be bent up near the supports as shown in figure 5.3. The bent-up bars and the concrete in compression are considered to act, as en analogous lattice girder and the shear resistance of the bars is determined by taking a section XX through the girder. From the geometry of part (a) of the figure, the spacing of the bent-up bers is fy =(@— a") (cot a+ cot 6) and at the section XX the shear resistance of the single bar is 87 fyeAay sin 6.4) where yp is the cross-sectional area of the bent-up bar,102 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Anchorage [Terain 7] syrlo-c'leain-cotp) petsaaitectaceat} (0) Single System (©) Multisie system Figures.3. Bentup bare For a multiple system of bent-up bars, 2s in part (b) of the figure, the shear resistance is increased proportionetely to the spacing, sp. Hence (4-4) (otat cot) V=O8T fyyAyy sina @5) ‘The angles @ and B should both be greater than or equal to 45° and the code requires that the spacing sy has a maximum value of 1.5d. With a'= = 45° and y= (dd), equation 5.5 becomes V=123 fden 6.6) and this arrangement is commonly referred to as a double system. Example 5.1 Shear Resistance a Section Determine the shear resistance of the beam shown in figure 5.4, which cartes a uniformly distributed load. The characteristic strengths ae: fyy = 250 N/mm? for the stirs, Zyy = 460 Nimes for the bentup bars and foy © 30 Nim? for the concrete 1O0Ay _ 100982 9 45 bd” 350x650 ‘Thus, from table 5.1, ve = 0.5 N/mm? by interpolation, Cross-sectional area of 2 size 12 bar = 113 mm? SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 103 12 sticrups ot 100 s0eg 50 1A] J * L fhe Double System 725 bent upbors Section Auge 491 qm aach ‘ 2 ores fe + Bezsamnm Fipse $4. Beem with straps nd bens bar Thus, forth stirups, Ay /ty “Dy 113/100= 2.26, 7 The shear resistance oto tarp pls the concrete is given by equation 5.3 as rox 42081 fd + gd = 2.26 x087 x250 x650-+350.x0.5 x 650 = (319 + 114) x 10? N=433 x 10° N ‘The bentup bars are arranged in a double system. Hence the shear resistance of the bent-up bars is Vy = 123 yyy = 1.23 x 460 x 491 =278x 10° N ince ofthe stirrups, concrete and bent-up bars is therefore V=V, 4 Vy = (433 +278) 10" LIX ION Tt should be noted that the shear resistance of 319 KN provided by the stirrups is greater than the shear resistance of the bent.up bars, 278 KN, as required by BS 8]10. It should also be checked that at the face of the support V7bd does not exceed. the eer of 08 Vf, of Noun. 5.2 Anchorage Bond ‘The reinforcing bar subject to direct tension shown in figure 5.5 must be firmly. anchored if it is not to be pulled out of the concrete. Bars subjected to forces induced by flexure must similarly be anchored to develop their design stresses. The104 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN anchorage depends on the bond between the bar and the concrete, and the area of ‘contact. Let L =rsinimum anchorage length to prevent pull out ® = bar size or nominal diameter fou "ultimate anchorage bond stress = the direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar Figo 5.5. Anchorage bond Considering the forces on the bar tensile pullout force = bar's cross-sectional area x direct stress @ “a fs + anchorage force contact aren x anchorage bond stress = (Ln®) x fou therfore ij we - (x) fey = xh hence . A 7 ans wh : and when f, = 0.874, the ultimate tensile or compressive stes, the anchorage length O87 Sy ‘ = 28h : L aie o (.7y ‘The design ultimate anchorage bon sei, fais obtained from te equation Sou “Bhs 68) ‘The coefficient 6 depends on the bar type and whether the bar is in tension or compression. Values off are given in tabie 5.2 Equation 5.7 may be rewritten as anchorage length L = K4® SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 105 Table $.2 Value of bond coefficient a Bar type Barsin Basin tension comprestion Phin bars 028 035 “Type 1: deformed bas 040 050 Type: deformed bere 050 O68 Fabse ass oat Values of Ka corresponding to the anchorage of tension end compression bers for various gredes of concrete and reinforcing bars have been tabulated inthe appendix. "Anchorage may also be provided by hooks or bends inthe reinforcement; their anchorage values are indicate in figure 5.6. When a bent bar or hook is used, the bearing stesson the inside of the bend should be checked as described in section 13.2 and example 78, lo) Anchorage velue = £4 but not greater thon 126 + Ib) Anchorage volue = BF but not greater than 24g oe wtb For mild steel bors minimum = 28 For high yield bors minimum © = 38 oF LB for sizes 25mm and obove Figure 6 Anchorge vue for bends and hooks Example 5,2 Calelaton of Anchorage Length Determine the length of tension anchorage required for the 25 mm diameter plain il tet reinforcing bars in the cantilever of figure 5.7. The characteristic material strengths are fay = 30 N)men® and fy = 250 N/mm? The ultimate anchorage bond stes, Foy = BVfay = 0.28/30 = 1.5 Nimm? (see table 5.2).106 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN HS anchorage langth « (os 825 bors a ae I Figure S.7. Anchorage for a cantilever beam O8Thy 5 4 Fo = 0.87 x 250 4x15 ‘Anchorage length L x25 =36.2x25 therefore L=910mm 5.3 Laps in Reinforcement Lapping of reinforcement is often necessary to transfer the forces from one bar to another. The rules for this are: (2) The laps should preferably be staggered and be away from sections with high stresses. (2) The minimum tap length should be not less than the greater of| 154 or 300 mm for bars 7250 mm for fabric (3) Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage length, but in certain conditions this should be increased as shown in figure 5.8, according to the following rules. (@ At the top of a seetion and with minimum cover <2 multiply by 1.4 (®) At comers where minimum cover to either face <2 or clear spacing between adjacent laps <75 mm or 6 multiply by 14 (©) Where both (a) and (b) apply multiply by 20 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 107 ‘The concrete at the top of a member is generally less compacted and also tends to have 2 greater water content, resulting in a lower concrete strength. Also, at the comners of members there is less confinement of the reinforcement, For these reasons longer lap lengths are required st these focations. (® Compression aps should be at least 25 per cent greater than the com- pression anchorage length. (5) Lap lengths for unequal size bars may be based on the smaller ba. A table of minimum lap lengths is included in the appendix, Length of top —_——r4 ©) Raintercement lao lap length = ancrorage lengin xo x na ') Increased tap lengths FigureS.8. Lopping of enforcing bas 5.4 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsional Moments ‘Torsional moments produce shear stresses which result in principal tensile stresses, inlined at approximately 45° tothe longitudinal axis ofthe member. Diagonal cracking occurs when these tensile stresses exceed the tes strength ofthe con. ete, The cracks will form a spizal around the member asin figure 5.9, Reinforcement inthe form of closed links and longitudinal bars will carry the forces from increasing torsional moment after cracking, by truss action with reinfozcement as tension members and concrete as compressive struts between links, Fauc will eventually occur by reinforeement yielding, coupled with crush ing of the concrete along kine AA asthe cracks on the other faces open wp. eis asumed that once the torsional shear stress ona section exceeds the value to cause cracking, tesion reinforcement in the form of closed links must be provided to resist the full torsional moment,108 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Creek tines Figure 5.9. Torsone! ercking Figure 5.10. Torsional reinforcement Tension fecela nk P= 45.087 fy ‘moment of force F about centre line =F ae for vertical leg and =P} 2 where Agy = cross-sectional area of the two legs of a link. The total torsional ‘moment provided by one closed link is, therefore, given by the sum of the moments ‘due to each Jeg of the link about the centre line of the section, thet js for horizontal leg rePy24F 2h SxaeR 2} x2 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 109 ‘Where links exe provided at a distance s, apart, the torsional resistance of the system of Hinks is obtained by multiplying the moments due to each leg in the stbove expressions by the number of legs crossing each crack, This aumber is given. by pdb for vertical legs and x, jy for horizontal legs if i is assumed that all cracks ave approximately st 45°. ‘The total torsional resistance then becomes Aw um +42 (0.87 fy) 2 x2 AB(ostiy) x2 Hence po Ae x,y O87 hy) X08 Be ‘The efficiency factor of 0.8 is included to allow for errors in essumptions made sbout the truss behaviour. ‘Hence closed links must be provided such that A r dey ___T__ fy 0B xy: (0.87 fy) “To ensure the proper action of these links, longitudinal bass evenly distributed round the inside perimeter of the links must be provided. This reinforcement ‘Mhich resists the Longitudinal component of the diagonal tension forces shoul be ‘ch that the total quantity is equal to the seme volume as the steel in the links, fuitably adjusted to allow for differing strengths, This is given by ate fe een) where fy it the characteristic yield stength of longitudinal reiaforeement. ee ee cd amounts of torsional reinforcement must be provied in adeition to dh full bending and sheer einforcement requirements fr the ulm load sae don comepondng to the torsional moment considered. Where ongtudinal Sane crccorent required, the adetonal torsional steel area may ether be ene ncauing tke sae of bars provided, or by adional bars. A member are eligned for torsion plus bendy o shear wl require tobe hesily reinforced. Terr distance between longitudinal torsion bars must not exceed 300 mm, and. itenam af four bre must be used in ach ink. All osion sel must also ene na leat equal tothe niger member diension past the potnt at Snel cis not required to rest torsion, to ensure that al posible eecks ae Edequately protected eat Prat shear stress ona section canbe determined by avrety of methods BS 8110 recommends a plastic analysis such that, fora rectangular seotion or 7 Fast Gimux — Pani)10 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘where Fai isthe smaller dimension of the section, Fmge is the larger dimension of the section, or 42 <7 fora thin hollow section ai ‘where fy isthe wall thickness and A isthe area enclosed by the centre-ine of the walls Ifthe sum of wall thicknesses of a hollow section exceeds one-quarter of the overall dimension, this should be treated as solid ‘A soction having 2 T-, L- or [shape should be divided into component rectangles ‘to maximise the function E(Pimin? imax). The torsion shear stress on each rectangle should then be calculated by considering the rectangle as cerrying a torsional moment of Poi? ey (tei Ges 5) Torsion reinforcement will be required if the torsional shear stress vy exceeds the ‘capacity of the concrete section. It has been found experimentally that this value is related spproximately tothe square root of the characteristic concrete cube strength, and the limiting value recommended by BS 8110 is min ™0.067 Vf Bot not more than 04 Na? Torsion Combined with Bending and Shear Stress ‘Torsion is seldom present alone, and in most practical situations wil be combined with shear and bending stresses, (a) Shear Stresses Diagonal cracking starts on the side of a member where torsional and shear stresses are additive. The shear force has a negligible effect on ultimate torsional strength when V< v¢bd, the shear strength of the concrete section, but once diagonal, cracks form, the torsional stiffness is reduced considerably. “To ensuie that crushing of the concrete does not occur (Figure 5.9) the sum of the shear and torsion stresses on a section should not be excessive so that >on where Yeu 08Vfey or SNmm? ‘Additionally inthe case of small sections where y, is less than 550 mm Pes 2 350 must be satisfied to prevent spalling of the corners. ‘The recommendations for reinforcement to resist a combination of sheai and torsion are given in table 7.3. SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION ut (b) Bending Stresses When a bending moment is present, diagonal cracks will usually develop from the ‘top of the flexural cracks. The flexural cracks themselves only slightly reduce the ‘torsional stiffness, provided that the diagonal cracks do not develop. The final mode ‘of failure will depend on the distribution and quantity of reinforcement present. Figure 5.11 shows a typical ultimate moment and ultimate torsion interaction ccurve for a section. As can be seen, for moments up to approximately 0.8M@, the section can also resist the full ultimate torsion 7. Hence no calculations for torsion are generally necessary for the ultimate limit state of reinforced concrete unless torsion has been included in the original analysis or is required for equilibrium, oa Figure .11 Combined bending ond torion6 Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements ‘The concept of serviceability iit states has been introduced in chapter 2, and for reinforced concrete structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical rules which affect the detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be desized to estimate the behaviour of a member under working conditions, and mathematical methods of estimating deformations and cracking mast be used. The design of water-retaining structures, and prestressed concrete, are both based primarily on the avoidance or limitation of cracking and these ae considered separately in other chapters, ‘Where the foundations of a strlcture are in contact with the ground, the pres- sures developed will influence the amount of settlement that is likely to occur. To _ensuce_that these movements are limited to aeceptable values and are similsr ‘throughout a structure, the sizes of foundations necessary are based on the service loads for the structure. Durability is necessary to ensure that a structure remains serviceable through- out it lifetime. This requirement wil pects of design, such as concrete ‘mix selection and determination of co inforcing bats a well as selection aterials for the exposure conditions which are expected. Good con- struction procedures including adequate curing are also essential if reinforced concrete is to be durable, Simplified rules governing the selection of cover, member dimensions, and rein forcement detaling are given in section 6.1 and 6.2, while more rigorous procedures for caleulation of actual deflections and crack widths are described in sections 6.3 10'6.5. Durability and fire resistance are discussed in section 6.6. ‘The stability ofa steucture under accidental loadings, although an ultimate limit state analysis, will usually take the form of a check to ensure that empirical rules designed to give a reasonable minimum resistance against misuse or accident are saUified, Like serviceability checks, this will often merely involve detaiting of reinforcement and not affect the total quantity provided. Stability requirements are described in section 6.7. SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 113, 6.1 Detailing Requirements ‘These ae to ensure that a structure has satisfactory durability and serviceability performance under normal circumstances, BS 8110 recommends simple rlescon- Eeming the concrete mix and cover to ceinforcement, ninimaum member dimmen- sions, and limits to reinforcement quantities and spacings which must be taken into account at the member sizing and reinforcement detailing stages. Reinforce- ment. Reet eased by cablio coun eran daa hich have Sendiniied nseetone Dads 6.1.1 Minimum Concrete Mix and Cover (Exposure Conditions) “These requirements are interrelated, and BS 8110 specifies minimum combinations of thickness of cover and mix charactristis for various exposure conditions. The mixes ae expressed in ters of minimum cement content, maximum Water] cement ratio und corresponding minimum stength grade These basic requisements fe given in table 6.1 “The nominel cove is that to al see), and allows for a maximum fixing tole ange of 5 mm. Adjustments must be made to cement contents i diferent aggregate sizes are used, and details ofthese and other possible modifications are sven in BS 8110, 6.1.2 Minimum Member Dimensions and Cover (Fite Resistance) [BS 8110 also provides tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal ‘covers for various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the ‘member to withstand fire for a specified period of time. These are summarised in tables 6.2 and 63, 6.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Reinforcement Tecan be seen that the spacing is resricted according to the amount of moment redistribution applied, Any bar of diameter less than 0.45 times that of the largest bar ine section must be ignored when epplying these spacings. Bars adjacent to ones ers of beams must not be more. than, one-half of the slear distance. given in 4 fromthe comer, ies for slabs permit greater spacings under specified conditions as follows: (@) If <200 mm with high yield steel (f = 460 N/mm?) } oc (b) Tf} < 250 mm with Mild steel (f, = 250 Nlmm?) t or (@) Hf 100 A,/bd'<03 percent | then the maximum clas spacing between brs should not exced 750 mm or 32, whichover is smaler ~ud REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Table 6.1 Nominal cover and mix requirements for normal wei ‘maximum size agaregate concrete ‘Nominal cover to ail reinforcement (ram) Environment classification ‘Mild: for example, protected against ‘weather or aggressive conditions asia 20k 1208 20 eee 20) ‘Moderate: for example, sheltered from severe rain and freezing while wet; subject to condensation or continuously under water; in contact, with non-aggressive soil - 35 302520 Severe: for exemple, exposed to ‘severe rain; alternate wetting and drying; occasional freezing or severe condensation 0) 30) Very Severe: for example, exposed to sea water spray, de-icing salts, corrosive funes or severe wet freezing sor 40" 30 Extreme: for example, exposed to abrasive action (sea water and solids, flowing acid water, machinery or vehicles) coe 0) Maximum free water/cement ratio 065 060 055 050 045 Minimum cement content (kg/m?) 275 300-325-350, 400 Lowest conorete grade C3035, CHO. CaS CSD "Bntrained aie required for wet frectng ‘Table 6.2 Nominal cover for fire resistance Fire ‘Nominal cover to al reinforcement (min) resistance (hours) Beams Floors Ribs —— « ———— —— —__ Conn a a Os 2 20. «2 2 20 20 10 P20 ee 20) ee 20 20 701 20) 20 15 2 2 2% 20 35 20 20 20 40 3000355 aSE 5 2s 30 oor 40 ase 35 soe 45 cy 40 tie Ee gy “Additions messures necessary to reduce risk of spalling SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 115 ‘Table 6.3 Minimum dimensions of RC members for fire resistance (nominal cover requirements satisfied) Fhe Minimum dimensions (mm) resistence (hours) Exposed Wail thicknesses Beam Rib Floor. column -—————— width width thickness wieth 48 <4 > 1.0% os 200125 15 150 150 75 10 200125 95 200 150 15 1s 200 125 110 250 115 100 20 200128 125 300 100 30 240 150150400 150 40 20 © 175 170 500 180 ‘Table 6.4 Maximum clear spacings (mm) for tension bars in beams % Moment redistribution ty 30 ~-20~«OCHSCHSCCO. 250 «210 «240«=-270 «300» 300300300 460 11S 130145160 180195. 210 ‘IF none of these apply, the maximum spacing should be taken as that given in table 6.4, except that ifthe ratio 1004, /bd is less than 1.0, the values from table 64 should be divided by that ratio, If the amount of moment redistribution is unknown when using table 64 for slabs, zero should be assumed for span moments and —15 per cent for support moments, 6.1.4 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement ‘To permit concrete flow around reinforcement during construction the minimum clear gap between bars, or groups of bars, should exceed (gg + > mm) horizon- tally and (2hagg/3) vertically, where Agg is the maximum size of the coarse aggre. ste, The gap must also exceed the bar dizmeter, or in the case of ‘bundled bars’ ‘the diameter of a bar of equivalent total cross-sectional area 6.1.5 Minimum Areas of Reinforcement For most purposes, thermal and shrinkage cracking may be controlled within acceptable Limits by the use of minimum reinforcement quantities specified by BS 8110, although requirements of water-retaining structures will be more strin gent (se chapter 11). The principal requirements ace summarised in table 6.5, although other requirements inelude 0.15 percent transverse reinforcement in the top surfaces of flanges in flanged besms and 0.25 percent (High veld) or 0.0 per cent (Mid ste!) anticrac stel in plain walls (ber diameter <6 mm or116 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘one-quarter diameter of vertical compressive bars). Requirements for shear links ‘and column binders are given in sections 7.3 and 9.3 respectively, Table 6.5 Minimum reinforcement areas Tighyele Mid seel steel (fy =250 (y= 460 N/mm?) ‘Nimm?) Tension reinforcement (1) Pure tension 100A JA, = 08% = 045% (2) Flexure Pieniemie) k ake ee es ee ee re a ee re oe @) Rect. column or wall 10odgiae (3) Flanged beam oe OM ee Sopeammre tet 6.1.6 Maximum Areas of Reinforcement ‘These are determined largely from the practice] need to achieve adequate com- paction of the concrete azound reinforcement. The limits specified by BS 8110 are a5 tollows (2) Fora Slab or Beam, Longitudinal Steel 0A, 4, 1004p oh oh ‘Where bars are lapped, the sum of the bar sizes ina layer must not be greater than 40 per cent of the section breadth. () Fora Column not greater than 4 per cent each 100, not greater than 6 por cont if cast vert me Rot por cent if cast vertically not greater than 8 per cent if cast horizontally not greater than 10 per cent at laps in either case ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 117 6.1.7 Side Face Reinforcement in Beams Where beams exceed 750 rom indepth, longitudinal bars should be provided near fide face ata spacing > 250 mm over a distance 2/3 from the tension face {These bar, which ray be used in cxlulating the moment of resistance, must have 2 diameter > W/(sybffy) where isthe bar spacing and 8 the breadth ofthe Section (or 500 mm iors) a dicated in igre 6.1 St Figure 6.1 Side face reinforcement in Beams 6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios [BS 8110 specifies a set of basic span-effective depth ratios to control deflections ‘hich are given in table 6.6 for rectangular sections and for flenged bears with spans less than 10 m. Where the web width ofa flanged beam by > 0.3, linear {interpolation should be used between the values for a flanged beam and a rectan- gular section. Ratios for spans > 10 m are factored as in example 6.1 ‘Table 6.6 Basic span-effective depth ratios Rectangular Flanged rection (by <0.38) ES Cantilever 7 36 Simply supported 20 160 Continuous 26 208 ‘The basic ratios given in table 6.6 are modified in particular cases eccording to (a) The service stress in the tension steel and the value of M/bd?, 2s shown in table 6.7, which i also presented in the form of a chart in igure 8.4 (B) The ares of compression steel as in table 6.8 ‘The area of tension reinforcement provided is related to the value of M/bd”, thus lower values of service stress and M/bd? will result in smaller depths of neutral axis x. This effect will reduce deflections due to creep, as there willbe les of the18 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN section subject to compressive stresses. Compression reinforcement restrain creep and using equation 6.11 be Ok=2) @ =x) fo ~ “SEA, (@ 3) ‘The maximum crack width will our either at postion 1 or 2 indicated on figure 6.15; thus140 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Position y ey ae x 107? 1 605 (10 +708)-20=79 1000 1.28 2 ae =268 (70? #268*)-20=257 662058 Minimum cover, Cin = 50 mim; thus at position 1 em = (1.24 #002000 = 394) (1000 — 394) ) 9-9 3x 200 x3770 (930 — 394) 1210-7 and equation 6.10 gives ve Bde én 12 ( See= Simin = 3x79 x 112x107 (as) and similarly at position 2 £0.24 mm 400 (1000 ~ 394) (662 3 in = [05s - x10 “ [ 3 x 200 x3770 (03 =050x 107? thus 3x257 «0.50% 107 et =0.23 mm ‘The maximum crack width of 0.24 mm is therefore likely to occur at the bottom comers of the member, and the cracks are likely to be at an average spacing of 1.67dq, = 1.67 x 79 = 130 mm at these positions. Cracks of similar width may ‘occur on side faces at spacing of approximately 1.67 x 257 ~ 430 mm 64.4 Control of Crack Widths Its apparent from the expressions derived above that there are two fundamental ways in which surface crack widths may be reduced. (2) Reduce the stress in the einforcement (f,). (2) Reduce the distance to the nearest bar (2,). ‘The use of steel at reduced stresses is generally uneconomical, and although this approach is used in the design of water-retaining structures where cracking must often be avoided altogether, itis generally easier to limit the bar cover and spacing SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 141 and hence dg. Durability requirements limit the minimum value of cover; however bars should be as close to the concrete surface as is allowed. Reinforcement spacing say be reduced by keeping bar diameters as small as is reasonably possible. ‘Since the side face of « beam is often 2 critical crack-width position itis good practice to consider the provision of longitudinal steel in the side faces of beams ‘of moderate depth, Recommendations regarding this, and spacing of main rein- forcement, are given by BS 8110 ané are discussed in section 6.1. If these recom mendations are followed, it isnot necessary to calculate crack widths except in ‘unusual circumstances. Reinforcement detailing however, hs been shown to have a lesge effect on flexural cracking, and must in practice be a compromise between the requirements of cracking, durability and constructional ease and costs. ia ' ie r 1 bE Figure 6.16 Force djacent to @ crack 6.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking ‘Thermal and shrinkage effects, and the stresses developed prior to cracking of the concrete were discussed in chapter 1. After cracking, the equilibrium of concret adjacent to a crack is illustrated in figure 6.16. ‘Equating tension and compression forces Asfa = Acker ~ Aslec or fae at he) it the condition is considered when stel and concrete simultaneously reach their Jimiting values in tension, thats, f= fy and fa = fe = tense strength of concrete at appropriate age — usually taken a three days. Then Asa hk Ae iy+he where ris the steel ratio. ‘The value of fi can be caloulated but is generally very small and may be taken as zero without introducing undue inaccuracy; hence the critical value of stel ratio reat © 42 = & approximately 612)" a = TE = 7 approximately (612) If the steel ratio is less than this value, the steel will yield in tension resulting in & few wide cracks; however if itis greater then more cracks wil be formed when the142 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN tensile stress caused by bond between the ent ses cid he stee] and concrete exceeds the concrete SosEuy> fre erage bond stress jevelopment length along a bar where fi 5 2u,= sun of perimeter tlfeeeent For around bar * 4a teh A PO Mane, ince : oe Aa, foram - bun He 7 and tvs o> ft Athy ‘The maximum crack pacing is vie th sete tht vale immediately prior tothe ora OF ave cack, atone elpment ington bother seis at Sma = 22 mm (6.13)" Ceack pacing and hence wit, therefor and hence width, therefor, governed bth by the infor stand guy vase teal aun, hich thal bs ten ws requirement for controlled c1 ruse eimai ercorrled csi Empl oe 6.5.1 Crack Width Calculation The expressions for crack spacing assume thatthe total ther be expen me al and shin Ese alabama oer oveer cracks may not alvays occur. Is possible to estimate however the max smn crac with ely to seu by considering total cont contacto in " 20% >50 SRPCarssC 3705 + protection oo ‘Nore: These values relate to dense concrete with 20 mm max. agrepte ste,146 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Physical attack of the concrete must also be considered, This may come from abrasion or attrition as may be caused by sand or shingle, and by alternate wetting ‘and deying, The letter effect is particularly important in the case of marine strac~ {fores neat the water surface, and causes stresses to develop if the movernents produced are restrained. Iti also possible for erystal growth to occur from drying Gut of see water in cracks and pores, and this may cause further internal stresses, leading to cracking. Alternate freezing and thawing is another major cause of physical damage, particularly in roed and runway slabs and other situations where ‘vater in pores and cracks cen freeze and expand thus leading to spalling. It has ‘Yoen found that the entrainment of a small percentage of air in the concrete in the form of small discrete bubbles offers the most effective protection against this form cof attack. Although this reduces the strength of the concrete, itis recommended that 43 2 1.5 percent by volume of entrained air should be included in concrete ‘subjected to regular wetting and drying combined with severe frost. "Al these forms of attack may be minimised by the production of a dense, well- compacted concrete with low permeability, thus restricting damage to the surface one of the member. Aggregates which are likely to react with the aksli matrix TRould be avoided, as must those which exkibit unusually high shrinkage character ‘sti. If this is done, then permeability, and hence dursbility, is affected by Q) aggregate type and density (2) water-cement retio (3) degree of hydration of cement (4) degree of compaction. [A Jow water-cement ratio is necessary to limit the votds due to hydration, which ‘must be well advanced with the assistance of good curing techniques. Coupled ‘vith this is the need for non-porous aggregates which are hard enough to resist Jny attrition, and for thorough compaction, Its essential that the mx is designed fohave adequate workability for the situation in which it is to be used, thus the cement content of the mix must be reasonebly high. 'BS 8110 specifies suiimum cement contents for various exposure conditions, ‘as well as minimom steength snd maximum water cement ratio, related to mini- ‘mum cover requirements as described in section 6.1.1, "The consequences of thermal effects on durability must not be overlooked, and ‘ery high coment contents should only be used in conjunction with a detailed ‘racking assessment. BS 5110 suggests that 550 kg/m® cement content should be regarded as an upper limit for general use. TBeovided that such measures are taken, and that adequate cover of sound concrete js given to the einforcement, deterioration of reinforced concrete is unlikely. Thus although the surface concrete may be affected, the reinforcing steel will romein protected by an alkaline concrete matrix which has not been carbonated by the Etmosphere, Once this cover breaks down and water and possibly chemicals can teach the steel], rusting and consequent expansion lead rapidly to oracking and paling of the cover conerete and severe damage ~ visualy and sometimes structurally. ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 147 6.6.2 Fire Resistance ‘Depending on the type of structure under consideration, it may be necessary to consider the fire resistance of the individual concrete members. Three conditions ‘must be examined (1) effects on structural steength (©) flame penetration resistence | in the case of dividing members (G) heat transmission properties J such es walls and slabs Concrete and ste! inthe form of reinforcement or prestressing tendons exhibit fedluced strength after being subjected to high temperatures, Although concrete has low thermal conductivity, and thus good resistance to temperature rise, the Strength begin to Crop sigificandy at temperatures above 300°C and it has a tendency to spall at high temperatures. The extent ofthis spalling is governed by the type of aggregate, with slceous materials being particularly susceptible while ‘calcareous and light-weight aggzepate concretes suffer very litle. Reinforcement Shit retain about $0 per cent ofits normal strength after reaching sbout 550°C, “while for pestessng tendons the corresponding temperature i only 400°C. “Thus 28 the temperature rises the hea is tensfered tothe interior ofa con- sete member, with 2 thermal gredient established in the concrete, This gradient Sul be affected by the area and mass ofthe member in adsition to the thermal properties of the concrete, and may lead to expansion and los of strength, Bowendenton the thickness and nature of cover, the steel will is in temperature ta ose strength, ths leading € deflections and eventual structural faiure ofthe member ifthe sae temperature becomes excessive, Design must therefore be ed a providing and tnaintaining sound cover of concrete asa protection, thus delaying the temperate rise in the steel. The presence of plaster, seeds and other non-combustible finshes exist the cover in protecting the reinforcement and may thus be allowed for in the design. BS 8110 pves tabulated values of minismum dimensions and nominal covers for various typet of concrete member which ere nevessary to permit the member £0 Twithstand fire for a speiBled period of time. Although these values, which have boon summarised in lbles 6.2 and 6.3, do not teke into account the influence of tgurepate type, they may be considesed adequate for most normal purposes. More qeeriea information concerning design for fie resistance is given in Part 2 of BS 8110 including concrete type, member type and details of finishes. The period that a member is required to survive, Both in respect of strength in relation to Working Ioals and the containment of fire, wll cepend upon the type and usage of ‘the structure ~ and minimum equirements are generally specified by building Tegulations Prestressed conerete bears must be considered separately in view of the increased vulnerability ofthe prestessng steel. 6.7 Stability While it would be unreasonable to expect a structure to withstand extremes of ‘accidental loading as may be caused by collision, explosion or similar happening, 4s important that resulting damage should not be disproportionate to the cause I¢ follows therefore that a mgjor structural collapse must not be allowed to be148 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN caused by a relatively minor mishap which may have a reasonably high probability of happening in the anticipated lifetime of the structure. ‘The possibilities ofa structure buckling or overturning under the ‘design’ loads will have been considered ae part of the ultimate limit state analysis. However, in some instances a structure will not have an adequate lateral strength even though it has been designed to resist the specified combinations of wind load and vertical load. This could be the ease if there is an explosion ora slight earth tremor, since then the lateral loads are proportional to the mass of the structure, Therefore itis recommended that a structure should always be capable of resisting a lateral force not less than 1.5 per cent of the total characteristic load acting through the centroid of the structure above any level considered, Damage and possible instability should also be guarded against wherever possible, for example vulnerable load-bearing members should be protected from colision by protective features such as banks or barriers. 6.71 Ties In addition to these precautions, the general stability and robustness of « building structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acting as ties. These ties should act both vertically between roof and foundations, and horizontally around land across each floor, and all external vertical load-bearing members should be anchored to the floors and beams. Vertteal Ties Vertical ties are not generally necessary in structures of less than five storeys, but {in higher buildings should be provided by reinforcement, effectively continuous from roof to foundation by means of proper lps, running through all vertical Ioad- beating members. This steel should be capable of resisting 2 tensile force equal to ‘the maximum design ultimate Joad carried by the column or wall from any one storey or the roof. In in situ concrete, this requirement is almost invariably satis: fied by a normal design, but joint detailing may be affected in precast work. Horizoncal Ties Horizontal ties should be provided for all buildings, irrespective of height, in three ways () peripheral tes (2) internal tes @) column and wall ties. ‘The resistance of these ties when stressed to thelr characteristic strength is given in terms ofa foree F, were F; = 60 KN or (20+ 4 x number of storeys in structure) KN, whichever isles, This expression takes into account the increased risk of an accident in a large building and the seriousness of the collapse of a tall structure (0) Peripheral Ties ‘The peripheral tle must be provided, by reinforcement which is effectively con- ‘tinwous, around the perimeter of the building at each floor and roof level. This ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 149 ‘i Vertical ties Figure 6.47 Tie forces teinforcement must lie within 1.2 m from the outer edge and at its characteristic stress be capable of resisting a force of atleast F (0) Internal Ties Internal tes should also be provided at each floor in two perpendicular directions and be anchored at each end either to the peripheral tie or to the continuous column or wal ties These ties must be effectively continuous and they may either be spread evenly across flor, or grouped at beams or wals as convenient. Where wall ate uted, the tie seinforcement mist be concentrated in the bottom .5 m. ‘The tesistancerequte is velated tothe span and loading. Intemal es most be capable of resisting a force of F, kN permite widthor [Flax + 94)/7-5] LIS KN pr metie width, f hiss rete. In this expression ete greatest horizontal stance in the direction ofthe tie between the cents of vertical loadbearng members, orifsmalle, 9x the clear slurey height insused to wideside of the teams The loading y+) KN? isthe average characters oad on unit area ofthe floor considered, Interna ies parallel to cost-wals occurring in one irec- tion ony. on pla, need only cesist te foe F, kN per metre width (©) Colurnn and Wall Ties Column and wall tes must be able to resist a force of at least 3 per cent of the total vertical ultimate load for which the member has been designed. Additionally, the resistance provided must not be less than the smaller of 2, or Flo/2.5 KN Where ip isthe floor to ceiling height in metres. Wall ties are assessed on the basis of the above forces acting per metre length of the wall, while column tes aze con- ‘entrated within 1 m either side of the column centre line. Particular care should be taken with corner columns to ensure they are tied in two perpendicular irections150 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In considering the structure subjected to accidental loading itis assumed that no otter forees are acting, thus reinforcement provided for other purposes may tlso act as tes. Indeed, peripheral and internal ties may also be considered to be acting as column or wall tes. Full anchorage lergth (Uit.enchoroge bond g a ane ET to w te Anchorage Recuiramants for interno! Ties 4, J) 28 as (DIErt) 4g Full anchorage tength os in (a) Anchorage Raguiremants for Column & Wall Ties Figure 6.18 anchorage of tee ‘As with vertical ties, the provision of horizontal tes for in stu construction will seldom affect the amount of reinforcement provided, Detailing ofthe rein- forcement may however be affected, and particular attention must be paid to the ‘manner in which intemal ties are anchored to peripheral tis. The requirements for the full anchorage of ties are illustrated in figure 6.18. If these are not met, then ‘he assumed stresses inthe ties must be reduced appropriately. Precast concrete construction however presents a more serious problem since ‘the requirements of tie forces and simple easily constructed joints are not always compatible. Unless the required tie forces can be provided with the bars anchored bby hooks and bends in the case of column and wall ties, an analysis of the structure ‘must be performed to assess the remaining stability after a specified degree of structural damage, ‘SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 151 Example 6.6 Stability Ties Calculate the stability ties required in an eight storey building of plan ares shown in figure 6.19 Cer storey height under beams = 2.9 m Floor to celing height (lh) = 3.4m Characteristic dead load (gy) = 6 KN/m? Characteristic tie load (gy) = 3 kN Im? Characteristic steel strength (fj) = 460 N/mm? F,= (20+ 4x numberof storeys) 20+ 4x8=52KN<60 iN Precast floor slob [ongitusinal beam Trenaverse 4 boys @ 6:8m=26m Figure 6.19 (@) Peripheral tes Force to be resisted = F = 52. KN Bar area required = 22410 2313 am? 460 ‘This could be provided by one T12 bar. (6) Incernal ties = Fiera) ,£ Force to be resisted = “tk *@e) Ly por metre 15 cleecamnes (1) Transverse direction 52(6+3) Force = 52(6*3) 7.4 kNm> Fy, ree I RN/m> F, Force per bay = 87.4 6.5 = 568.1 kN ‘Therefore, bar area required in each transverse interior beem is152 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 568110 1995 mn? A ‘This could be provided by 4720 bars (2) Longitudinal direction 5206 +3) 65 ETD) 8 asi enim> Se 2 = 81.1 kNIm> F ‘Therefore force along length of building = 81.1 x 7 = 567.7 KN, hence bar area required in each Iongitudinal beam is 567.710" 2x 460 ‘This could be provided by 2720 bers, Force = =617 mm? (3) Colum tes Porce to be designed for is (8) Ae 25, 0r3 per cent of ultimate floor load on a column is 3 2 8 [2 Gaxerrexsyxese? ie 6x3) zl To allow for 3 per cent of column self;weight, take design force to be 75 KN, sey, at each floor level, = 163 mm? ‘Area of tes required = 75X10" 460 ‘Tas would be provided by 1720 and incoxpovated with the internal tes (©) Vertical ties ‘Maximum column load from one storey is epproximately equal to (16x34 14x 6)x3.5 x65 = 300.3 KN ‘Therefore bar area required throughout etch cofumn is equal to 300.3 x 10° 460 ‘This would be provided by 4116 bars. = 653 mm? SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 153 6.7.2 Analysis of Damaged’ Structure ‘This must be undertaken when a structure has five or more storeys and does not comply with the vertical-tie requirements, or when every precest floor or zaof unit does not have sufficient anchorage to resist a force equal to F, KN per metre width scting in the direction of the span, The analysis must show that each key lozd- bearing member, is connections, and the horizontal members which provide lateral support, are able to withstand 2 specified loading from any direction, If this cannot be satistied, then the analysis must demonstrate thet the removal of any single vertical load-bearing element, other than key members, at each storey ‘in turn will not zesult in collapse ofa sigaificant part ofthe structure. ‘The minimum loading that may act from any direction on a key member is recommended as 34 kN/m? in BS 8110. The decision as to what loads should be considered acting is left to the engineer, but will generally be on the basis of| permanent and realistic live-loading estimates, depending on the building usage. ‘This method is attempting therefore to assess quantitatively the effects of excep- ‘onal loading such as explosion. The design ‘pressure’ must thus be regarded as @ somewhat arbitrary value. ‘The ‘pressure’ method will generally be suitable for application to columns in precast framed structures; however, where precast load-bearing penel construction is being used an approach incorporating the removal of individual elements may ‘be mote appropriate. In this case, vertical loadings should be assessed as desorbed, and the structure investigated to determine whether iti able to remain standing by a different structural action. This action may include parts of the damaged structure behaving asa cantilever ora catenary, and it may also be necessary to consider the strength of non-Joad-bearing partitions or cladding. Whichever approach is adopted, such analyses are tedious, and the provision of effective tie forces within the structure should be regarded as the preferred solu tion both from the point of view of design and performance. Continuity reinforcement and good detailing will greatly enhance the overall, fire resistance of a structure with respect to collapse. A fire-damaged structure with reduced member strength may even be likened to a structure subjected to accidental overload, and analysed accordingly.7 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams Reinforced concrete beam design consists primarily of producing member details Which will adequately resist the ultimate bending moments, shear forces and tor. sional moments. At the same time serviceability requirements must be considered ‘o ensure that the member will behave satisfactorily under working loads. Its iffculs to separate these two criteria, hence the design procedure consists of a series of interrelated steps and checks. These steps are shown in detail in the flow chart in figure 7.1, but may be condensed into three basic design stages (1) preliminary analysis and member sizing (Q) detailed analysis and design of reinforcement G) serviceability calculations ‘Much of the material in this chapter depends on the theory and design specifica ‘tions from the previous chapters. The loading and calculation of moments and shear forces should be carried out using the methods described in chapter 3. The equations used for calculating the areas of reinforcement have been derived in chapters 4 and 5 Full cetails of serviceability requirements and calculations are given in chapter 6, but itis normal practice to make use of simple rules which axe specified in the Code of Practice and are quite adequate for most situations. Typical of these ere the span-effective depth ratios to ensure acceptable deflections, and the rules for ‘maximum bar spacings and minimum quantities of reinforcement, which are to limit cracking, as described in chapter 6. Design and detailing of the bending reinforcement must allow for factors such 4s anchorage bond between the steel and concrete. The aree of the tensile bending seinforcement also affects the subsequent design of the shear and torsion reinforce ‘ment. Acrangement of reinforcement is constvained both by the requirements of the codes of practice for concrete structures end by practical considerations such as construction tolerances, clearance between bars and available bar sizes and lengths. Many of the requirements for correct detailing are lustrated in the examples which deal with the design of typical beams. 154 eserna cause 2 aaa aes oat 222 ae 246 aus P2388 Poza? DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS Estate SEF weloet conenehe cover ’ PRELIMINARY ANaLYSis — RUEABILITY & FIRE ‘ ESTIMATE d FROM 7 O456372. mm For mild conditions of exposure the cover = 25 mm (table 6.1). So for 10 mm links and, say, 32 ram bars overall depth <0.156 +25+10432/2 eatsi DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS ass Therefore make 525 mm as an integer nummber of brick courses. $o that dw 525-51 sheer stress y= 2 = i = 1.03 Nima? For grade 30 concrete, maximum v allowed B./30= 4.38 Nimm?. Therefore ots 7 Basic span-effective depth = “2 =3.4<20 474 of 230 mmm by $25 mm deep would be suitable. Weight of beam = 0.23 x 0.525 x 4.0.x 24 16K ‘which is sufficiently close to the assumed value. 7.2 Design for Bending ‘The calelation of main bending reinforcement is performed using the equations and charts derived in chapter 4. In th cas of rectangular sections which require ‘only tension steel, the lever-arm curve method is probably the simplest. Where compresion steel is required, either design charts or a manual approach with the simplified design formulae may be used. When design chats are not applicable, as in the case of aon-ectangular sections, te formulae based on the equivalent rectangular stress block will simplify calculations considerably. The type of reinforcing ste] tobe used must be decided intially since this, in conjunction with the chosen concrete grade, will affect the areas required and aso Influence bond ealelations. In most czcumstances one of the available types of highs bars willbe used unless eresking is entice] s for example in weter- retaining structures, when mild steel may be preferred, Ares of reinforcement ae calculated atthe sections with maximum moments, an suitable bar sizes selected, (Tables of bar area are given in the appendix.) This permits anchorage caleulations tobe performed and details of bar arrangement to be produced, taking into account the guidance given by the codes of practice. ‘An excessive amount of reinforcement usually indicates thet a member is under- sized and it may also cause difficulty in fixing the bars and pouring the concrete Therefore the code stipulates A,/oh should not exceed 4.0 per cent. On the other hand too little reinforcement is also undesirable therefore dq/bk should not be Jess than 0.24 percent for mild ses! or 0.13 per cent for high-yield ses,160 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 161 To void excensiv elton tt ao necessary to chck he pan to fective i 17 os [ow pa om [om [rw Jove ow [ow depth ati ak otine in capt 6 fs bo Pape [= bs pe su oo anf oa 7.2.1 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section ‘A beam section needs reinforcement only in the tensile zone when M/bd?foy is not greater than 0.156, This is not true if the moments at a section have been reduced by more than 10 per cent asa result-of a redistribution of the elastic moments, and in this case reference should be made to equstions 7.2 and 7.6 in order to decide ‘whether or not compression steel is necessary oso The singly reinforced section considered is shown in figure 7.4 and itis subjected to.a sagging moment Mf at the ultimate limit state. Using the leverarm curve, the “ Aesgn elton forthe login! sel cn be summaries follows Tule sbegth -f sto Ferlure vette et pss cy « Teale sey m 2 : ‘ompression zy sive 9.0035 = 85] reinforcement evend bon GE gas GBR TF tre : ee, ! : with Yo ; os » dL neutral = . {os t u t oe ee eg a a oma ja pom zoe NV a z a ° O08 “ai OR RE a Ke M703? feysic ? Section as Stress lock The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with moment Figure 74, Sigly enforced section redistribution applied (see Section 7), (2) Calculate K= Mba py Vl. | Figure 75. Leverarm curve Determine the levr-irm, , from the curve of figure 7.5 or from the ine eA ee rae of Raye 75 oF om Example 7.2 Design of Tension Reinforcement for @ Rectangular Section Boas The beam section shown in figure 7.6 has characteristic material strengths of ns +vi025 “K/09)] ay fey = 30 Nim? for the concrete and f, = 4601 N/mm? for the steel. The design (3) The ares of tension stel is fiven by ‘moment atthe ultimate limit state is 185 WN m which causes sageing of the beam __M 2087, (2) Setect suitable bar sizes (5) Check thatthe aea of stel actually prdvided is within the limits required by the code, that is 4-290] nosso 100 4 < 4.0 ee and a ao185 100 4 015i or 024 for te res162 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN M 165 x10 Bah, 730x490? x30 ‘This is oss than 0.156 therefore compression steel is not zequired From the leverarm curve of figure 7.5 l= 0.87, therefore lever arm z = 4d = 0.87 x 490 = 426 mm and Me 165 x 10¢ = = Ne 7 968mm* A” Darya” 087x460 406 Provide two T25 bars, area = 982 mm?. For the steel provided 1004, _ 100x982 _ bh 230x550: and 03. < Ws <40 oh therefore the steel percentage is within the Limits specified by the code, 7.2.2 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement Compression stelisrequized whenever the concrete in compression is unable, by itself to develop the necessary moment of resistance, Design charts such as the one in figure 4.9 may be used to determine the steel areas but the simplified equations based on the equivalent rectangular stress block are quick to apply. ‘The maximum moment of resistnce that can be developed by the concrete ‘occurs with the neutral axis at the maximum depth allowed by the code of practice. This limiting depth is given as @-04)a>050 on ‘moment at the section after redistribution ‘moment at the section before redistribution ‘This reduction is due to the designer redistributing the moments from an elastic analysis of the structure, a5 described in sections 3.4 and 4.7. With x less than d/2 the stres inthe compression steel may be considerably less than the yield, therefore, the design procedure is somewhat different if By is less than 0.9, It should also be noted that, in order to maintain the limitation on the depth of neutral axis as specified in equation 7.2, the areas of reinforcement required and provided should meet the following requirement (Av prow ~ Abreg) ® Aaprow ~ Aseag) 73) ‘This isto ensure a gradual tension type failure with yielding of the tension rein- forcement as explained in chapter 4 where By DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 163, ° 1008 245 | 1 Tal Rex : Neutrot * Equvatent rectangular section strains stress Block Figure 7.7. Seam doubly reinforced to rele ogging moment Morient Redistribution Factor > 0.9 and d'/2 0.2 If.a’/a isnot greater than 0.2, as is usually the case, the proportions ofthe strain diagram will ensure that the compression steel will have yielded, Compression reinforcement is required if M> 0,156 fey bd® and the design equations as given in section 4.5 are (1) Area of compression steel (Wt ~0.156 fey ba”) ACerS) ay (2) Area of tension see 156 fesdd? 4 Aga 216 fend 4: < as 087 fyz ye god 8 a with lveram:=0775d | - 1f.a'/d is greater than 0.2 the stress in the compression steel should be determined as outlined in pert (2) of example 7.4 Moment Redistribution Factor By < 0.9 ‘The limiting depth of the neutral axis can be calculated from equation 7.2 and compression steel is requized if M>045 fasts ¢-3) 2)164 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN where s= depth of stress block = 0.95 ‘The design procedure is (1) Calculate K=M/bd*fey: > @) Caleulaie K!= 0.402 (5 ~0.4) ~0.18 (By ~ 0.4)? IE K-.X' compression ste! is required. © Catculite =, 0.8) If dfx <0.43, the compression steel has yielded and fiz = 0.87 fy, If d'/x > 0.43, calculate the steel compressive strain ey, and hence the stress fos as in example 7.4 (4) Caleuiate the ares of compression steel from 12 KK fob? oe A OsTf,@—d) se) (6) Cateulate the area of tension stel from Right yy fee 08) O87 f2 “087% where 2=4~ 0.9312. Links should be provided to give lateral restrint to the outer Iyer of compres: sion steel, acording tothe following rules. (1) The links should pass round the comer bars and each alternate bar (@) The link sie should be at least one-quarter the size of the largest compresion bar. (G) The spacing of the bnks should not be greter than twelve times the size of the smallest compression bar. (@) No compression bar should be more then 150 mm from a restrained bar. A, Example 7.3 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, > 0.9 ‘The beam section shown in figure 7.8 has characteristic material strengths of feu = 30 Nimm? and fy = 460 Newm®. The ultimate moment is 165 KN m, causing hogging of the beam. Mu 165 x 108 Ba*fog 730x330" x30 22> 0.156 0 that compression stel is required, and d'/d= 50/330 =0.15 <0.2 therefore fa O87, DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 165 230 ey LJ} “35 Figure 7.8 Beam doubly reinforced to resist «hogging moment From equation 7.4 Compression see] 4; = @£=0:156 Feud?) 0877, @-2) = (165 x 10% ~0.156 x 30x 230 x 330°) 0.87 x 460 (330 ~ 50) =427 mm? ‘And from equation 7.5 tension steel a, = O4S6Leubd? 4 O87 fyz 0.156 x30 x 230 x 330? = 015630 x 230x330" 4 497 087 x 460 x 0.775 x 330 = 1572 mm? Provide two T20 bars for 4s, area = 628 mm? and two T32 bats for Ay, area = 1610 mi, s0 that for the areas of steel zequized and provided in equation 7 3 628—427> 1610-157 (rank att ugh funy) Also 1004; _ 100 x 628 bk” 230%390 1004, _ 100% 1610 _ bh” 230%390 therefore the bar areas are within the limits specified by the code. ‘The minimum tink size = 20/4 5 mm, say 8 mm links, and the maximum link ing = 12 x 20= 240 mm, centres, The link size and spacing may be governed by the shear calculations. Figure 7.8 shows the arrangement of the reinforcement {0 resist a hogging moment, 70 RHA Wa oh shed Gus / 179 *166 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Example 7.4 Design of Tension ond Compression Reinforcement, f= 0.7, ‘The beam section shown in figure 7.9 hes characteristic material strengths of fa 30 Nimm? and fy = 460 Nimm?. The ultimate moment is 370 kN m, causing hogging of the bear. +540 Ley me — be 06035 Section Strains Figure 7.9 Beam doubly reinforced 10 resist Ropging moment £7, the limiting depth of the neutral ‘As the moment reduction factor By axis is - x= —04)d = (0.704) 540 = 162 mm K=Mfbd? fn, = 370 x 108 (300 x 540? 30) =0.41 '= 0402 y = 04) ~0.18 By 04? = 0.104 K> K therefore compression steels required a'fx = 100/162 0.62 > 0.43 therefore fg <0.87 fy © 0.0035 (x ~ a’ Steel compressive stain gg = 20035. = 4) 0035 (162 ~ 109) _ 9.99334 162 DESIONOF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 167 () From‘ rn eitin of wt 41.2 Stalag sm = 210600 xocotss = 268 N/mm* @ 2 (K ~ K') fey bd? comprionse at = EAD = (Q:141 — 0.104) 30 x 300 x 5402 268 (540 — 100) = 823 mm? a) Toil, Kab os fa = 0.108 x30x300 540" 555 268 0.87 x 460 (540 — 0.9 x 162/2) 0.87 x 460 = 2011 mm Provide two T25 bars for Aj, area = 982 mm? and two T32 plus one T2S bars for Ag, area = 2101 mm*, which also mest the requirements of equation 7.3. ‘These areas lie within the maxiqum and minimum limits specified by the code, ‘To restrain the compression steel, atleast § mm links at 300 mm centres should be provided. 7.2.3 T-beams Figure 7.10 shows sections through a T-beam and an L-beam which may form part of a concrete beam and slab floor. When the beams are resisting sagging moments, port of the slab acts as compression flange ad Ue members may be designed as T- or Lebeams. With hogging moments the slab will be in tension end assumed to be cracked, therefore the beam must then be designed es a rectangular section of width by and overall depth h. When the slab does act as the flange its effective width is defined by empiricel rules which are specified in BS 8110 as follows. (1) T-section — the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the web plus one-fifth of the dstsnestbetween zero moments. (2) Lesection ~ the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the web plus one-tenth of the distance between zero moments, ‘Asa simple rule, the distance between the points of zero moment may be taken as 0.7 times the effective span for = continuous beam. Since the sab acts as a lange compression area, the stress block for the T- or Lsection usually falls within the slab thickness, For this position ofthe stress