Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(12): 2761-2768, 2016 http://www.hrpub.

org
DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.041210

Effects of 6 Weeks Psychological Skill Training on Team

Cohesion, Self-confidence & Anxiety: A Case of Youth
Basketball Players
Bülent Okan Miçooğullari1,*, Sadettin Kirazci2

1
Department of Physical Education & Sports Education, Faculty of Education, Nevsehir Haci Bektaş Veli University, Turkey
2
Department of Physical Education & Sports, Faculty of Education, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Copyright©2016 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the programs into the traditional training regimens of all
impact of a six-week psychological skill training (PST) competitive sports [1]. Vealey declared that mental
program that is based on a cognitive-behavioral conceptual preparation is the learning and implementation of traditional
framework on team cohesion, confidence, and anxiety of an cognitive behavioral techniques “with the objective of
intact team. Thirty-six male basketball players, 19 athletes assisting sports participants in the development of mental
for the experimental group and 17 athletes for the control skills to achieve performance success and personal
group, aged between 15-16 years old voluntarily participated well-being” (p. 287) [2]. To observe the effectiveness of any
in this study. For the quantitative part of the study, the Group mental preparation plan, it is critical to focus on functional
Environment Questionnaire, Trait Sport-Confidence aspects of mental preparation routines such as attaining an
Inventory, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were given ideal cognitive state, developing high self-confidence,
during the pre-intervention, post-intervention and follow-up controlling mental energy, and sustaining attentional focus to
tests. Qualitative methods were also employed in the current the task [3]. Comprehensive studies in sport psychology
study to support validation of the implied PST program. Six literature have supported the effectiveness of PST on
players and the coach of both teams were interviewed improving not only the performance but also personal
utilizing a semi-structured interview schedule. Statistical growth of athletes. Bacon indicated that mental preparation
testing within factor analyses of the experimental group facilitates learning. Additionally, Bacon suggested that once
reveals a significant difference over time for team cohesion the basics of each mental skill have been learned, they can
and for self-confidence but no significant difference for also be used to help achieve the athletes’ other competition
anxiety. Moreover, comparisons between the experimental and training aims [4].
and control groups’ results indicate that there is a significant There are different strategies to reach effective mental
difference between groups. Overall, it is concluded that the preparation. One of the most widely used strategies for
experimental team’s participation in the PST program mental preparation is psychological skill training (PST) [5,
affected the team’s cohesion levels and the athletes’ 6]. PST is the systematic learning and practice of
self-confidence levels positively but there is no significant psychological skills [7]. PST is a process that relates to the
effect on the athletes’ anxiety levels. development of daily routine activities and capabilities in
sport and exercise [8]. Different psychological skills
Keywords Psychological Skill Training Program, –abilities- are interrelated components, separately for the
Team-cohesion, Self-confidence, Anxiety purposes of research and training. Standard methods and
techniques of PST come from a wide range of sources,
particularly those in the areas of general psychology. PST
has been utilized by athletes at all levels including elite and
1. Introduction Olympic athletes, and the use of certain psychological skills
has been approved to differentiate between more successful
Over the past decade, there has been a rapid growth of and less successful athletes. In the earliest step of scientific
interest in the mental preparation of athletes. This interest evaluations trials of PST instructions were performed on
was first reflected in the increased volume of cognitive individual skills such as physiological arousal, cognitive
research in sport psychology and has more recently resulted arousal, mental images, attention, concentration, confidence,
in integrating various applied “psychological skills” training goal setting and motivation [7]. The following step included
2762 Effects of 6 Weeks Psychological Skill Training on Team Cohesion,
Self-confidence & Anxiety: A Case of Youth Basketball Players

the combination of a variety of psychological skills to SD=2.26 years of sport experience) aged between 15-16
improve development, implementation and evaluation of years old voluntarily participated in this study. None of the
PST package programs according to the aim of the participants had previously worked with a psychological
practitioner [9]. Comprehensive studies reveal that PST is training consultant. Participants were selected from two
the most efficient when a combination of psychological teams in Ankara Youth Basketball league. The teams were
skills are used [10, 11, 12, 13]. Applications and results of selected purposively from the same league category in order
the studies highlight that PST should be designed with three to avoid any possible bias between them. At the beginning of
distinct phases: education, acquisition and practice phases [9, the study, each group consisted of 20 athletes but 3 athletes
14]. The first phase of a PST program is the education phase, from control group left the club.
which involves increasing athletes’ awareness of the role that
psychological skills play in performance and personal 2.2. Measuring Instruments
growth [3]. In the education phase participants learn the
importance of PST and how the skills affect athletic 2.2.1. Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer,
performance. The second phase of PST is the acquisition & Brawley, 1985)
phase. In this phase the athletes learn how to use and best Group environment questionnaire (GEQ) was used to
implement PST methods. Formal sessions are carried out assess team cohesion level of basketball players. The
with an instructor that can teach the athlete the relevant 18-item GEQ assesses four dimensions of cohesion:
methods so that they can then practice them by themselves individual attractions to the group–social (ATG-S; five
until they are familiar and experienced with those methods items); individual attractions to the group–task (ATG-T; four
[8]. The last phase is the practice phase during which athletes items); group integration– task (GI-T; five items); and group
devote their own time and effort to PST. They must complete integration–social (GI-S; four items). Participants respond to
training in both competition and practice [15]. each of the 18 statements on a 9-point Likert scale anchored
Because PST remains is a crucial aspect to the current at 1 by strongly disagree and 9 by strongly agree. The
study, its effectiveness plays a very important role in this original Cronbach’s alpha values of the four scales were .70
research. Comprehensive reviews of psychological skill for (ATG-T/S) and .73 for (GI-T/S). The reliability and
training literature have supported the effectiveness of PST in validity of the Turkish version of the Group Environment
improving the performance and personal growth of athletes’ Questionnaire (GEQ) was determined by Öcel [26]. The
[11, 16, 17]. In particular, published studies using either Cronbach's alpha obtained for total scores and subscales
group or single subject research designs were examined. ranged from .79 to .69. Internal consistency values for the
These studies utilized different variables (age, gender, present study showed acceptable values of the four scales
education level, athletes’ category, type of sports), evaluated were ranged between .67 (ATG-T-S) and .78 (GI-T-S).
different psychological skills (relaxation, imagery, goal
setting, and focusing, cohesion, self-talk, self-confidence, 2.2.2. Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (Vealey, 1988)
motivation, concentration etc), and ultimately revealed that
PST is an effective strategy employed to develop personal Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (TSCI) was used to
growth and achieve excellence in performance [18, 19, 20, assess self-confidence level of basketball players. TSCI is a
21, 22, 23, 24, 25] measure of the degree of certainty athletes usually hold about
Even though the importance and effectiveness of PST is their ability to succeed in sport. The TSCI is comprised of 13
evident in sport psychology literature, especially according items measured on a 9- point Likert scale anchored by Low
to obvious cultural & societal differences, to date limited (1) and High (9). Adequate internal consistency (.93) has
effort has been made in Turkey to examine the impact of a been reported (Vealey, 1988) and test-retest reliabilities have
PST program that is framed by cognitive-behaviorism on the been shown to be consistently high after one day (.86), one
various aspects of athletes’ lives (sportive and regular) such week (.89), and one month (.83) interval. Reliability and
as team cohesion, anxiety, self-confidence and personal validity of the Turkish version of the TSCI was determined
growth. In light of aforementioned information, the purpose by Engür, Tok, Tatar [27] on 16 and 19 year old high school
of this study was to implement a PST program for athletes graduate students.
and assess its effect on team cohesion, self-confidence and
2.2.3. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1970)
anxiety of youth basketball players.
In the current study, trait anxiety was measured by trait
form of the State - Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) which
2. Methodology includes 20-items [45]. Participants responded to each item
according to how they generally feel using a four-point scale
ranging from “Almost Never” (1), “Sometimes” (2), “Often”
2.1. Participants
(3), to “Almost Always” (4). The original Cronbach’s alpha
Thirty-six male basketball players, 19 athletes for value for the trait anxiety scale was .83. Original scale was
experimental group (M=5.79 and SD=1.87 years of sport developed on 982 high school and collegiate students but the
experience) and 17 athletes for control group (M=6.00 and scale is reported as reliable (internal consistency 0.80) for
 Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(12): 2761-2768, 2016 2763

young players by Griciūtė and Cibulskaitė [22]. Reliability 2.4. Data Analysis
and validity of the Turkish version of the STAI was
determined on 1534 youth and adult and its internal Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) for
consistency reliability was .94 [28]. Cronbach’s Alpha for demographic information and scale scores were calculated.
the present study showed acceptable value was .69. In order to analyze possible changes in the measures for team
cohesion skill from pre-season to postseason and follow up
2.3. Procedure tests, a mixed design multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was utilized. In order to analyze possible
The intervention described here has involved three changes in the measures for self-confidence and anxiety
different psychological skills: anxiety control, skills from pre-season to postseason and follow up tests, a
self-confidence, and team cohesion (team building). These mixed design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized
three psychological skills were selected in the current [33].
program because of two factors. Firstly, discussions with
coaches of the teams indicated that these three skills are the
most lacking ones in many basketball players. Secondly, 2.5. Qualitative Methodology
these skills are particularly important for optimal The goal of the adding qualitative analysis to current study
performance in athletics [7, 9, 29]. Prior to beginning the was to assist validation of psychological skill training with
PST program, written approval was obtained from the the feelings and words of athletes and coach.
Associate Athletic Director of Sport Club. Permission was
After conduction of the quantitative processes, to collect
also obtained from Institutional Review Board of the Middle
qualitative data, follow-up individual interviews were
East Technical University to conduct the study. After
conducted after the third follow up test (24 weeks after
explaining the purpose of the study and telling participants
finishing day of intervention) on a six participant athletes
they could withdraw at any time, they signed an informed
–purposively selected- from out of 19 athletes and the coach
consent form. A demographic information sheet and Group
of the team. According to qualifications of one on one
Environment Questionnaire [30] Trait Sport-Confidence
interview approach each interview was implemented face to
Inventory (TSCI) [31] and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
face according to qualifications of one on one interview
(STAI) [32] were administered to the athletes at a team
approach. In this approach the researcher asks questions to
meeting prior to the beginning of the second half season in
order to obtain baseline data and post test after intervention and record answers from only one participant. One focus of
season in order to assess changes in the various measures. interview was to find out the most useful skill within
The PST program consisted of team building, goal setting, implemented PST program, and effects of each skill on sport
relaxation, imagery, self-talk, pep-talk, converting thoughts, and real life situations according to athletes. Another focus
autogenic training, and progressive relaxation techniques. of interview was to understand if the coach perceives any
Overall, six weeks psychological skills program took positive effects of PST on individual and team level and
place during the season. Each skill’s processes lasted for two whether the coach thinks of having PST in the future or not.
weeks. Weinberg & Gould’s PST program phases (education, Each interview lasted between 25 to 40 minutes. For
acquisition and practice) were pursued to practice qualitative analysis, all interviews with athletes and coach
psychological skills. Six weeks PST program consisted of were analyzed using the constant comparison approach.
twenty four sessions totally. For each psychological skill, Audio-recorded interviews were transcribed and open
eight sessions were conducted. First two sessions of each coding was used to analyze the data divided into segments
skill were implemented for education phase. Five sessions and then they were scrutinized for commonalities that could
were implemented for acquisition phase of PST and one reflect codes. Secondly, axial coding grouped the codes
session of program was for practice phase to make therefore connections were made amongst the categories and
corrections and reviews if needed. At the end of 6 weeks of the subcategories. In this way, similar comments were
intervention, three follow up tests (GEQ; TSCI and STAI) grouped together to form categories related to the research
were applied to athletes within three different time periods. questions. Finally, selective coding was used to develop the
The first follow up test was performed 2 weeks after the end themes which systematically relating it to the other
of the intervention; it was decided to perform this test 2 categories [34].
weeks later because the necessary time period for all the
processes and applications of one skill (team cohesion,
self-confidence and anxiety) was 2 weeks. Since 6 weeks 3. Results
was equal to all intervention program time period which was
Obtained descriptive and quantitative results were
needed for processes and applications of all the skills, the
displayed according to their applied rank.
second follow up test was practiced 6 weeks later. Moreover,
Descriptive results revealed that experimental group’s
the last follow up test was performed 20 weeks later because
team cohesion generally improved till the first follow up and
it was aimed to see the long term effects of applied
after those values were stable while control group’s values of
psychological skill training.
team cohesion generally showed slight increase till the first
follow up and after that values were stable or decreased
2764 Effects of 6 Weeks Psychological Skill Training on Team Cohesion,
Self-confidence & Anxiety: A Case of Youth Basketball Players

(Table 1). Self-confidence mean values of experimental ATG-S F(2.44, 83.1) = 11.16, p < .05 η2 = .127, and GI-T F(2.74,
2
group results showed that they reached the highest value at 93.18) = 9.69, p < .05 η = .187 subscales. These results mean
third follow up test while –unlooked for- self-confidence of that there was a significant difference in the measurement
control groups showed enhancement from pre-test to first that performed different times. There was not a significant
follow up test and arrived the peak point and after that it difference on GI-S, F(2.53, 85.88) = 4.71, p > .05 η2 = .063.
showed slight decrease situation. On the last rank; Anxiety Another univariate follow-up analysis related with group
scores of experimental group did not make any significant effect revealed significant differences in ATG-T
changes from pre-test to third follow up test but anxiety of F(1, 34) = 41.56, p < .05 η2 = .55, ATG-S F(1, 34) = 8.86, p < .05
control group slightly increased from pre-test to third follow η2 = .21, and GI-T F(1, 34) = 23.83, p < .05 η2 = .41 subscales
up test. and GI-S F(1, 34) = 7.33, p > .05 η2 = .18. These results
First ranked skill of the PST was team cohesion and to test indicated significant differences in these subscales between
the effects of the PST on it, a mixed design Multivariate experimental and control group favoring experimental
Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted. The group.
results of the mixed design MANOVA (5 (time) x 2 (group)) Quantitative data results were supported by qualitative
for the subscales of GEQ (ATG-T, ATG-S, GI-T, and GI-S) data for the question that related with team cohesion.
revealed significant time x group interaction effects; Wilks’ According to results of athletes’ two important themes
Lambda =.27. F (16, 19) = 3.25 p < .05. MANOVA also affirmed to improve team cohesion perceptions, those
revealed meaningful time; Wilks’ Lambda =.21. themes were “spending time with team members at outside
F (16, 19) = 4.40, p < .05 and group main effects; Wilks’ of the trainings and matches” and “helpful practices to know
Lambda =.39. F (16, 19) = 11.81, p < .05. each other better”. Moreover, coach enlightened that the
Used mixed design MANOVA results of time x group applications are thought to be supportive in terms of team
interaction, time and group main effects were meaningfully unity, getting the athletes closer and making them
different. After that statistical analysis, ANOVA used to understand this is not an individual sport on the contrary it is
determine which of the variable or variables assigned to the a team sport.
overall difference. A significant time main effect could be
attributed to ATG-T F(2.15, 73.31) = 5.55, p < .05 η2 = .084,
Table 1. Control (Con) and Experimental (Exp) groups’ Pre-Intervention, Post- Intervention, Follow Up tests Questionnaire Descriptive Statistics
Pretest Posttest Follow Up 1 Follow Up 2 Follow Up 3
Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)
5.06 5.26 5.11 6.62 5.10 6.63 4.93 6.36 4.81 6.35
ATG-T
(1.29) (1.88) (0.73) (0.72) (0.63) (0.56) (0.84) (1.04) (1.03) (0.82)
5.64 5.63 5.88 7.30 5.92 7.12 5.67 7.07 5.21 6.39
ATG-S
Team (2.05) (1.97) (1.79) (0.77) (1.76) (0.75) (1.51) (0.44) (1.65) (0.67)
Cohesion 5.38 5.36 5.47 7.19 5.63 7.15 5.41 7.10 5.17 7.48
GI-T
(1.10) (1.08) (1.77) (1.03) (1.56) (0.83) (1.39) (0.80) (0.90) (0.90)
5.52 5.66 5.76 6.08 5.87 6.28 5.68 6.13 5.33 6.22
GI-S
(1.02) (1.02) (0.87) (1.2) (0.91) (0.95) (1.02) (0.92) (0.81) (0.90)
6.01 6.07 6.53 7.37 6.70 7.31 6.68 7.21 6.28 7.63
Self Confidence
(0.92) (1.01) (1.23) (0.44) (0.92) (0.47) (0.79) (0.53) (0.78) (0.59)
1.89 1.89 1.96 1.92 2.04 1.84 2.09 1.86 2.10 1.85
Anxiety
(0.01) (0.32) (0.13) (0.24) (0.44) (0.38) (0.23) (0.39) (022) (0.19)
Note: Mean= Arithmetic Average, SD= Standard Deviation ATG-T=individual attraction to the group – task; ATG-S= individual attraction to the group
– social; GI-T= group integration-task; GI-S= group integration-social

Table 2. Estimated marginal means (Pairwise Comparison Analysis figures) of Team Cohesion between experimental and control group over
measurements
Pretest Posttest Follow Up 1 Follow Up 2 Follow Up 3
Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)
5.05 5.26 5.11 6.62 5.10 6.63 4.92 6.36 4.81 6.36
ATG-T
1.29 1.88 .73 .68 .63 .57 .84 1.05 1.03 1.04
5.65 5.63 5.88 7.30 5.92 7.11 5.68 7.07 5.21 6.40
ATG-S
Team 2.05 1.98 1.80 .78 1.77 .75 1.51 .45 1.65 1.24
Cohesion 5.38 5.36 5.47 7.19 5.63 7.16 5.41 7.11 5.17 7.48
GI-T
1.10 1.09 1.77 1.34 1.56 .83 1.40 .81 1.40 .86
5.53 5.66 5.76 6.08 5.87 6.28 5.69 6.13 5.32 6.22
GI-S
1.01 .78 .75 .73 .81 .67 .84 .71 .81 .90
 Universal Journal of Educational Research 4(12): 2761-2768, 2016 2765

Table 3. Estimated marginal means (Pairwise Comparison Analysis figures) of Self Confidence between experimental and control group over
measurements

Pretest Posttest Follow Up 1 Follow Up 2 Follow Up 3

Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)
6.01 6.07 6.53 7.38 6.70 7.63 6.69 7.71 6.28 7.64
Self Confidence
.24 .22 .22 .21 .17 .16 .14 .13 .17 .16

Table 4. Estimated marginal means (Pairwise Comparison Analysis figures) of Anxiety between experimental and control group over measurements

Pretest Posttest Follow Up 1 Follow Up 2 Follow Up 3

Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)
2.00 1.90 1.96 1.93 2.04 1.84 2.10 1.86 2.10 1.96
Anxiety
0.57 0.53 .46 .44 .98 .93 0.78 .74 .50 1.47

Self-confidence was at the second rank of PST that had applied skills and obtained results are discussed in line with
applied to experimental group. This time, a mixed design the current literature.
Analysis of Variance was conducted. A time x group Athletes in the experimental group experienced more
interaction was found to be significant, F (2.40, 81.57) = 4.34, significant enhancements of their perceptions of team
p < .05 η2 = .11. Test of time effect was found to be cohesion during the intervention time period compared to
significant, F (2.40, 81.57) = 13.21, p < .05 η2 = .28. Test of athletes in the control group. In other words, athletes who
group effect was found to be significant, F (1, 34) = 32.09, took part in the PST had a meaningful enhancement in their
p < .05 η2 = .45. Analysis of the time x group interaction perceptions of team cohesion. Indeed, results show
results introduced that experimental group obtained positive meaningful development – except for GI-S subscale- in three
implications about self-confidence. However, results subscales of team cohesion are ATG-T, ATG-S, and GI-T.
affirmed that control group did not show any meaningful The enhancement of ATG-T scale shows that implemented
changes about self-confidence. PST intervention meaningfully improves athletes’ individual
Self-confidence qualitative question supported the results perceptions of the importance of being a part of a team and
of quantitative data. Results highlighted that “dealing with motivations to complete team tasks as well as positively
problematic situations” “using taught strategies (imagery – impacts the team’s shared ambitions of success. The
self-talk) in all possible field” and “thinking more positive development of ATG-S shows a meaningful enhancement in
within all situations” were the important themes about the athletes’ abilities to have good social interaction. The
improving self-confidence. Related with self-confidence improvement of GI-T scale shows that employing strategies
question, coach highlighted that he observed a slow but related to team cohesion significantly enhance athletes’
balanced development on athletes’ self-confidence ability to give and receive support from their teammates.
perceptions. These results can be attributed to multiple factors,
Last skill of the PST was Anxiety and to test the effects of including setting initial team goals, receiving the
it a mixed design analysis of variance was used. Test of time participation of all athletes, applying a PST program that is
x group interaction did not found to be significant, built upon the missions of every athlete in the field, and lastly
F (2.83, 96.24) = .80, p > .05 η2 = .023. Test of group effect did organizing and practicing activities in alternative settings.
not found to be significant, F (1, 34) = .92, p > .05 η2 = .191. Consistent with the expectations of this study, various
Test of time effect did not found to be significant, research studies indicate significant improvement in team
F (2.83, 96.24) = .63, p > .05 η2 = .018. cohesion. Different researchers attribute their results to the
“Learning how to handle mistakes and problematic issues” realization of the importance of setting common goals. [35,
and “having suspensions about coach’s expectations from 36] Athletes become better aware of the importance of social
them and the way he expresses his expectations” were interaction, role behavior, coach-athlete communication and
crucial themes related with anxiety in qualitative question. team leadership [37], in other studies also it has found that
The coach of the team informed that strengthened athletes’ satisfaction levels were increased by learning and
communication between them supported the athletes to have utilizing goal setting interventions, moreover, shared
faith in coach’s intention fully. cognition’s importance has been informed by the athletes.
[30, 38, 39]; Players are better able to act in collaboration
and participate in setting team goals. [40] Overall, players
4. Discussion come to realize the importance of social interaction, feelings
of security, willingness to change and team unity [41, 42].
This part of the study is presented with regard to rank of There was clear evidence of the experimental group
2766 Effects of 6 Weeks Psychological Skill Training on Team Cohesion,
Self-confidence & Anxiety: A Case of Youth Basketball Players

positively improving their perceptions of self-confidence training programs. In this study, it is aimed to examine the
over the PST time period while the confidence level of the impact of six weeks psychological skills training program
control group remained stable. The positive change in (PST) based on cognitive-behavioral conceptual framework
self-confidence shows that implemented psychological on the team cohesion, confidence, and anxiety of an intact
strategies are successful in their ability to enhance team. Initially, PST made meaningful differences on
participants’ feelings about living in a more secure experimental group participants’ perceptions about team
environment, performance of motor skills, and ability to cohesion and self-confidence. However, PST intervention
behave according to basketball principles and deal with with basketball team did not make meaningful differences
stressful situations. This obtained data could be useful in the on experimental group athletes’ anxiety levels. Third, there
future to design an enthusiastic sportive environment, inspire were meaningful differences between experimental and
athletes to succeed and work as a team and allow them to control group athletes on implied psychological skills all
improve their focus within athletic settings. over time of study.
The results of the current study with regard to the The qualitative part of this study added appreciable depth
significant increase in self-confidence have been also to understanding how different athletes experience selected
indicated by various researches. Results of the studies are psychological skills. One of the strength points of the study
related to different phenomena such as cognitive behavioral was its applicability to other areas of the athletes' lives. As
interventions (motivation, self-talk, etc) and directing can be understood from their subjective evaluations, athletes
attentional focus [11, 43]. Significant increases in mentioned how they felt the program helped them in their
self-confidence will lead to improvement in the management studies, relations with others, and approach to life in general.
of the ability to concentrate when facing errors those They also mentioned how they valued the interventions
committed by athletes and when accepting a negative sessions and enjoyed knowing with each other closer and
assessment (from others or themselves) about their athletic with a researcher to learn concepts and techniques and to
performances [44], higher winning percentages, better express feelings about tensions in their sports and real life
attentional focus, [45, 46, 47] optimism and ability to situations.
eliminate distractions [48, 49, 50]; Athletes experience an The present study has some limitations that need to be
increase in their ability to control inner dialogue and a taken into account when considering its contributions. In this
decrease in the occurrence of interfering thoughts [21, 51, study PST was performed on the middle season of basketball
52]. league. As mentioned above scientific studies and literature
The final factor that PST impacted is anxiety. The about psychological skill training offer the pre-season or off
obtained results indicate that athletes in the experimental season to start PST programs. Present study’s intervention
group did not have significant declines in their anxiety level. duration was six weeks. There are some studies with same
The control group, which did not take any intervention, also duration but sport psychology literature advice to design at
did not experience a significant decrease in anxiety levels. least 3 months and longer duration for psychological skill
According to implications of the study this unexpected result training to find meaningful difference in findings. Also,
occurred because of factors such as insufficient time of according to qualifications of team environment and
anxiety interventions [53, 54, 55] and the age of participants. opinions of other staff (coach, manager, etc) different skills
[56] Athletes in the age range of 13 – 16 age years old (concentration, motivation, pep-talk, coping and stress
experience higher anxiety levels than normal. This is not the appraisal etc.) can use to reveal affects of PST on personal
most operative time to initiate a PST program that can lower and performance development in sport environment. Finally,
their anxiety levels. The PST program is only two weeks other constructional similar parameters like psychological
during which three different relaxation techniques are well-being, mental preparedness, motor learning and motor
employed as well as a mental imagery program [57, 58, 59]. performance, etc. would be useful to examine in future
Even though there are reasons to view the positive results studies.
with caution, there are also reasons to be optimistic about the
findings. Although the results revealed decrements in the
experimental group, the numbers were not statistically
significant.
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