TMME 2204 Engineering

Metrology and Instrumentations

Chapter. 3: Linear and Angular Measurements
Credit Unit: 3CU

Kalule Charles – Eng.

Department of Mechanical and production Engineering,
Kyambogo University – 2019 Year II, Semester II

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME, BIEM &

HDM-2204ME -2019
 Expectation
After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to
 understand the basic principles of design of linear measuring
instruments
 explain the use of ‘datum planes’ in dimensional measurement
 appreciate the advantages offered by scaled instruments in contrast to
a simple steel rule, and discuss the various applications and
limitations of their variants
 elucidate the Vernier family of instruments for linear measurement
and read Vernier instruments
 describe how Abbe’s law applies to micrometer measurement
 explain how the micrometer principle has developed into a family of
diverse instruments
 utilize the digital electronic instruments in linear measurement
 explain the use of slip gauges, and their manufacture and calibration.
YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM -2204ME -2019
 Surface plate
 Every linear measurement starts at a reference point
and ends at a measured point. Ex. a single dimension
in case of length.
 Foundation for all dimensional measurements is the
‘datum plane’, known as face plate.
 A surface plate is a hard, solid, and horizontal flat
plate, which is used as the reference plane for
precision inspection, marking out, and precision
tooling set-up .
 Surface plate is finished with high degree of accuracy
and used as the datum for all measurements on a job.
 Surface plates are made either from cast iron or from
granite
 Glass is an alternative material for surface plates
 Glass can be ground suitably and has the benefit that it
chips rather than raising a burr, which is a problem in
cast iron surface plates.
YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM - 2204ME -2019
 Metrology
Metrology defines as the Science of
pure measurement. But in engineering
purposes, it in restrictedto measurements
of length and angles and other qualities
which are expressed in linear or angular
terms.

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM -2204ME -2019

Definition of Standards:

• A standard is defined as “something that is set

up and established by an authority as rule of the
measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or
quality”.

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM -2204ME -2019

Line and End standard measurements
• Line standard
Length is expressed as the distance between two lines.
• End standard
Length is expressed as the distance between two flat
parallel faces

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM -2204ME -2019

 Terminology in Measurment
 Precision
Degree of repetitiveness. If an instrument is not
precise it will give different results for the
same dimension for the repeated readings.

 Accuracy
The maximum amount by which the result differ from
true value(i.e) Closeness to true value

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME & BIEM -2204ME -2019

 Accuracy
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual
(true) value.
 Precision
Precision is how close the measured values are to each
other.
Examples of Precision and Accuracy:
 Types And Sources Of Errors
Systematic Errors
•Systematic errors are regularly repetitive and can be
eliminated.
•They results from improper condition or procedure of
experiment .
•These error can be controlled & reduced if properly
analyze, so called as Controllable errors.
Errors may be of four kinds;
1. Instrumental : For example, a poorly calibrated
instrument such as a thermometer that reads 102° C
when immersed in boiling water and 2°C when
immersed in ice water at atmospheric pressure. Such a
thermometer would result in measured values that are
consistently too high.
2.Observational : For example, parallax in reading a
meter scale.

3.Environmental : Variation in atmospheric condition

i.e. temperature, pressure etc. at place of
measurement.

4. Stylus pressure :
Variation in Force applied by anvils of micrometer on
component to be measured results in different
reading.
 Random Errors
• Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown and
unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur in the
measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions.
• Sources of random errors cannot always be identified. Possible sources of
random errors are small variations in the position of setting standards and
work piece, slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring joints in the
measuring instrument.
• Examples of causes of random errors are:
1. electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument,
2. Irregular changes in the heat loss rate from a solar collector due to
changes in the wind.
• These error cannot be eliminated.
1. Observational : For example, errors in judgment of an observer when
reading the scale of a measuring device to the smallest division.
2. Environmental : For example, unpredictable fluctuations in line voltage or
Mechanical vibration of equipment 10
Parallax Error :
•Parallax is a displacement
or difference in the
apparent
position of an object viewed
along two different lines of sight,
and is measured by the angle or
semi-angle of inclination
between those two lines.
 Calibration
 Calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain
instrument accuracy.
 Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a
result for a sample within an acceptable range. Measurement of
Accuracy.
 Establishment the relation of an instrument’s accuracy to the
international standard.

Success of Calibration

• Consistency of results obtained

Need of Calibration
• Quality control & quality assurance in production.
• To meet requirement of ISO
• To comply with requirement of global market.
• To promote international recognition.
Benefits of Calibration
• Fulfills requirement of ISO 9000, ISO 14000.
• As a proof that the instrument is working properly.
• Confidence in using instrument.
• Reduce rejection, failure rate.
• Improved product & service quality leading to
satisfied customer.
• Cost saving, safety
Classification of measuring Instruments.
According to the functions:
o Length measuring instrument
o Angle measuring instrument
o Instrument for checking deviation
from geometrical forms
o Instrument for determining the
quality of surface finish.
Linear measuring instruments
• Straight edge (Steel rule)
• Outside caliper
• Inside caliper
• Vernier caliper
• Outside micrometer
• Inside micrometer
• Vernier height gauge
• Vernier depth gauge
• Dial gauges
Angular measurements
• Measuring the angle of Taper.
1. Bevel Protractor
2. Tool Makers microscope
3. Sine bar
4. Auto Collimator
5. Sine Centre
 Measuring tools and instruments
Measuring tools and instruments

Direct (contact) measurement Indirect (non-contact) measurement

(e.g. micrometer or caliper) (advanced methods such as optical,
ultrasonic, laser, etc.)

Graduated
(either linear or angular Non-graduated
graduations (gauges or adjustable
incorporated into tools which compare
measuring system of the the measurements)
tool)

h Rules h Calipers
h Vernier Calipers h Gauges and Gauge Blocks
h Vernier Gauges h Sine Bar
h Micrometers h Special-purpose tools
h Protractors
h Dial Indicators
Graduated Linear Measurement - Rules

Imperial steel rule with various lengths

having graduations on each side

Same rule with relatively larger

graduations

Metric steel rule with various lengths

having graduations on each side

resolution?
How to read a rule:
h A = 12 mm (12th graduation)

h B = 22 mm (22nd graduation)
h C = 31.5 mm (between 31st and 32nd)
h D = 40.5 mm (between 40th and 41st)
Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Calipers
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Calipers

Direct reading of an internal length

using digital Vernier caliper Direct reading of an external length
using digital vernier caliper

Vernier caliper with a dial indicator

 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Height Gauges
Designed for use in toolrooms, workshops, inspection departments to measure or mark off vertical
heights and locating center distances.

Standard Height gauge Dial Height Gauge Digital Height Gauge

 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Depth Gauges
Designed for use in toolrooms, workshops, inspection departments to measure depths of holes, slots,
recesses, and so on.

Standard Depth Gauge Dial Depth Gauge

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME, BIEM & Digital Depth Gauge
HDM-2204ME -2018
Graduated Linear Measurement - Outside Micrometers
VERNIER READING THIMBLE READING

Metric Micrometer

SLEEVE (BARREL) READING

Metric Vernier Micrometer

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME, BIEM &

HDM-2204ME -2018
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Outside Micrometers

Dial-indicating Micrometer V-anvil Micrometer (measuring odd-fluted taps, milling

cutters, reamers, and checking out of roundness)

Direct-reading Screw Thread Micrometer

Micrometer (measuring pitch diameter
of screw threads)
YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME, BIEM &
HDM-2204ME -2018
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Inside Micrometers

Standard Inside Micrometers Digital Inside Micrometers

 Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Calipers
h Standard calipers have a fine adjustment screw and a quick-adjusting spring nut.
h Accuracy obtained with these tools depends mostly on the inherent skill of users.
h The measurements are carefully transferred to a graduated measuring tool.

Caliper for inside Caliper for outside Caliper used

measurement measurement as a divider

YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME, BIEM &

HDM-2204ME -2018
 Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Special Purpose Gauges

Screw Pitch Gauges (consisting of a metal case containing

many separate leaves. Each leaf has teeth corresponding to
a definite pitch. By matching the teeth with the thread on
work, the correct pitch can be read directly from the leaf)

Tap and Drill Gauges (consisting

of a flat rectangular steel plate with
holes accurately drilled and
Radius Gauges (available as individual leaves and each
identified according to their size)
leaf is marked with its radius. They are designed to check
YEAR II SEMINAR-II BEMME,
both BIEM
convex & and concave radii)
HDM-2204ME -2018
Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Rectangular Gauge Blocks

Slip Gauge
Box
 Slip Gauges
•Gauge blocks (also known as gauge blocks, Johansson gauges, slip gauges)
are a system for producing precision lengths. The individual gauge block is
a metal or ceramic block that has been precision ground and lapped to a specific
thickness.
•For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such other
measuring instruments.
•Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
•For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in conjunction
with a sine bar.
•The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best measured with the
slip gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
•To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or between two
mating parts.
•Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel with exceptionally close
tolerances. These blocks are suitably hardened though out to ensure maximum
resistance to wear. They are then stabilized by heating and cooling successively
17
in stages so that hardening stresses are removed
 Graduated Angular Measurement - Protractors

(a)

Simple (b)
Protractor
(measuring
angles from
0 to 180º) Universal Bevel Protractor (main Measuring acute (a) and
scale consists of 4 portions of 90º) obtuse (b) angles

How to read an angle on a bevel protractor: Main

div. = 1º = 60´
Vernier div. = 1/12th of main div. ≈ 0.0833º = 5´

h The highest figure: 50 * (main div.) = 50º

h The matching figure: 4 * (vernier div.) ≈ 0.333º = 20´
h The final reading is: ≈ 50.333º or 50º 20´
 Non-Graduated Angular Measurement - Sine Bar

Limitations of Sine Bar: Maximum angle 45°

Sine Center – Maximum angle that can be measured is 60°