(e) Must not expresses a prohibition:

You must not walk on the grass.

(d) Have to expresses an external necessity:
'"
UJw¡ Q.
.
(Jq~b). ~C~C.? ~t..~~~Yk C~rk?- He has to find a home.

3 The use of B perfect infinitive etter these verbs

There is often a suggestion that the action referred to by the infinitive d

~~. not in fact happen. This implication is strong after some verbs but no;
existent after others.
(a) could: You could have put it in a drawer. (This is possible.)
You could have tried harder, you know. (But you didn't.
(b) ought to (should): You ought to have locked the door. (But yo
didn't.) Normally the action has not taken place, but this is nc
always the case:
He should have left home by now.
(e) mustwith a Present or Perfect Infinitive suggests that the statement i
probably true:
It must be quite cold outside.
That must have been a terrifying experience.
(d) need with a Present or Perfect Infinitive:
You need not have bought it. (But you did.)
1 didn't need to buy it. (So 1didn't.)

4 NegBtive end interroqetive forms of 'need'

With a noun or pronoun object:
1 don't need a coat.
Do you need a drink?
With a following infinitive:
He need not go/He doesn't need to go. (Present)
He didn't need to go. (Past)

Chapter 7 1
Verbal The main verb in a sentence or c1ause is often followed by a second non-
constructions finite construction whose form will depend on the main verb preceding it.
Four forms are possible:
1 An infinitive with or without to: He wants to come/He can come.
2 A gerund: He enjoys coming.
3 A participle: 1watched the train coming.
4 A dependent c1ause: He says (that) he will come.
As it is the gerund which almost always follows a preposition, verbs which
incorporate a preposition and phrasal verbs will necessarily be followed by
a gerund:
He is looking forward to travelling.
He is used to travelling. (used is here an adjective.)
He has given up travelling.
Distinguish carefully between verbal forms which incorporate to, e.g.
look forward lo, take lo, and independent verb forms followed by an
infinitive preceded by lo, e.g. want, intend, tend,
In several cases more than one construction can follow a certain verb, not
always with any noticeable change in meaning. VERB INFINITIVE
GERUND
He suggested our sitting down. CLAUSE
contribute
He suggested (that) we (should) si! down. convince
lo building
someone (that) he shou
There is no logical way of learning these constructions as there seems to be cope stay
no reason for each individual case. Constructions have little relation to counsel with looking after
lo withdraw
meaning. The advanced student can only look up the normal construction, cure
of stammering
that they should wíthd:
use it often enough to become thoroughly aware of it consciously, notice darelo to jurnp
examples when reading and finally become sufficiently familiar with it to decide to buy
use it automatically. on buying (that) he will buy
declare
The following table lists the more common constructions in alphabe- defer (that) he will sta y
applying
deign lo speak
tical order. Notes corresponding to numbers follow; where there are two
delay
possible constructions and no notes, the meaning of each construction is starting
delight
similar enough not to need special comment. In some cases, constructions in Iístening
demand lo see
which are used only occasionally are not given as these are less common deny that he should see
breaking (that) he broke
and may possibly result only in confusion. The table can be used for describe how to make making
despair
reference. deter
of teaching
from investing
determine to travel
detest (that) he would Iravel
scrubbing
VERB INFINITlVE GERUND CLAUSE direct lo proceed
discourage
abstain from voting from smoking
dislike 10 drive
accuse of cheating driving
dissuade
admit (10) knowing (that) .ooe knows from reading
doubt
advise (me) 10 rest me against going dread whether he should go
agree 10 share about sharing (that) we should share losing
dream
aim 10 write al achieving of living
(that) he woul~ live
allow! 10 go educate to appreciate
apologise for forgetting encourage to drink drinking
appear 10 like endeavour to create
approve ofsmoking enjoy
dancing
arrange to meet that we should rneet ensure
ask 10 see if (whether) 1can see entail (that) it is ready
planning
assist in compiling entitle to inherit
assume (that) he will come entreat to forgive
attempt 10 cornpose envisage
winning
avoid hurting escape (that) we should win
drowning
estímate
be (you are 10 obey) evade that it will improve
paying
be able 10 understand excel
in running
beg 10 be forgiven excuse
searching (my) interruptíng
begin 10 search expect to succeed
believe in saving (that) he lives (that) he will succeed
beware of losing faíl to realise
bid (10) sil down fancy
winning
blame for spoiling fear 10 trust (that) he will be prornot
boast gfwinning (that) tbey have won feel2 (somelhing) Iremble (that) he mUSI be ill
(somelhing) tremb- (that) something will
botber to learn about learning Iing (participle)
bribe 10 support feel like happen
resting
finish
eating
can read forbid 10 go
cause! 10 postpone force l to yield
cease to struggle struggling forecast
challenge 10 fight forger' lo pay (that) he will lose
paying
c1aim to own (that) he owns (that) one mUSI pay
command 10 advance tbat they should advance go on" lO say speaking
compel' to obey guarantee 10 deliver
complain about losing that he has lost guess (that) we shaJl deliver
confess lo stealing (that) he has stolen what he will say
had better waít
confmn writing (that) he had written happen
of preparing 10 remark
consist hasten
contemplate changing lo qualify
hate 10 admír
continue 10 row rowing hear2 writing
scream
screaming (parliciple) (that) something has
happened
VERB INFINITlVE GERUND CLAUSB
VERB INFINITlVE GERUND CLAUSE
help (to) carry profit
cannot help smiling from investing
prohibit from entering
hesitate to criticise
promise to reform
hope lo see (tbat) 1 (may) see (that) he will reform
propose to construct constructing (that) a road should be
imagine living (that) he is the director constructed
incite lO rebel protest against fighting
incur spending punish for Irespassing
induce lo contribute
read how to use
indulge in day-dreaming (that) sornething has
inform (that) 1 should apply happened
realise
inquire about going whetber he should go (that) it will fall
recall ]
insist on seeing (that) 1 should see meeting
recollect (that) something happenec
inspire lo compose
recommend to buy buying
instruct to attend (that) you should buy
refrain from applauding
intend to move refuse lo conform
invite to slay regrer' to report having reported
rely (that) we must report
joke about- making a fortune on discovering
remain standing
keep (on) tallcing rernark
know how lo knit (that) the world is round remember-' (that) the weather is fine
to take taking
remind (that) 1 must take
to send
learn (how) to drive (that) he must obey report (that) we should bring
to prepare preparing seeing (that) sales have increased
leave' reply
leave off working request (that) he disagrees
to leave
let! come resist (that) he should leave
like lo sing singing
spending ~
resolve to achieve
should like to come risk (that) he will achieve
waiting damaging
loathe
long to return say
look forward 10 celebrating scorn (that) he is hungry
to yield
love to dance dancing see2 change changing (particle)
seek (that) it has changed
lo understand
make! (someone) pay seem lO enjoy
manage to carry shirk
may borrow helping
show? how to make
mean lo finish (them) rnaking (that) something can be
mind helping (parliciple) done
sil thinking
miss seeing smell
must improve (sornething) cooking
spend time arguing
need 10,6 reorganising stand watchíng
lo reorganise
start lo rain
nOlice2 walk walking (participle) (that) he is walking raining
state
stay (that) a meeting is 10 be hel.
object to meeting to help
observe2 enter entering (participle) that someone is entering stopB to listen listening
offer to help stress
strive (that) they should bring
omit lo sign signing to win
oppose supporting struggle lO escape
order to advance study 10 pass
ought lo study succeed in ínvemíng
suppose
pause lo consider suspect (that) you are right
of cheating (that) he has cheated
pay lo watch for watching swear lo avenge
permit to attend ' (that) he is innocent
persevere in practising teach (how). to type
persist in interrupting tell to fetch
persuade to change ternpt to spend
plan to build tend to exaggerate
plead to be forgiven think of changing
train (that) he will change
pray to recover (that) he might recover to imitate
prefer to ride riding 10 driving trouble to move
prepare to set out try9 to capture using
presume lo approach (that) we may come
pretend to understand that he understands understand how to solve
undertake to return (that) 1 arn 10 write
prevent him from/bis entering
proceed lo report urge to reconsider
unite in defendina .l3.?
 - /

VERB INFINITIVE GERUND CLAUSE

The phrases so as to, in order lo emphasise the idea of purpose
venture to suggest precede a negative infinitive. There is no difference in meaning be!
visualise wearing them.
volunteer to carry
vow to return (that) he will return
He walks five miles a day in order lo keep fit,
He chose his words carefully so as not lo give the wrong irnpressi
wait to see (and see)
want to fly Constructions with adjectives
warn (about) against driving
watch2 jump jumping (participle)
wish to inspect (that) 1 could do it
(a) The commonest construction with the verb to be is:
It is interesting to study the history of one's town.
wonder (how) to malee how 1could malee
should , They were anxious to help.
would rather remain
(b) A few adjectives are followed by a gerund:
yearn to travel She was busy cooking.
It is worth doing.

make someone obey = compel, force, cause someone to obey. (e) Adjectives accompanied by prepositions are followed by the ger
let someone help = allow, permit someone to help. proud of having, accustomed/used to seeing, exempt J
paying, keen on visiting,
2 see, notice, observe, watch, hear, feel something happening (action in
(d) He was too tired to listen.
progress).
He is not clever enough to understand.
3 forget, remember, regret doing something (that has already been Would you be so kind as to wait.
done). . h'·' b d ) Two prepositions
forget, remember, regret to do something (t at IS to e one.
4 go on speaking = continue speaking. Except and but (as a preposition) are followed by an infinitive withou
go on to say = finish one subject and start another. He prornised ro do anything I wanted except wash up,
He did nothing but grumble.
5 leave working: emphasis that work is going on when the subject
leaves. k' t
leave to work: emphasis on the fact that the wor IS to star or con-
tinue after the subject has left.
Chapter 8
6 He needs to work harder.
This dock needs repairing. Short answers in
Many questions need only Yes or No for an answer. It is common in e
spoken English
7 He showed me how to catch a salmon. versation, however, to add a subject and short verbal formo
The film showed a fisherman catching a salmon. In the case of the verbs have (possess), be, can, may, must, oui
should, the verb itself is used:
8 stop doing what is being done already to start something new. Have you a ticket? Ves, 1 have.
9 try to do something difficult which has to be done.. . Can you drive? No, 1can't,
try doing something in the hope of achieving something more dif- In other cases, a suitable auxiliary is sufficient, the verb itself not be
ficult as a resulto repeated:
10 He dares to come, He dare not come, Dare he come? (He does not Does he live here? Ves, he does.
dare, Does he dare?) Will the shops be open tomorrow? No, they won't.
Must
He needs to come, He need not come, Need he come? (He does not
need, Does he need?) These are the probable short answer forms:
But, with noun or pronoun object, on1y: You don't need an umbrella. Must I register this letter? Ves, you must,
No, you needn't,
The infinitive of purpose
He came to mend the roof. Question tags in These have three main uses:
A few other examples are: spoken English (a) to confirm a preceding statement.
to shout to attract attention (b) to express doubt about the correctness of a precedíng statement. (
to work to earn a living this case a question mark follows.)
to pause to rest (e) to soften a command.
to hurry to catch a train.
The difference between these uses becomes clear on1y in speech: 23(