Construction and Building Materials 15 Ž2001.

125᎐131

Test methods for on site measurement of resistivity of

concrete ᎏ a RILEM TC-154 technical recommendation

Rob B. PolderU
TNO Building and Construction Research, Lange Kleiweg 5, P.O. Box 49, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract

This paper describes methods to assess concrete resistivity on site for various purposes related to corrosion and protection of
reinforcement. It is based on the first draft of a forthcoming RILEM Technical Recommendation. The electrical resistivity of
concrete can be related to the two processes involved in corrosion of reinforcement: initiation Žchloride penetration. and
propagation Žcorrosion rate.. The resistivity of a structure exposed to chloride indicates the risk of early corrosion damage,
because a low resistivity is related to rapid chloride penetration and to a high corrosion rate. Once damage has occurred,
resistivity is relevant for electrochemical maintenance methods. The resistivity of the cover Žnear surface. concrete can be
measured non-destructively by placing electrodes on the concrete surface, applying a voltage and measuring the current. Several
arrangements can be used, one electrode Žthe reinforcement is the second electrode., two electrodes, and four electrodes.
Practical aspects of these arrangements are discussed. Procedures for calibration are proposed. Guidelines for the interpretation
and reference values for various exposures and concrete compositions are given. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Concrete; Resistivity; Reinforcement corrosion; Measurement methods; On site methods; Non-destructive methods; NDT

1. Introduction tration. Within a structure, low resistivity spots indicate

where chloride penetration will be quickest. Preventive
This paper describes methods to assess the resistivity measures may be taken accordingly. Resistivity map-
of the cover Žnear surface . concrete on site for various ping does not show whether steel in concrete is actively
purposes related to corrosion and protection of rein- corroding. That information must be obtained using
forcement. It is based on the first draft of a RILEM other methods: chloride analysis, carbonation depth,
Technical Recommendation prepared for RILEM TC potential mapping, polarisation resistance and visual
154 ‘Electrochemical methods for measuring metallic inspection of the steel. If the steel is actively corroding,
corrosion in concrete’. This Recommendation ‘Test resistivity mapping will show at which locations corro-
methods for on site measurement of resistivity of con- sion may be strongest. Within a particular structure,
crete’ will provide background, technical details and a relative corrosion rates can be predicted. The choice
guideline for the interpretation of measurements of between local or more general repair measures can be
concrete resistivity on site. based on the distribution of the expected corrosion
The electrical resistivity of concrete is related to the rates. If maintenance actions are taken, resistivity and
principal stages in the service life of a structure: the its distribution are important for electrochemical repair
initiation period Žchloride penetration. and the propa- methods.
gation period Žcorrosion rate.. The resistivity of con- Resistivity measurements can be performed on parts
crete is related to the susceptibility for chloride pene- of structures that are exposed to air. They can be made
at any time during the life of a structure and under any
circumstances, provided the temperature is higher than
U
Corresponding author. 0⬚C.

0950-0618r01r$ - see front matter 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 0 6 1 8 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 6 1 - 1
126 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131

2. Theoretical background structures w13᎐15x. Similarly it is important for elec-

trochemical chloride removal and realkalisation w16x.
Concrete resistivity is a geometry-independent mate- For a large variation in resistivity within a structure it is
rial property that describes the electrical resistance, more difficult to obtain uniform protection ŽCP. or a
that is the ratio between applied voltage and resulting well predicted result Žchloride removal, realkalisation ..
current in a unit cell. The dimension of resistivity is In practice, parts with different resistivities Žeither due
resistance multiplied by length, its unit usually ⍀ m. to different composition or exposure. should be placed
The electrical resistivity of concrete may vary over a in separate electrical zones in order to have sufficient
wide range, from 10 1 to 10 5 ⍀ m, influenced by the control of current flow. Theoretical work in this area
moisture content of the concrete Ženvironment. and was reported in w17x.
the composition Žmaterial. w1,2x. In concrete, the cur-
rent is carried by ions dissolved in the pore liquid. 2.4. Measuring principle
More pore water Žwet concrete. as well as more and
wider pores whigh water to cement ratio Žwrc.x cause a The resistivity of the near surface concrete of a given
lower resistivity. For a constant moisture content, the structure can be measured non-destructively using elec-
resistivity is increased by a lower wrc, longer curing trodes placed on the concrete surface. This requires at
Žhydration. and by the addition of reactive minerals least two electrodes, one of which may be a reinforcing
such as blast furnace slag, fly ash and silica fume. The bar. A voltage is applied between the electrodes and
resistivity increases when the concrete dries out and the resulting current is measured Žor vice versa.. The
when it carbonates Žin particular in Portland cement ratio of voltage to current gives a resistance Ž ⍀ .. The
concrete.. The effect of the penetration of chloride resistivity is obtained by multiplying the measured re-
ions is relatively small. sistance by a conversion factor, called the cell constant
Žm.. For a given cell arrangement, the cell constant can
2.1. Concrete resisti¨ ity and chloride penetration be obtained either from theoretical considerations or
from calibration using standard concrete samples or
From theoretical and experimental work there ap- electrolytes of known resistivity.
pears to be an inverse correlation between concrete
resistivity and chloride diffusion rate w3,4x. Complete ab 2.5. Effect of temperature
initio calculation is only possible when the pore water
conductivity is known w5x, but an estimate for a certain Temperature changes have important effects on con-
concrete mix seems to be possible without this. Within crete resistivity. Overall, a temperature increase causes
a particular structure, more permeable spots will have a decrease of resistivity and vice versa. This is the
a comparatively low resistivity and strong chloride pen- result of temperature influences on ion mobility, ion-ion
etration. and ion-solid interactions. Due to the complex nature
of the interactions, an empirical approach must be
2.2. Concrete resisti¨ ity and corrosion rate followed. From laboratory work, it appears that the
temperature effect may vary with moisture content,
From the electrochemical nature of the corrosion with 3% for saturated and 5% for dry concrete for each
process, a relationship may be expected between the degree K temperature change w12,18,19x.
resistivity of concrete and the corrosion rate of rein-
forcement after depassivation. In the corrosion cell 2.6. Current flow in concrete
circuit, ion transport between anode and cathode is one
of the rate controlling factors w6x. Simplifying Bazants In concrete, the current flows through the pore liq-
model w7x, the corrosion rate is inversely proportional uid in the cement paste. Aggregate particles are essen-
to the resistivity Žthis assumes the corrosion cell voltage tially inert bodies. Consequently, concrete is not a
is constant. w8,9x. It was shown that this relationship homogeneous conductor and the flow of measuring
may be different for different concrete compositions current will be non-homogeneous. Local disturbances
w10᎐12x. In any case, within a given structure, areas may be due to steel bars Žgood conduction. or a surface
with low resistivity will have a relatively high corrosion layer with a different resistivity. The surface layer may
rate after depassivation. be carbonated, having a higher resistivity than the bulk.
With measuring electrodes far apart, the current flow
2.3. Concrete resisti¨ ity and electrochemical maintenance in the concrete will be more homogeneous. However,
methods they should be sufficiently far from the rebars. The
effect of a carbonated surface layer is small, provided
Concrete resistivity influences the effectiveness and its depth is substantially less than the electrode spacing
durability of cathodic protection ŽCP. of concrete w20,30x.
 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131 127

continuity. The method is illustrated in Fig. 2. The

resistance can be converted to resistivity using a cell
constant that depends on the cover depth Žwhich varies
over the surface . and the rebar diameter. Precise calcu-
lation of the cell constant is not possible, because the
exact current flow cannot be predicted. For maximum
precision, the cell constant can be determined empiri-
cally using concrete slabs of known resistivity. Alterna-
tively, the cell constant can be estimated. For cover
depths, disc and bar diameters being 10᎐50 mm, the
cell constant is approximately 0.1 m. So the resistivity
measured using a Žsmall. disc electrode is approxi-
Fig. 1. Setup of four electrode measurement of concrete resistivity. mately

␳ Ž disc . s 0.1U R Ž disc - bar .

2.7. Methods for on site measurement of concrete resisti¨ ity

If measuring resistivity is planned in the design stage 2.9. Two electrodes

for monitoring purposes or in the laboratory, metal
electrodes Žusually pairs of small bars. may be installed In principle, resistivity can be measured using two
before casting w21,22x. For testing on cubes or cylinders, electrodes placed on the concrete surface. It has been
two steel plates are pressed to opposite faces Žtermed demonstrated, that the size of the electrodes has an
two-electrode method, TEM. or using conductive paint important effect on the measured value w20,30x. In
w19x. These methods are outside the scope of this paper. practice, this method is expected to be less accurate
On site, without embedded electrodes, the resistivity and poorly reproducible, so it is not recommended.
can be measured using a probe with four equally spaced
point electrodes that are pressed onto the concrete 2.10. Four electrodes
surface ŽWenner or 4-point method.. The two outer
electrodes induce the current and the two inner elec- The resistance obtained via this method can be con-
trodes measure the potential drop ŽFig. 1.. The ratio of verted to resistivity using a cell constant based on
the potential drop to the current is the resistance. The theoretical considerations, by:
current flows through a volume of concrete with a
depth approximately equal to the electrode distance a. ␳ Ž 4 - point. s 2U ␲U aU R , with
A conducting liquid is used to improve the contact a the electrode spacing and R s ⌬VrI
between the concrete and the electrode tips. Measuring
errors due to the contact resistance between the elec- Due to non-homogeneity of the concrete and the
trodes and the concrete and other sources were de- finite size of the electrodes, the result is not exactly the
scribed w20,23᎐25,30x. Alternative arrangements are us- true resistivity. The correlation was studied between
ing two electrodes pressed on the surface, or one 4-point resistivity and values from cast in electrodes or
electrode on the surface with the reinforcement as the two plate measurements over a wide range of values.
second electrode. The true resistivity was obtained within an error of
Most measurements use alternating current ŽAC. 25% w26,27x.
with a frequency between 50 and 1000 Hz, usually Because rebars conduct current much better than
sinusoidal. DC is not recommended because it may concrete, they will disturb homogeneous current flow.
involve errors due to electrode polarisation. Principally While measuring with four electrodes over bars at 10
a resistance value is measured, which depends on the
geometry of the electrodes and which has to be con-
verted to resistivity, the geometry-independent material
property.

2.8. Disc method (one external electrode)

This method involves an electrode Ždisc. placed on

the concrete surface over a rebar and measuring the
resistance between the disc and the rebar. It requires a Fig. 2. Setup of one electrode Ždisc. measurement of concrete resis-
connection to the reinforcement cage and full steel tivity.
128 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131

or 20 mm depth, errors can be made by a factor of 2᎐6 four electrodes touching a metal sheet via their wooden
w27x. Even if only one of the four electrodes is near a plugs. The resistivity is measured in the normal way,
bar, current flow will be far from ideal and erroneous and the reading should be less than 1 ⍀ or 1 ⍀ m.
results will be produced. The measured result may be In the laboratory, four electrode probes and instru-
artificially low or high, depending on which electrode is ments must be calibrated by placing the electrode tips
near a rebar. So none of the measuring electrodes just in contact with liquids of known conductivity in a
should be placed above rebars. With the usual rebar container of at least 200 = 100 mm2 surface area and
spacing, the measuring electrodes should be placed 100 mm depth.
quite close. This conflicts with the need to have them Reference measurements can be carried out on
far apart to avoid non-homogeneity due to aggregate laboratory specimens, for instance cubes. Concrete
particles. A practical compromise appears to be an cubes are cast with a rib length not less than 150 mm,
electrode spacing of 30᎐50 mm. Further discussion of with aggregate not larger than 32 mm. Cement type
various sources of error for the four electrode arrange- may be ordinary Portland cement or different. If mea-
ment can be found in w20,30x. surements have to be carried out on concrete with
particularly high resistivity, it is recommended to cast
calibration specimens with high resistivity, for example
3. Practical execution of measurements by using cement with a high percentage of blast fur-
nace slag Ž70%. or fly ash Ž30%..
The cubes are stored in a fog room for at least 4
The equipment consists of a measuring instrument, weeks. For calibration measurements, they are taken
one or more probes Želectrodes. and cables to connect from the fog room and exposed to dry air for 10 min᎐1
them. Instruments for measuring concrete resistivity h , in order to evaporate the water film on the surface.
may be earth resistance meters Ž4 electrodes. or nor- For calibration, the resistivity is measured in two ways:
mal resistance meters Ž2 electrodes.. The instruments
should apply sinusoidal current of frequencies between 䢇 with two metal plates pressed to opposing Žmould.
50 Hz and 1 kHz, or other signal forms if their suitabil- surfaces via wetted cloth; and
ity is demonstrated. One instrument uses a square 䢇 with the four point probe diagonally over each of
waveform with 13 Hz and fast sampling at a particular the four vertical mould surfaces.
point in the cycle, based on advanced circuit analysis
w25x. DC instruments are not recommended because of The ‘true resistivity’ is calculated from the measure-
electrode polarisation effects. ment with the two plates using a geometrically calcu-
According to the measuring method, a probe consists lated cell constant Žs arearlength . and the four-elec-
of one or more electrodes. For one-electrode measure- trode measurement is calibrated accordingly.
ments, there should be a good electrical connection to For calibrating disc Žone electrode. measurements
the reinforcement and steel continuity is essential. For the procedure may be as follows. Cubes are cast and
four-electrode probes, the electrode spacing should be cured as described above. Resistivity is measured using
firmly fixed. Each electrode should make contact with two steel plates as described above and shown in Fig. 4.
the concrete surface via a conducting electrolyte, usu-
From the same mix, slabs are cast with reinforcing bars
ally a wetted sponge or a wetted wooden plug. Dry
at two or more cover depths, cured as the cubes. The
concrete will strongly absorb the contact liquid and
measuring electrode is placed over the rebars and
frequent wetting of the plugs is necessary.
resistance is measured. The ‘true resistivity’ is calcu-
Because resistivity measurements are sensitive to
lated from the measurement on the cubes with the two
poor conduction in the circuit, cables and connections
plates and the one-electrode results from the slabs are
should be checked carefully prior to measurements.
calibrated accordingly.
3.1. Calibration and standardisation
3.2. Precision and bias

True calibration is difficult to perform in the field. A

reasonable indication of good operation of the equip- Considerable scatter is present in most sets of resis-
ment can be obtained as follows. tivity measurements, even if they concern data from
Disc Žone electrode. method: the electrode is placed laboratory specimens cast from the same mix and ex-
on a sheet of metal via the wetted sponge that will be posed identically. In any set of measurements on ‘iden-
used on the concrete. The resistance between the elec- tical’ specimens, coefficients of variation of 10% are
trode and the metal sheet should be less than 10 ⍀. good and 20% must be considered normal. In the field,
Four electrode method: the probe is placed with all errors of 25% are well possible.
 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131 129

4. Measurement procedure

Concrete should be clean and free from oil and

other contamination. Before taking measurements, the
surface may be wetted slightly to improve the contact.
Sponges and wooden plugs should be kept moist, which
may require frequent wetting as the concrete may
absorb the wetting solution. Because the temperature
has a significant effect, it is recommended to avoid very
hot and very cold weather. Anyhow, the temperature of
the concrete should be measured.
Measurements should be carried out on representa-
tive areas with regard to: Fig. 3. Taking resistivity Žfour electrode. at various spots in the same
area to minimise influence of rebars.
䢇 concrete composition;
䢇 exposure Žexposed or sheltered, orientation to pre- structure and expose them in the laboratory in stan-
vailing winds.; and dardised conditions to determine the potential resistiv-
䢇 importance of structural element. ity. Exposure to different temperatures Žwith controlled
humidity. allows to make accurate temperature correc-
Within each area, sufficient measurements must be tions. Additionally, cores can be analysed to determine
taken to get a representative set of data. This includes the concrete composition.
the average resistivity and its variation. For mapping Core samples with two faces cut parallel are exposed
with the four electrode technique, a grid spacing of 1 m in a fog room and the resistivity in saturated conditions
is usually suitable w20x. Žpotential resistivity. is measured using metal plates
For one-electrode measurements the procedure is: ŽFig. 4.. In some cases, it may be useful to expose cores
in a climate room with 20⬚C and 80% RH to obtain
䢇 expose rebars on at least two spots, determine the resistivity representative of more sheltered conditions
bar diameterŽs., measure continuity and make a Žwhich may take a long time to achieve.. The resistivity
firm connection to the reinforcement; is calculated by:
䢇 locate rebars using a cover meter and measure the
concrete cover depths at sufficient spots for a repre- ␳ concrete s R measured ) BrL
sentative result;
䢇 measure resistance with the disc electrode over the
with ␳concrete is the resistivity Ž ⍀ m., R measured the
rebars at the same spots; and
resistance between the plates Žin ⍀ ., B the area of the
䢇 calculate the resistivity at individual spots using a
core face Žm2 . and L the length of the core Žm..
cell constant derived from the cover depths and the
Information on concrete composition can be ob-
bar diameter.
tained using chemical analysis andror polarising and
fluorescence microscopy ŽPFM.. PFM allows to de-
For four electrode measurements the procedure is:
termine the cement type Žamount of slag, fly ash., the
homogeneity of the cement paste Žquality of mixing.,
䢇 locate the rebars using a cover meter and mark the
the water-to-cement ratio, the cement content and the
rebar mesh with crayon;
type of aggregate w28x.
䢇 measure with the four electrodes as far from the
rebars as possible diagonally inside the rebar mesh
ŽFig. 3., and take five readings from the same posi-
tion, moving the electrodes at least a few mm
between readings;
䢇 take the median Žthe middle value. of the five
readings for that position;
䢇 calculate the resistivity; use a calibrated cell con-
stant for optimal precision.

4.1. Additional in¨ estigations on core samples

It may be useful to take core samples from the Fig. 4. Resistivity determination of a concrete core or cube.
130 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131

Table 1
Global reference values at 20⬚C for the electrical resistivity of dense-aggregate concrete of mature structures Žage ) 10 years.; conditions in
square brackets are corresponding laboratory climates w29x

Environment Concrete resistivity ␳concrete Ž ⍀ m.

Ordinary Portland Blast furnace slag cement
cement ŽCEM I. Ž) 65% slag. or fly ash Ž) 25%.
or silica fume Ž) 5%.

Very wet, submerged, 50᎐200 300᎐1000

splash zone, wfog roomx
Outside, exposed 100᎐400 500᎐2000
Outside, sheltered, coated,
hydrophobised Žnot carbonated. 200᎐500 1000᎐4000
w20⬚Cr80%RHx
Ditto, carbonated 1000 and higher 2000᎐6000 and higher
Indoor climate Žcarbonated.w20⬚Cr50%RHx 3000 and higher 4000᎐10 000 and higher

5. Interpretation and use of results 200 ⍀ m. can be interpreted as caused by local varia-
tions in water-to-cement ratio. Areas with 50 ⍀ m will
It may be useful to compare resistivity measured on be more susceptible to penetration of chloride from the
a structure to data of similar concrete types. In Table 1, environment than areas with 200 ⍀ m.
some reference values from laboratory studies are
given, depending on cement type and exposure. The 5.3. Relationship to corrosion rate
variations given within each group Že.g. CEM I, very
wet: 50᎐200 ⍀ m., are caused by variation of water- The relationship between concrete resistivity and
to-cement ratio and chemical cement composition w29x. corrosion rate is still subjected to study. However, a
In view of the discussion of temperature effects on general guideline can be given. Table 2 shows sug-
resistivity, it is important to realise that these reference gested interpretation of resistivity values with regard to
values have been obtained during exposure at 20⬚C. risk of corrosion. As before, it must be emphasised that
the values refer to 20⬚C. Furthermore, these reference
5.1. Meaning of absolute ¨ alues values particularly apply to OPC concrete.

The absolute value of resistivity measured on a struc-

ture can be interpreted as follows. If the cement type is 6. Concluding remarks
known, the observed resistivity is compared to the
reference value for that cement type in the relevant The electrical Žnear surface . resistivity of concrete
exposure conditions ŽTable 1.. If for example, a wet can be measured non-destructively on any structure.
structure made with OPC has a mean measured resis- Electrodes are placed on the surface and the resistance
tivity of 50 ⍀ m, it means that the water-to-cement is measured. From the cell geometry, the resistivity can
ratio must be quite high. The risk of corrosion is be calculated. The resistivity can be related to corro-
relatively high if for example de-icing salts are present sion and protection of steel reinforcement. In general,
in the environment. It should be realised that resistivity a low resistivity is related to a high risk of corrosion.
data obtained on site must be corrected for tempera- Resistivity mapping will show the most permeable spots
ture effects. In general, one degree K of temperature within a structure, where chloride penetration may be
change causes a change of 3᎐5% Žfor other factors quickest and to corrosion rates Žafter depassivation has
constant.. taken place. may be highest. Resistivity reference val-
ues, calibration procedures and information on preci-
5.2. Mapping for moisture content and concrete sion and repeatability is available.
homogeneity
Table 2
Concrete resistivity and risk of reinforcement corrosion at 20⬚C for
If the concrete composition is relatively homoge- OPC concrete w29x
neous, mapping resistivity may show wet and dry areas.
If an OPC structure has resistivity values between 100 Concrete resistivity ␳concrete Ž ⍀ m. Risk of corrosion
and 500 ⍀ m, the extreme values can be interpreted as - 100 high
indicating relatively wet and relatively dry areas. If, on 100᎐500 moderate
the other hand, the exposure Žso the moisture content. 500᎐1000 low
is uniformly wet, variations in resistivity Žsay from 50 to ) 1000 negligible
 R.B. Polder r Construction and Building Materials 15 (2001) 125᎐131 131

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