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www.cafetinnova.org ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 09, No. 05 October 2016, P.P.1916-1921

Advances in Skarn Type Gold Deposits

YANG WU AND MAO KAINAN
Resources and environment engineering institute, Guizhou Institute of Technology, GuiZhou, Guiyang, China
Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The distribution of skarn type gold deposit, ore-controlling tectonic setting, ore deposit classification,
mineralization alteration zoning and some research methods of ore deposit geochemical are reviewed. Most of
skarn type gold deposits located in the Pacific rim, The main ore-controlling tectonic setting are high Angle
convergent subduction plate on island arc orogenic belt and craton activation area associated with deep fracture
zone. As a major magmatic hydrothermal deposit, Skarn type gold deposits, have the typical phenomenon of ore
deposit scale mineralized alteration zoning and the band structure of a single mineral scale. The former has the
important instruction significance to guide the prospecting exploration and the latter, which is to understand the
evolution of ore-forming fluid and deposit genesis, has great significance. Now, the research for the
geochemical characteristic of skarn type deposit gold deposit focuses on mineral phase equilibrium, fluid
inclusions, stable isotope and trace element research. The purpose of this paper is to through the analysis of
these developments, sets up a study framework of skarn type gold ore deposit.
Keywords: Skarn type gold deposits, Metallogenic tectonic background, Deposit classification, Mineralized
alteration zonation, Geochemistry

1. Introduction for A-type subduction. It shows that the metallogenic

model for collision orogenesis is the oreforming
Skarn is an old term for silicate gangue. These
models for the most of the skarn gold deposits,
deposits were formed at elevated temperatures with
China.[4]
the addition and subtraction of material. They are
developed most often, but not invariably, at the 2. The Distribution and Metallogenic Tectonic
contact of intrusive plutons and carbonate country Background
rocks. The latter are converted to marbles, calc-
Skarn (or skarn-type) gold deposits can be divided
silicate hornfelses and/or skarns by contact
into gold only, copper–(gold), copper–iron–(gold)
metamorphic effects. The calc-silicate minerals, such
and lead–zinc–(gold), with gold only skarn as the
as diopside, andradite and wollastonite, which are
most attractive exploration target. Each
often the principal minerals in these ore-bearing
compositional type has a distinctive set of
skarns, attest to the high temperatures involved, and
characteristics and tectonic setting. The bulk of
various lines of evidence suggest a range of 650-
gold probably entered the skarn system during
400°C for initial skarn formation, but in some skarns,
retrograde alteration, concurrent with the main
particularly Zn-Pb, lower temperatures appear to have
stage of sulphide mineralisation. Skarn gold
obtained.[1-3] The pressures at the time of formation
deposits in China are distributed in various
were very variable as the depths of formation were
tectonic provinces (Fig. 1) and are hosted in rocks
probably from one to several kilometres. heavy metals
ranging in age from the Palaeoproterozoic to the
in soil and environmental evaluation has the urgency
Triassic. However, the available geochronological
and realistic necessity.
data indicate that ore-forming processes took
The mineralizing time of skarn gold deposit is mainly place from the Permian to the Cenozoic (Table 1).
of late Mesozoic, contcmporancous with the collision The importance of the skarn gold, together with
orogencsis occurred in the mainland of China; the the discrepancy between the age of the host rocks
gold orcbodics emplaced in the late stage of the and the spatial–temporal distribution of the skarn
collision orogenesis. Almost all the skarn gold deposits, requires detailed studies of ore genesis
deposits distributed in the collision orogenic belts, and of the geodynamic setting(s) of the skarn gold
fault-magmatic belts and marginal mobile belts, deposits.
especially in the Lower Yangtze River district. Their
3. Genesis of skarn deposits
metallogenie geodynamic background was the
compression-extension transition stage of collision A common pattern in the evolution of proximal
orogenesis. The geological and the geochemical skarns (skarns near or at an igneous contact) has
characteristics of the skarn gold deposits and their been recognized which takes the form of (1) initial
related igneous intrusions are exclusively coincident isochemical metamorphism, (2) multiple stages
with the metallogenic model for collision orogensis or of metasomatism, and (3) retrograde alteration

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 Advances in Skarn Type Gold Deposits 1917

Fig. 1.Simplified map of mainland China showing tectonic provinces and distribution of 70 skarn gold deposits
(Yan-Jing Chen., 2007)
Stage 1 cassiterite) and sulphides commences late in this stage
hut generally peaks during stage 3.
This involves the recrystallization of the country
rocks around the causative intrusion, producing Stage 3
marble from limestone, hornfels from shales,
This is a retrograde (destructive) stage accompanying
quartzites from sandstones, etc. Reaction skarns may
cooling of the associated pluton and involving the
form along lithological contacts. If the marbles are
hydrous alteration of early skarn minerals and parts of
impure then various calcium and magnesian silicates
the intrusion by circulating meleOlic waler. Calcium
may form and we have a calc-silicate hornfels that
tends to be leached and volatiles introduced with the
might contain minerals of economic interest, such as
development of minerals such as low-iron epidote,
talc and wollastonite. The principal process involved
chlorite, actinolite, etc. Declining temperatures lead to
in this isochemical metamorphism is diffusion of
the precipitation of sulphides. The alteration is usually
elements in what can be an essentially stationary
structurally controlled and cuts across earlier skarn
fluid, apart from the driving out of some metamorphic
patterns with the sulphide deposition often extending
water. The rocks as a whole may become more brittle
beyond the skarn boundaries into marble or hornfels.
and more susceptible to the infiltration of fluids in
Here reactions at the marble contact may lead to
stage 2.
neutralization of the hydrothermal solutions and the
Stage 2 development of high grade sulphide ores. In distal
skarns, stage I, or even stage 2, may not be developed
The infiltration of the contact rocks by hydrothermal-
and fluid inclusion work suggests formational
magmatic fluids leads to the conversion of pure and
temperatures of 350-210°C [7]. As some scholars [8]
impure marbles, and other roek types, into skarns and
pointed out the degree to which a particular stage is
the modification of calc-silicate hornfelses of stage 1.
developed in a particular skarn will depend upon its
This is a prograde metamorphic and metasomatic
geological environment. The metamorphism during
process operating at temperatures of about 800-400·C
stages 1 and 2 is likely to be more extensive and
[6] during which an ore fluid evolves, initial ore
higher grade around a skarn developed at deep crustal
deposition takes place and the pluton begins to cool.
levels than one formed at shallow depths. Conversely
The new minerals developed are dominantly
retrograde alteration during cooling and the possible
anhydrous. Deposition of oxides (magnetite,

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 09, No. 05, October, 2016, pp. 1916-1921
 1918 Y ANG W U AND M AO K AINAN

influx of meteoric water (stage 3) will probably be related type of disseminated gold deposit in contact
more intense at shallow rather than at deeper levels. metamorphosed rocks.
The origin of all the introduced material in certain
Although many skarn minerals are typical rock-
skarns, e.g. vast tonnages of iron, has been much
forming minerals, some are less abundant and most
debated. The great majority of workers who have
have compositional variations which can yield
investigated these deposits consider that in most cases
significant information about the environment of
the pluton responsible for the contact metamorphism
formation Some minerals, such as quartz and calcite,
was also the source of the metasomatizing solutions.
are present in almost all skarns. Other minerals, such
Whilst it is conceivable that a granitic pluton might
as humite, periclase, phlogopite, talc, serpentine, and
supply much silica, it might be thought unlikely that it
brucite are typica The advent of modern analytical
could have supplied the amount of iron that is present
techniques such as elec-tron microprobe analysis
in some deposits. However, Whitney have shown that
(EMPA) and laser ablation inductively coupled
it is probable that in natural magmatic systems, the
plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICPMS) makesit
concentration of iron in chloride solutions coexisting
relatively easy to determine accurate in situ mineral
with magnetite or biotite is very high. This high
com-positions and consequently, to use precise
solubility may explain the large quantities of iron in
mineralogicalnames. In the study of skarns it is
some skarns associated with granitic intrusions. On
important that mineralogi-cal names are used
the other hand, where the pluton concerned is basic,
correctly so as not to imply more than isknown about
the supply of iron does not present such great
the mineral composition. For example, the se-quence
problems. These difficulties do become
pyroxene, clinopyroxene, calcic clinopyroxene, diop-
insurmountable, however, for the small class of
sidic pyroxene, and diopside are increasingly more
pyrometasomatic deposits, such as the Ausable
specificterms with defined meanings. Unfortunately,
Magnetite District, New York State, which have no
it is all too com-mon in the geologic literature for
associated intrusions. Perhaps the main function of the
specific end-member terms,such as diopside, to be
intrusion in some examples is that of a heat engine.
used when all that is known about themineral in
4. Mineral assemblage and alteration zoning question is that it might be pyroxene. Wall rock is
altered to hornfels (quite widespread in places, and
Host rocks these deposits are in carbonate rocks,
present throughout areas as large as 15 to 20 km ),
including limestone or marble, dolomite, and
marble, bleached limestone, and skarn zones;
calcareous and dolomitic marble, pelite, argillite,
potassic, sericitic, argillic, propylitic alteration
shale, graywacke, and other clastic rocks. In terms of
assemblages are developed and plutons may contain
the bedrock type classification of Glass and others
endoskarn. Silica and marble "fronts" (sharp
[11], most host rocks for these deposit types are type
boundaries between unreplaced rock and altered rock)
IV; they are highly calcareous sedimentary rocks or
may be present. Ore minerals may be present in
metamorphosed calcareous sedimentary rocks that
massive, stratiform, vein, and (or) disseminated form;
have extensive buffering capacity. Less common host
grain size is highly variable and ranges from fine to
rocks include chert, volcanic flows and volcaniclastic
very coarse. Ore may be present in sulfide mineral
rocks, and metamorphic rocks such as slate or
zones, oxide zones, and in supergene, clay-rich
phyllite, quartzite, and amphibolite. These less
oxidized zones. Sulfide minerals and gold generally
common host rocks provide low to medium buffering
are deposited during late, retrograde alteration within
capacity. At the Beal Mountain, Mont., gold deposit,
zones characterized by hydrous calcsilicates.
gold-bearing rock is entirely in calcsilicate-bearing
Retrograde alteration may be best developed along
hornfels in clastic, quartz-rich host rocks. This deposit
faults cutting paragenetically earlier assemblages.
is atypical of skarns and may represent a distinct, but
Gold is commonly associated with a late pyrite +
quartz assemblage (veins or disseminated).

Fig. 2.The Zonation in Skarn Gold Deposits(Myers and Meinert., 1991)

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 09, No. 05, October, 2016, pp. 1916-1921
 Advances in Skarn Type Gold Deposits 1919

Skarn deposits exhibit temporal and spatial zoning range) without visible evidence of alteration. Thus,
that reflects various stages of skarn development. fluid inclusions in skarn minerals provide a relatively
Early formed prograde mineral assemblages are unambiguous opportunity to measure temperature,
variably overprinted and crosscut by retrograde pressure, and composition of skarn-forming fluids.
assemblages. Initial metamorphism forms marble and Salinities in most skarn fluid inclusions are high;
hornfels, which may be present in extensive documented daughter minerals in skarn minerals
surrounding halos. Subsequent metasomatism forms include NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, FeCl2, CaCO3, CaF2, C,
high-temperature, anhydrous calcsilicate assemblages NaAlCO3(OH)2, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, AsFeS, CuFeS2,
that may be overprinted or cut by lower temperature and ZnS .some experts describe systematic variations
hydrous assemblages including sulfide minerals in NaCl:KCl:CaCl2 ratios in fluid inclusions from
(mainly pyrite) deposited under conditions of different skarns reflecting differences in the fluid
increased sulfur concentrations. source and the degree of mixing of magmatic,
connate, and meteoric fluids. In general, magmatic
Prograde-Garnet (andradite-grossular), pyroxene
fluids have KCl>CaCl2 whereas high-CaCl2 fluids
(diopside-hedenbergite), idocrase, wollastonite.
appear to have interacted more with sedimentary wall
Retrograde-Epidote, amphibole, chlorite, prehnite,
rocks.In gold skarns, prograde garnet and pyroxene
scapolite, boron minerals, potassium feldspar, clay,
homogenization temperatures are up to 730¡C and
siderite. Ore-Gold (electrum), pyrite,pyrrhotite,
695¡C, respectively, with salinities up to 33 wt. %
chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, magnetite, hematite
NaCl equivalent. In contrast, scapolite, epidote, and
(specularite), sphalerite, galena, bismuthinite or
actinolite from these skarns have homogenization
native bismuth, hedleyite, telluride minerals,
temperatures of 320-400¡C, 255-320¡C, and 320-
molybdenite, and scheelite; gold is present as native
350¡C, respectively. In tungsten skarns, prograde
gold or electrum associated with pyrrhotite,
garnet and pyroxene homogenization temperatures are
chalcopyrite, or with quartz-pyrite assemblages.
up to 800¡C and 600¡C, respectively, with salinities
5. Geochemistry of skarn deposits up to 52 wt. % NaCl equivalent. In contrast,
amphibole and quartz from these skarns have
Skarn formation spans almost the complete range of
homogenization temperatures of 250-380¡C and 290-
potential ore-forming environments. Most
380¡C, respectively with salinities of 12-28 and 2.5-
geochemical studies of skarn deposits have focused
10.5 wt. % NaCl equivalent
on mineral phase equilibria, fluid inclusions, isotopic
investigations of fluid sources and pathways, and
determination of exploration anomaly and background
levels. Experimental phase equilibria studies are
essential for understanding individual mineral
reactions. Such studies can be extended using
thermodynamic data to include variable
compositions). Another approach is to use a self-
consistent thermodynamic database to model potential
skarn-forming solutions [12-15]. Fractionation of
elements between minerals also can be used to
estimate conditions of skarn formation. A general
review of phase equilibria applicable to skarn systems
is presented by Bowman. A more specialized
treatment of the vector representation of skarn mineral
stabilities is presented by Burt. Recent work has
incorporated standard phase equilbria treatment of Fig.3. Temperature-log oxygen fugacity diagram,
skarn mineralogy along with fluid dynamics to model showing the stability fields of major skarn silicate,
the metasomatic evolution of skarn systems Fluid oxide, and sulfide minerals(Meinert., 1998)
inclusion studies of many ore deposit types focus on
minerals such as quartz, carbonate, and fluorite which Oxidized skarns typically contain associations 1, 2,
contain numerous fluid inclusions, are relatively and 8. Reduced skarns typically contain associations
transparent, and are stable over a broad T-P-X range. 3, 4, and 7. Metamorphic skarns typically contain
However, this broad T-P-X range can cause problems associations 4, 5, 6, and 7. Associations 5 and 6 are
in interpretation of fluid inclusion data, because these not stable in oxidized skarns due to the presence of
minerals may grow and continue to trap fluids from graphite. Associations 1 and 8 are not stable in
early high temperature events through late low metamorphic skarns due to the presence of hematite.
temperature events[16-18]. In contrast, high Isotopic investigations, particularly the stable isotopes
temperature skarn minerals such as forsterite, of C, O, H, and S, have been critically important in
diopside, etc. are unlikely to trap later low documenting the multiple fluids present in most large
temperature fluids (beyond the host mineral's stability skarn systems The pioneering study of Taylor and

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 09, No. 05, October, 2016, pp. 1916-1921
 1920 Y ANG W U AND M AO K AINAN

O'Neill demonstrated the importance of both hypabyssal calc-alkaline intermediate and

magmatic and meteoric waters in the evolution of the intermediate-acid diorite, quartz monzodiorite, quartz
Osgood Mountain W skarns. Bowman et al.[24] monzonite, granodiorite andthe rocks of their
demonstrated that in high temperature W skarns, even hypabyssal facies. Most of them are of Yanshanian
some of the hydrous minerals such as biotite and and Himalayan, locally, are of Caledonian or
amphibole can form at relatively high temperatures Uariscan. The Au-bearing skarns are chiefly calcic,
from water with a significant magmatic component. only a few are magne-sian. The later occurs in the
mobile platform or shield. Most of the Au-bearing
skarns occur-ring in the island-arc setting consist
mainly of hedenbergites and belong to the reducing-
type, but in the mobile platform, the Au-bearing
skarns are chiefly composed of andradite and diop-
side, and belong to the oxidizing-type.In the ores,
gold is often intimately associated with arsenides,
bismuthide, and tellurides. In many Au-skarns
occurring in the mobile platforms, the selenides are
identified. Therefore, Cu, Au, As, Bi, Te, Ag, Co(Se)
are more specific metallic elements for Au-bearing
skarns, and referred to as an important geochemical
ore-searching indicators. In many gold skarn deposits
the mineralized zone is very clear. The comprehensive
zonal model from intrusive to carbonate wall rocks is
Fig. 5 Melt inclusions in skarn minerals (Meinert., : Cu(Mo)yCu(Fe)yCu(Au)yAuyAu (Pb,Zn,Ag).
2005)
The common methods for studying of skarns and
A. Silicate two-phase (glass + shrinkage bubble) melt skarn deposits both mac-roscopically and
inclusion in clinopyroxene from magmatic skarn from microcosmically is including remote sensing
1944 eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, Italy. B. Multiphase interpretation, physical geographical prospect-ing,
(daughter minerals and a deformed vapor bubble) field geological mapping, petrography (or
hydrosaline melt inclusion in endoskarn from 472 AD mineralogy) and mineralogy, mineral phase
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, Italy. C. Scanning electron equilibrium, fluid inclusion and stable isotope, the
microscope image of exposed melt inclusions similar newmeans developed recently such as remote sensing
to (B) containing chlorides (halite [Hal] and sylvite interpretationand quantitive calculation formineral
[Syl]), sulfates (glaserite [Gla], and arcanite [Arc]), phase equilibrium are introduced especially. The
and Na-Ca carbonate (Carb) D. Melt inclusion in consideration of in-tegration of macroscopic and
garnet from Tongguanshan, China Fe-Cu skarn microcosmic methods and constant introduction of
Sulfur isotopic studies on a variety of sulfide minerals newmeans in the skarn de-posit studies have
(including pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite, important significance in further revealing the
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, bornite, arsenopyrite, and formation and distribution of skarn deposits, and
galena) from the skarn deposits summarized in Table understanding their petrogenic and metallogenic
2 indicate a very narrow range of 34S values, mechanism.
consistent with precipitation from magmatic fluids. 5. Perspective
For some of the more distal zinc skarns, sulfur
isotopic studies indicate that the mineralizing fluids Skarn deposits that enter production today cannot be
acquired some of their sulfur from sedimentary rocks compared with skarn deposits worked a hundred, or
(including evaporites) along the fluid flow path. even twenty, years ago. Many currently active mining
or exploration projects involving skarn deposits
4. Conclusion operated at some time in the past at a smaller scale
In the past decade, great progress hasbeen made in the and are currently being re-evaluated for different
exploration and investigation of gold skarn deposits in metals (gold, silver) than were sought in past
the world and many large deposits have been enterprises. Many abandoned or inactive skarn
discovered. Au-bearing skarn deposits are distributed deposits are the focus of recent exploration because of
mainly in the Circum-Pacific metallogenic belt. economic changes or development of modern
According to their tectonic settings may be divided technology that allows previously uneconomic ore to
into three types: the Mesozoic /Cenozoic fold belts, be mined. For example, skarns that were mined in the
the Paleo-zoic fold belts, and the shield/platformal past for base metals or tungsten may now constitute
areas. The Au-bearing skarns are hosted mainly by exploration targets for gold. Known or potential
Carboniferous-Permian and Triassic carbonate clastic environmental hazards from historic mining can, in
pyroclastic formations, subordinately Tertiary, some cases, be mitigated by reopening the site to
Cambrian, and et al. The related intrusives are mainly mining activity that involves reprocessing historic
tailings using modern mining practices.

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 09, No. 05, October, 2016, pp. 1916-1921
 Advances in Skarn Type Gold Deposits 1921

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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 09, No. 05, October, 2016, pp. 1916-1921