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Lec-19 Geological Structures (Part-3)

1) A plunging fold is a fold where the fold axis is inclined rather than horizontal. The attitude of the fold axis is defined by its strike and dip. 2) Drag folding occurs when a competent bed slides over an incompetent bed during folding, forming minor folds within the limbs of major folds. 3) Chevron folds form from the folding of regularly alternating competent and incompetent layers, producing sharp, angular hinges and inter-limb angles of around 60 degrees.

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57 views17 pages

Lec-19 Geological Structures (Part-3)

1) A plunging fold is a fold where the fold axis is inclined rather than horizontal. The attitude of the fold axis is defined by its strike and dip. 2) Drag folding occurs when a competent bed slides over an incompetent bed during folding, forming minor folds within the limbs of major folds. 3) Chevron folds form from the folding of regularly alternating competent and incompetent layers, producing sharp, angular hinges and inter-limb angles of around 60 degrees.

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Plunging fold

• The attitude of the Fold Axis


or the Hinge Line is defined
by two measurements: the
bearing (strike) and its
projection (inclined or
horizontal)

• So if the Fold Axis is inclined–


Plunging Fold
Drag folding
competent
incompetent
competent

• This type of folds are formed when a


competent bed slides over and incompetent
bed.
• They are minor folds, confined to the limbs
of the major fold
Chevron folding
• When multi-layered rock complexes with
regular alternations of competent and
incompetent layers of thickness t1 and t2,
respectively, and with high ductility
contrast are subjected to compression, will
result into formation of Chevron folds.

• Hinges are sharp and angular in shape,


inter-limb angle is ~60º.
Syncline/Valley

Anticline
Inliers

Outliers

• If the older formations or rocks are surrounded by


younger rocks– Inliers

• If the younger rocks are surrounded by the older


rocks-- Outliers
100’s of km

• Folds are generally part of a large fold system eg.


Himalaya
• A major (large dimension) anticline comprising many
smaller size folds is called an Anticlinorium; and large
syncline with smaller fold as Synclinorium (they extend
for several km)
Plunging fold
Stereographic
Projections
Plotting Attitudes of the Rocks using Stereo Net
• Stereographic net is a projection of latitudinal and longitudinal lines
on a sphere.
• This net is known as “Wulff Net” stereograph, which exhibits divided
areas of equal angle.
• Lighter lines show interval of 20 and the darker lines represent 100.

W E

S
Stereographic Projections

• Stereographic projections
displays geometries and
orientations of lines and
planes i.e. the strike and
dip of the planes

• It is used for solving


• apparent dip
• The trend and plunge of
the intersection of two
planes
• Angles between planes
• Poles of the bed are plotted at a distance of 900 from the point of
the intersection of the dip.
 To know the concentration of strikes of various Beds and the
range of variable dip angle.
Bed with
orientation
N230/630SE
Plotting a fold and finding its axis
with help of Stereo net

• Attitudes of fold: (1) one


limb is orientated at
3340/300NW N3250/700NE and (2) is
orientated at N200/400NW.

• On a stereonet, this can be


7000NE0
400NW N325 /70 NE found where the two limbs
N200/400 cross each other.
NW

• In this case, the strike of fold


axis will be at: 3340/300NW.
Some important geological symbols
Strike Overturned
beds Anticline with
and Dip Overturned
limb

Vertical Strike and Dip


of Foliation Syncline with
beds Overturned
limb

Horizontal Strike and Dip


of inclined Joint
300
beds
Plunging
Anticline

Anticline Vertical Joint


300
Syncline Plunging
Horizontal Syncline
Joint

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