Page | 1

An Introduction to
Telecommunication Cables

Brussels, 20 March 2013

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 An Introduction to Telecommunication Cables
Table of content Page | 2

Chapter Page

1. Introduction 3

2. Factors determining the choice of cable designs 3

3. Installation of telecommunication cables 7

4. Duct and direct buried cable technologies 10

5. Aerial cables 15

6. In house cabling 17

7. Combining copper and fibre technologies – VDSL2 Vectoring 19

8. Cost of cables 21

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 1. Introduction

With this paper “Introduction to Telecommunication Cables” Europacable aims to provide a

technical overview of cables used in communication access networks. The paper introduces
the different cable technologies currently available – optical fibre cables, copper pair cable
and coaxial cables – and their options for installation.
Page | 3
Much of the information on optical fibre cables and their installation is based on the FTTH
Handbook “Creating a brighter future” Edition 5, published by Fibre To The Home Council
Europe in February 2012. Europacable member companies have contributed to this
publication which we believe provides a comprehensive overview of the optical fibre cables.
We thank FTTH Council Europe for the right to reference their publication.

Telecommunication cables are used when connecting a number of end users to a central
point known as an ‘Access Node’ or ‘Point of Presence’ (POP). Each Access Node contains
the necessary electronic transmission (active) equipment to provide the applications and
services to the subscriber. Each Access Node, within a large municipality or region, is
connected to a larger metropolitan or urban optical fibre network.

Access networks may connect some of the following:

 fixed wireless network antenna, for example, wireless LAN or WiMAX;
 mobile network base stations;
 subscribers in SFUs (single family units) or MDUs (multi-dwelling units);
 larger buildings such as schools, hospitals and businesses;
 key security and monitoring structures such as surveillance cameras, security alarms;
 and control devices.

In order to ensure its future competitiveness, safety, personal and data security and to
enable cloud computing, Europe needs high-speed data and telecommunication cable
networks. The lack of such networks risks becoming an important bottleneck for achieving
the objectives of Europe’s Digital Agenda.

2. Factors determining the choice of cable designs

Increasing subscriber needs for optical bandwidth will trigger the deployment of optical fibre
closer to the subscriber. Europacable member companies believe that fire optical cable
technology will be most suited to ensure the deployment of “future proof grids”. Hence this
initial section focusses on the deployment of optical fibre solutions.

The extent to which optical fibre cable are deployed instead of legacy copper pair cables or
coaxial cables depends on many variables. Not only does each physical environment
constitute different subscriber dwelling densities (per sqkm), but country conditions must also
be taken into account. The nature of the site will be a key factor in deciding the most
appropriate network design and will therefore also trigger the choice of cable design.

The main influences on the method of infrastructure deployment are:

 type of site;
 size of the network;
 initial cost of the infrastructure deployment (CAPEX);
 running costs for the network operation and maintenance (OPEX);
 network architecture, for example PON or Active Ethernet;
 local conditions, for example, local labour costs, local authority restrictions (traffic
control), right of ways.

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 The choice for cable deployment method and technology will determine CAPEX and OPEX,
as well as the reliability of the network. These costs can be optimized by choosing the most
appropriate active solution combined with the most appropriate infrastructure deployment
methodology. These cable installation methods, which are described later, include:
 conventional underground duct and cable;
 blown micro-ducts and cable; Page | 4

 direct buried cable;

 aerial cable;
 other “right of way” solutions.

Key functional requirements for a high bandwidth access network include:

 provision of high-bandwidth services and content to each subscriber;
 a flexible network architecture design with capacity to meet future needs;
 an ultimate direct fibre connection of each end subscriber directly to the active
equipment, ensuring maximum available capacity for future service demands;
 support for future network upgrades and expansion;
 minimal disruption during network deployment.

In order to specify the interworking of passive and active infrastructures, it is important to

make a clear distinction between the topologies used for the deployment of the fibres (the
passive infrastructure) and the technologies used to transport data over the fibres (the active
equipment). The two most widely used topologies are point-to-multipoint, which is often
combined with a passive optical network (PON) technology, and point-to-point, which
typically uses Ethernet transmission technologies.

Figure 1: Passive Optical Network (PON) Figure 2: Active Ethernet Network

Various access network architectures can be implemented:

 Fibre to the home (FTTH): Each subscriber is connected by a dedicated fibre to a
port on the equipment in the POP, or to the passive optical splitter, using shared
feeder fibre to the POP and 100BASE-BX10 or 1000BASE-BX10 transmission for
Ethernet connectivity or GPON (EPON) in case of point-to-multipoint connectivity.

 Fibre to the building (FTTB): Each optical termination box in the building (often
located in the basement) is connected by a dedicated fibre to a port in the equipment
in the POP, or to an optical splitter which uses shared feeder fibre to the POP. The
connections between subscribers and the building switch are not fibre but can be
copper based and involve some form of Ethernet transport suited to the medium
available in the vertical cabling. In some cases building switches are not individually
connected to the POP but are interconnected in a chain or ring structure in order to

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 utilize existing fibres deployed in particular topologies. This also saves fibres and
ports in the POP. The concept of routing fibre directly into the home from the POP or
through the use of optical splitters, without involving switches in the building, brings
us back to the FTTH scenario.

 Fibre to the curb (FTTC): Each switch / or DSL access multiplexer (DSLAM), often Page | 5
found in a street cabinet, is connected to the POP via a single fibre or a pair of fibres,
carrying the aggregated traffic of the neighbourhood via Gigabit Ethernet or 10
Gigabit Ethernet connection. The switches in the street cabinet are not fibre but can
be copper based using 100BASE-BX10, 1000BASE-BX10 or VDSL2. This
architecture is sometimes called “Active Ethernet” as it requires active network
elements in the field.

FTTH/B access networks are considered the ultimate target architecture due to their virtually
unlimited scalability. When designing and building access networks, it is helpful to
understand the challenges and trade-offs facing potential network owners and operators.
Some challenges may result in conflicts between functionality and economic demands. It is
quite common that network operators choose for a tiered network upgrade by first deploying
FTTC and in a second stage FTTH/B.

Figure 3: Different types of access networks

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 Expanding outwards from the Access Node towards the subscriber, the key infrastructure
elements are:

Infrastructure Typical physical form

elements
Access Node or POP Building communications room or separate building
Page | 6
(Point of Presence)
Feeder cable Large size mostly optical cables and supporting infrastructure
e.g. ducting or poles
Primary fibre Easy access underground or pole-mounted cable closure or
concentration point external optical fibre cabinet (passive, no active equipment) with
(FCP) large distribution capacity.

Distribution cabling Medium size optical cables and supporting infrastructure, e.g.
ducting or poles, multi pair copper cable

Secondary fibre Small easy access underground or pole cable joint closure or
concentration point external pedestal cabinet (passive, no active equipment) with
(FCP) medium/low fibre capacity and large drop cable capacity.

Drop cabling Copper cables, low fibre-count cables or blown fibre units/
ducting or tubing to connect subscriber premises.

Internal cabling Internal cabling Includes external building cable entry devices,
internal cabling and final termination unit.

Figure 4: Main physical elements including cabling in an access network

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 3. Installation of telecommunication cables

3.1 Installation in ducts

Installing telecommunication cables in ducts is the most conventional method of underground

cable installation. It involves creating a duct network to enable subsequent installation of
Page | 7
cables using a pulling, blowing or floatation technique.

A conventional duct infrastructure can be constructed in several ways:

 main duct system containing smaller, rigid flexible ducts for individual cable
installations;
 large diameter ducts allowing cable to be pulled progressively as the network grows;
 small diameter ducts for single cable installation.

Multiple cables can be installed in a single duct, but need to

be put in place simultaneously or alternatively, multiple
draw ropes need to be pre-installed. However, a single duct
system can limit the number of cables that can be installed.

Entanglement of the cables and high friction between cable 110mm main duct
jackets may make it difficult to extract older cables from full
ducts to allow space for new cable. It is normal for older
cables to be located at the bottom of the duct.

Rigid sub ducts reduce the total number of cables that can 110mm main duct with four rigid
be installed but also involve the need to remove the older sub ducts
cables. This method incorporates both cable blowing as
well as cable pulling, as it helps to create an airtight
connection to the sub duct.

Flexible textile sub ducts maximize the total number of

cables which can be installed in a duct and at the same
time allow older cables to be removed easily. In general, 110mm main duct with nine
flexible sub ducts triples the number of cables which can be flexible sub ducts
installed in a main duct.
Figure 5: Duct installation options

3.2 Installation in micro ducts

Installing telecommunication cables in so called ‘micro ducts’ utilises compressed air to blow
fibre units and small diameter cables rapidly through a network of tubes to the subscriber/
premises. Fibre deployment can be deferred until subscriber requirement has been
confirmed thus avoiding speculative up-front build programmes.

In addition, the number of splices can be minimised by blowing long lengths of fibre through
the network of tubes (which themselves are easily joined via push-fit connectors). Blown
micro ducts may be used in combination with ducts, direct buried and aerial infrastructure
and the tubes may be housed in constructions designed for any of these three methods.

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 Thick-walled micro ducts do not need to be placed or
blown inside another duct or tube. Bundles of thick-walled
micro ducts offer the most user-friendly connector
solution.

From a technical perspective, this is the optimal solution

for near-surface needs where temperatures may vary Page | 8
significantly. These products can be direct buried over
long distances in bundles of 2, 4, 6, 7, 12, or 24, or buried
individually over shorter distances. In addition, micro ducts
offer the easiest solution for branching, remove the thin
outer coating and snap on a connector.

Tight-bundled micro ducts offer a larger number of micro

ducts pre-installed in a standard duct. They consist of a
standard HDPE duct pre-sheathed around a bundle of
micro ducts. Both the main duct and the micro ducts come
in a variety of sizes to accommodate different types of Figure 6: Example of micro
ducting: thick walled micro duct
fibre cables. Tight-bundled micro ducts are sheathed to
and branching
avoid buckling which makes them less susceptible to
temperature changes.

Loose bundled micro ducts are notable for their high crush resistance and record-breaking
distances over which fibre can be blown. Loose bundled micro ducts are installed in two
ways: Pre-installed in various size HDPE ducts suitable for laying directly in trenches and
branched where necessary. Blown in after the HDPE ducts have been buried and an optimal
solution for network expansion flexibility.

3.3 Direct buried installation

Direct burial of telecommunication cables offers a safe, protected and hidden environment for
cables. However, before the cables are laid in a narrow trench, a detailed survey must be
conducted to avoid damaging other buried services which may be in the vicinity. There are a
number of excavation techniques that can be used to dig the trench including mole
ploughing, open trenching, slotting and directional drilling. A combination of these options
can be used in a deployment area.

3.4 Aerial installation

Aerial cables are supported on poles or other tower

infrastructures and represent one of the more cost-
effective methods of deploying drop cables in the final link
to the subscriber. The main benefits are the use of
existing pole infrastructure to link subscribers, avoiding the
need to dig in roads to bury cables or new ducts. Aerial
cables are relatively quick and easy to install, using
hardware and practices already familiar to local installers.
Figure 7: Aerial cable installation
The poles to which the optical cable is to be attached may already loaded with other cables
attached to them. Indeed, the pre-existence of the pole route could be a key reason for the
choice of this type of infrastructure. Adding cables will increase the load borne by the poles,
therefore it is important to check the condition of the poles and their total load capacity. In
some countries, such as the UK, the cables used in aerial cabling have to be designed to
break if they come into contact with high vehicles to avoid damage to the poles.

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 3.5 Other installations options using rights of way

In addition to traditional cabling routes, other right of way (RoW) access points can also be
exploited if they are already in situ. By deploying cables in water and sewage infrastructure,
gas pipe systems, canals and waterways as well as other transport systems, savings can be
made in time as well as costs. Cable installations in existing pipe-networks must not intrude
on their original function. Restrictions to services during repair and maintenance work have Page | 9
to be reduced to a minimum and coordinated with the network operators.

Cables in sewer systems

Sewers may be used for access networks as not only do

they access almost every corner of the city they also
pass potential subscribers.

In addition the utilisation of the sewage system negates

the need to seek digging approval and reduces the cost
of installation.
Figure 8: Cable installation in sewers
Tunnel sizes in the public sewers range from 200mm in diameter to tunnels that are
accessible by boat. The majority of public sewer tunnels are between 200mm and 350mm in
diameter which is a sufficient cross-section for installation of one or more micro duct cables.

Various installation schemes are possible depending on the sewer cross-section. One
scheme uses steel bracings that fix corrugated steel tubes, which are used to transport the
cable, to the inner wall of the smaller sewer tube without the need to drill, mill or cut. This is
done by a special robot based on a module used for sewer repairs.

Optical cables in gas pipes

Gas pipelines can also be used for deploying optical fibre networks without causing major
disruption and requiring extensive road works to the community which is the norm in the case
of conventional cut and fill techniques. The fibre network is deployed using a specially
developed I/O port which guides the cable into and out of the gas pipe, bypassing the gas
valves. The cable is blown into the gas pipes by means of a stabilized parachute either by
using the natural gas flow itself or by using compressed air, depending on the local
requirements. The gas pipeline system provides good protection for the optical fibre cable,
being situated well below the street surface and other infrastructures.

Underground and transport tunnels

Fibre optic cable can be installed in underground
tunnels, often alongside power and other data cabling.
These are most frequently attached to the wall of the
tunnel on hangers. They may be fixed in a similar
manner to cables used in sewers. Two key issues to
consider are fire performance and rodent protection.
Should a fire occur in a transport tunnel, the need to
evacuate personnel is critical. Figure 9: Cable installation in tunnels
IEC TR62222 gives guidance on “Fire performance of communication cables in buildings”,
which may also be applied to transport tunnels if the fire scenarios are similar. This lists
potential hazards such as smoke emission, fire propagation, toxic gas and fumes, which can
all hinder evacuation.

Potential users of underground and transport tunnels should ensure that all local regulations
for fire safety are considered prior to installation. This would include fixings, connectivity and
any other equipment used. Cables in tunnels can also be subject to rodent attack and
therefore may need extra protection in the form of corrugated steel tape, for example.

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 4 Duct and direct buried cable technologies

4.1 Optical fibre cables

Page | 10

Although optical fibre cable designs can vary, they are, however, based on a small number of
elements. The first and most common building block is a loose tube. This is a plastic tube
containing the required number of fibres (typically 12). This tube is lined with a tube filling
compound that both buffers the fibres and helps them to move within the tube as the cable
expands and contracts according to environmental and mechanical extremes. Other building
blocks include multiple fibres in a ribbon form or a thin, flexible easy-strip tube coating also
called micro module. Both ribbon and micro modules allow smaller diameter cables relative
to loose tube. Smaller cable diameters are increasingly important when using existing and
already occupied ducts where there is less space available for blowing cables.

Tubes containing individual fibres or multiple ribbons are laid around a central cable element
that comprises of a strength member with plastic jacketing. Water blocking materials such as
waterswellable tapes or grease can be included to prevent moisture permeating radially or
longitudinally through the cable, which is over-sheathed with polyethylene (or alternative
materials) to protect it from external environments. Fibres, ribbons or micro modules
(protected by a coloured micro-sheath or identified by a coloured binder) may also be housed
within a large central tube. This is then over sheathed with strength elements.
If cables are pulled using a winch, they may need to be stronger than those that are blown as
the tensile force applied may be much higher.

Blown cables need to be lightweight with a degree of

rigidity to aid the blowing process. The presence of the
duct affords a high degree of crush protection, except
where the cable emerges into the footway box. Duct
cables are normally jacketed and non-metallic which
negates the need for them to be earthed in the event of
lightning. However, they may contain metallic elements
for higher strength (steel central strength members), for
remote surface detection (copper elements) or for added Figure 10: Blown fibre cable with 4
moisture protection (longitudinal aluminium tape). Duct fibres
environments tend to be benign, but the cables are
designed to withstand possible long-term flooding and

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 occasional freezing.

Micro duct tubes house micro duct cables (e.g. 96 fibre

6.4mm diameter for use in a 10mm/8mm micro duct) or
very small blown-fibre unit cables 1 to 3 mm in diameter
which allows for up to 12 fibres (e.g. 4 fibres in a 1 mm
cable for use in 5 mm/3.5 mm tubes). Page | 11
The cables used in these tubes are of a small lightweight
design that needs a tube for protection. In other words, Figure 11: Micro duct cable
the tube and cable act together as a system.

The cables are installed by blowing and may be coated with a special substance to aid
blowing. The micro duct size must be chosen to suit the cable and required fibre count.
Typical combinations of cable and duct sizes are given in the following table, however other
sizes and combinations can be used.

Figure12: Micro duct optical fibre cables (not to scale)

Figure 13: Examples of Fibre units. Micro duct spelling in diagram

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 Direct buried cables are similar to duct cables as they
also employ filled loose tubes. The cables may have
additional armouring to protect them, although this
depends on the burial technique.

Pre-trenching and surrounding the buried cable with a

layer of sand can be sufficient to allow for lightweight Page | 12
cable designs to be used, whereas direct mole-ploughing
or backfilling with stone-filled soil may require a more
Figure 14: cable with corrugated
robust design. Crush protection is a major feature and steel protection
could consist of a corrugated steel tape or the
application of a thick sheath of suitably hard
polyethylene.

For direct buried applications, additional protection has

to be considered. Non-metallic designs may be favoured
in areas of high lightning activity. However these have
less crush protection than a cable with a corrugated steel
tape. The steel tape can cope with a direct lightning
strike, particularly if the cable contains no other metallic Figure 15: Non-metal direct buried
components and it also offers excellent crush protection. cable
Corrugated steel tape has proven to be one of the best protections against rodent damage or
other burrowing animals. If the cable has to comprise of non-metallic materials then an option
could be a complete covering of glass yarns which may deter rodents to some degree.Nylon
sheaths, though expensive, offer excellent protection against termites. Nylon resists bite
damage, and is chemically resistant to the substances excreted by termites.

4.2 Copper cables

Access networks still consist partly of copper cable, mostly from the Fibre Concentration
Point or street cabinet to the building. Copper cables are then installed similar to fibre optical
cable in ducts, direct buried or aerial.

4.2.1 Twisted (multi) pair telecom cables

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two

conductors of a single circuit are twisted together for the
purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference
(EMI) from internal and external sources. Twisted pair
cables are found in many Ethernet networks and
telephone systems.

For indoor telephone applications, twisted pairs are often

grouped into sets of 25 pairs. Two type of twisted pair
cable are used: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and STP Figure 16: Unshielded twisted pair
(Shielded Twisted Pair). cable

The cables are typically made with copper wires measured at 22 or 24 American Wire Gauge
(AWG), with coloured insulation made of polyethylene and PVs or halogen free jackets.

For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is
divided into smaller but identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have
different twist rates. The bundles are in turn twisted together to make up the cable. Pairs
having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience some degree of crosstalk.

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 Wire pairs are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk within a large cable. Twisted pair
cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of
its relatively lower costs compared to optical fibre and coaxial cable.

In multipair cables, 2 pairs can also be grouped into

quads. Pairs/quads can be grouped together. The
transmission performance of twisted pair cables depends Page | 13
on many components.
Figure 17: Shielded twisted pair
cable
For VDSL application, pairs are often
grouped together and slightly larger copper
wire diameter may be used.

Like optical drop cables, copper drop

cables provide the home connection and
can be provided by direct buried, duct or
aerial installation. Typical pair count for a
drop cable is from 1 to 8 pairs per home.
Figure 18: 3*8 pair VDSL cable

4.2.2 Coaxial cables

Coaxial cables can be used as an alternative to copper pairs. Coaxial cables conduct
electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a solid copper, stranded copper or copper
plated steel wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield, typically one
to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape.

The cable is protected by an outer insulating

jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground
potential and a voltage is applied to the centre
conductor to carry electrical signals.

The advantage of coaxial design is that electric

and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric
with little leakage outside the shield. On the
converse, electric and magnetic fields outside the
cable are largely kept from causing interference to
signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables
and cables with multiple shields have less
leakage. Figure 19: Coaxial cable

This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot
tolerate interference from the environment or for higher electrical signals that must not be
allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.

Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and
microwave transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections. Coaxial cable
design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling
capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost. The inner conductor might be solid or stranded;
stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner conductor may
be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is often used as an inner conductor for cable used
in the cable TV industry.

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 The insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic, or air with
spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of dielectric control some electrical
properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene (PE) insulator, used in
lower-loss cables. Solid Teflon (PTFE) is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use
air (or some other gas) and have spacers to keep the inner conductor from touching the
shield.
Page | 14
Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield. This allows the
cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner
dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat. Sometimes the braid
is silver-plated. For better shield performance, some cables have a double-layer shield.[4]
The shield might be just two braids, but it is more common now to have a thin foil shield
covered by a wire braid. Some cables may invest in more than two shield layers, such as
"quad-shield", which uses four alternating layers of foil and braid. Other shield designs
sacrifice flexibility for better performance; some shields are a solid metal tube. Those cables
cannot be bent sharply, as the shield will kink, causing losses in the cable.
For high-power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz, coaxial cable with a solid
copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upward. The outer conductor is
rippled like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner conductor is held in position by a
plastic spiral to approximate an air dielectric.

Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) material to maintain

the spacing between the centre conductor and shield. The dielectric losses increase in this
order: Ideal dielectric (no loss), vacuum, air, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene
foam, and solid polyethylene. A low relative permittivity allows for higher-frequency usage.
An inhomogeneous dielectric needs to be compensated by a non-circular conductor to avoid
current hot-spots.

The insulating jacket can be made from many materials. A common choice is PVC or PE, but
some applications may require fire-resistant materials. Outdoor applications may require the
jacket resist ultraviolet light, oxidation and rodent damage. Flooded coaxial cables use a
water blocking gel to protect the cable from water infiltration through minor cuts in the jacket.
For internal chassis connections the insulating jacket may be omitted.

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 5. Aerial cables

Aerial cables are supported on poles or other tower infrastructures and represent one of the
more cost-effective methods of deploying drop cables in the final link to the subscriber. The
main benefits are the use of existing pole infrastructure to link subscribers, avoiding the need
to dig in roads to bury cables or new ducts. Aerial cables are relatively quick and easy to
install, using hardware and practices already familiar to local installers. Page | 15

Figure 20: Types of aerial cable include circular self-supporting (ADSS or similar)

ADSS is useful where electrical isolation is important, for example, on a pole shared with
power or data cables requiring a high degree of mechanical protection. This type of cable is
also favoured by companies used to handling copper cables, since similar hardware and
installation techniques can be used. The Figure-8 design allows easy separation of the
optical package avoiding contact with the strength member. However, with the ADSS cable
design, the strength member bracket is part of the cable. ADSS cables have the advantage
of being independent of the power conductors as together with phase-wrap cables they use
special anti-tracking sheath materials when used in high electrical fields.

Wrapped aerial cable Example of ADSS cable Example of Figure 8 cable

Figure 21: Aerial cable designs (possibly micro bundle instead of multi loose tube)

Lashed or wrapped cables are created by attaching conventional cable to a separate

catenary member using specialist equipment; this can simplify the choice of cable. Wrap
cables use specialised wrapping machines to deploy cables around the earth or phase
conductors.

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 If fibre is deployed directly on a power line this may involve OPGW (optical ground wire) in
the earth. OPGW protects the fibres within a single or double layer of steel armour wires. The
grade of armour wire and the cable diameters are normally selected to be compatible with
the existing power line infrastructure. OPGW offers excellent reliability but is normally only an
option when ground wires also need to be installed or refurbished.

Aerial cables can have similar cable elements and construction to those of duct and buried Page | 16
optical fibre cables described previously. Circular designs, whether self-supporting, wrapped
or lashed, may include additional peripheral strength members plus a sheath of polyethylene
or special antitracking material (when used in high electrical fields). Figure-8 designs
combine a circular cable with a high modulus catenary strength member. If the feeder cable
is fed by an aerial route then the cable fibre counts will be similar to the underground version.
It should be noted that all of the above considerations are valid for blown fibre systems
deployed on poles or other overhead infrastructures. Extra consideration needs to be taken
of environmental extremes that aerial cables can be subjected to including ice and wind
loading. Cable sheath material should also be suitably stabilised against solar radiation.
Installation mediums also need to be seriously considered (e.g. poles, power lines, short or
long spans, loading capabilities).

Aerial cables are installed by pulling them over pre-attached pulleys and then securing them
with tension and suspension clamps or preformed helical dead-ends and suspension sets to
the poles. Installation is usually carried out in reasonably benign weather conditions with
installation loading often being referred to as the everyday stress (EDS). As the weather
changes, temperature extremes, ice and wind can all affect the stress on the cable. The
cable needs to be strong enough to withstand the extra loading. Care also needs to be taken
to see that installation and subsequent additional sagging, due to ice loading for example,
does not compromise the cable’s ground clearance (local authority regulations on road
clearance need to be taken into account) or lead to interference with other pole-mounted
cables with different coefficients of thermal expansion.

Aerial products may be more susceptible to vandalism than ducted or buried products.
Cables can, for example, be used for illegal shot gun practice. This is more likely to be low
energy impact, due to the large distance from gun to target. If this is a concern then
corrugated steel tape armouring within a Figure-8 construction has been shown to be very
effective. For non-metallic designs, thick coverings of aramid yarn, preferably in tape form,
can also be effective. OPGW cable probably has the best protection, given that it has steel
armour.

Alternative optical fibre aerial cable, also copper twisted pair cable is installed in aerial
networks (see section 4.2 for more details on twisted pair):

Figure 22: Aerial copper multi twisted pair and aerial copper drop cable

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 6. In house cabling

In this chapter, cabling from building entry point to customer telecommunication outlet is
discussed There are a couple of in building network typologies:

Page | 17

Figure 23: Indoor network typologies

The cable designs are more or less the same for these 4 configurations. In principle, the
following cable parts are inside a building:

6.2 Riser cables

The vertical part is often referred to as riser cable. Riser

fibre cables or ducts fed with fibres are normally installed
in existing cable conduits e.g. electrical installations or
individually installed cable conduits for the FTTH
network. It is common to install a vertical riser from the
basement or the top floor of the building. The vertical
riser represents the most time consuming installation
part of in-house cabling, especially in the section where
local fire regulations need to be taken into account as
they often pass stairways used as escape routes. The
fire performance of indoor and outdoor cables should
comply with the requirements of the IEC 60332, IEC Figure 24: Vertical riser cable and
60754 and IEC 61034 series. horizontal drop cable

The number of fibres per subscriber and the number of apartments depend on the
architecture. In the building, the riser cables can have various structures: mono fibre, bundles
of mono fibre, or bundles of multiple fibres.

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 The bundling of fibres is done by tight buffer, extractable micro modules or loose tube. As
these cables are installed in difficult conditions (e.g. low bending radius across edges) use of
the new bend-insensitive fibres should be considered.

Page | 18

Figure 25: Example of riser cables, tight buffer and extractable micro module.

6.2 Horizontal drop cables

The horizontal part is referred to as drop cable. The cable requirements and cable installation
are more or less the same as for riser cable but typically the number of fibres is from 1 to 4,
depending on legislation and network owner standards. In order to speed up installation of
drop cables, riser and drop cables can be pre-terminated, i.e. connectors are factory
mounted in advance.

Figure 27: Example of pre-terminated

drop cable

Figure 26 Example of a 4 fibre indoor drop cable

6.3 Consideration of fibre choice

Inside buildings, fibers face installation practices with sharper bents. All indoor cables are
recommended to use so called bend insensitive optical fiber as per ITU G.657.A /B in
accordance to the fiber ITU 657 standard for FTTx applications/solutions.

6.4 Copper indoor data cables

Optical fibre cable can be substituted by copper twisted pair cable. For indoor applications
these are often referred to as category cable.

Generic cabling systems are defined in the series of EN 50173 and allow 100m channel
length (incl. patch cords) as standard implementation in offices premises, homes, etc.
The applicable standard for data cables are:
 EN50288 series which cover unscreened cables up to 500 MHz and screened cables
up to 1000 MHz. These cables are used in horizontal floor and building backbone
wiring for information technology, such as generic-cabling systems carrying protocols
from 100 Mbit/s to 10 gigabit/s.

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  EN50441 series which cover the same transmission protocols as EN50288 but are
designed to match the specific constrains of home cabling such as multimedia analog
transmission up to 1200 MHz and particular type of laying as stapling or in wall laying.

Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference.
Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. This shielding can be
applied to individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the Page | 19
collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening.
Shielding provides an electric conductive
barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves
external to the shield and provides
conduction path by which induced currents
can be circulated and returned to the
source, via ground reference connection.
This is particularly important in home
cabling where the electromagnetic
environment is unpredictable and noises
from nearby electrical device or external
random noises may occur. Figure 28: Example of Category 6 UTP
Figure 29: Example of Category 7 S/FTP
All shielded cables must be grounded for
safety and effectiveness and a continuous
shield connection maintained from end to
end.

7. Combining copper and fiber technologies – VDSL2 Vectoring

Combining copper and fibre optical technologies currently is a widely used form of
deployment. Many incumbent operators currently deploy FTTC/FTTN networks (as described
in Figure 3) and then combine fiber optic cables from the Access Nodes (also central Office)
to the Fibre Concentration Point (also referred as street cabinet) while xDSL cables (multi
pair copper) are used from street cabinet to premises. The optical signal is converted to
electrical signal in the street cabinet.

Today, service providers have three main options to drive higher speeds on copper:
 Deploy VDSL2 with its broadened frequency band;
 Shorten the copper loops; or
 Use multiple copper pairs (known as bonding).
While the above options shorten VDSL2 loop lengths and improve the bandwidth
considerably, crosstalk between copper pairs prevents maximum performance and is
typically the largest impairment reducing the bandwidth.

VDSL2 Vectoring is a technique to remove this crosstalk: VDSL2 Vectoring is standardized in

the International Telecommunication Union– Telecommunication Standardization Sector
(ITU-T) G Vector standard11. It is a noise-cancellation technology, comparable in concept to
the technology found in noise cancelling headphones. With VDSL2 Vectoring, the crosstalk
on each line in a DSL binder, or cable, is measured, and an anti-phase signal is applied to
each line to remove the crosstalk. With VDSL2 Vectoring, every line in a binder can operate
at peak performance, as if there were no other VDSL2 lines in that binder. Vectoring can
deliver today up to 100 Mb/s downstream and 40 Mb/s upstream over max 400 meter
distance.

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 The main advantage of VDSL vectoring is the reduction of CAPEX: FTTH is 3 times more
expensive than FTTH and 2 times more expensive than FTTB.1 For incumbent operators with
falling revenues, the extension of economic lifecycle of existing copper cable access
networks is very attractive. See figure below:

Page | 20

Figure 30: Telecom Italia Capex of FTTC vs FTTH

The main disadvantage of VDSL vectoring is that performance is not future proof and
eliminates competition between network operators and service providers. Although speeds of
100 Mb/s can be achieved, actual performance depends strongly on many factors:
 Limited distance between street cabinet and customer premises: not suited for more
rural areas;
 Quality of the copper access network (wire diameter);
 Number of operators/service providers on the access network: Vectoring inhibits
effective unbundling of physical infrastructure. Unbundling of services is only possible
at the central office. The incumbent operator would operate on vectoring but the
alternative operator can only operate standard DSL without vectoring. When multiple
operators would both want to operate VDSL2 with vectoring, this would mean co-
location of street cabinets to host VDSL2 equipment leading to unattractive business
cases. See figure below:

1
Source Alcatel-Lucent and Telecom Italia: main savings in civil works as no cable installation is
needed from street cabinet to customer

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 Page | 21

Figure 31: Unbundling DSL services and impact on performance

8. Cost of cables

Overall considerations
Respecting EU competition requirements, Europacable can only provide general statements
regarding cost factors of telecommunication cables.

Also each project is unique and a full macroeconomic assessment of the cable system
should be made that takes into consideration installation costs, life costs, maintenance costs,
impact on land / property, environmental protection etc.

Europacable would like to highlight that the cost of high quality cables represent only a
marginal part of the total cost of deployment. In the case of optical fibres the cost of cables
reverts to approximately 15%.

The highest cost factor results from the cost of installations. Often telecommunication cables
need to be installed alongside other existing infrastructure. This complicates deployment and
therefore raises installation costs significantly. Notably the final access to home can entails
high installation costs.

Europacable take the view that reducing the installation costs of high speed communication
infrastructures in Europe will be crucial to ensure Europe’s competitiveness in the
21stcentury, will generate socio-economic as well as environmental benefits and last but not
least will secure and create employment in a future oriented sector.

Europacable believes that the core objective for reducing the cost of high speed
communication infrastructure should be to make Europe’s digital networks “future proof”.
With this we mean:
1. Stimulating and coordinating civil and building works deployment notably with regard
to the final access to the home;
2. Ensure using existing rights of ways and infrastructures whenever possible to reduce
environmental impact and cost;
3. Systematically installing future proof infrastructure which can be easily upgraded,
easily maintained and easily expanded
4. Deploying only high quality fibre technology that will provide reliable service for
decades;

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 Europacable member companies are committed to support this development through
sustained R&D investments and the production of high speed communication cables in
Europe.2

For further information please visit our website www.europacable.com or contact:

Dr. Volker Wendt, Director Public Affairs, Europacable, [email protected] Page | 22

About Europacable
Founded in 1991, Europacable represents about 85% of the European wire and cable
industry. Our member companies include European multinationals providing global
technology leadership, as well as highly specialized small- and medium sized producers of
energy, telecommunication and data cables. In 2009, the industry had a total consumption of
€20 billion in wire & cables resulting in the manufacture in Europe alone of some 38 million
km of cables. Europacable is listed in the European Commission’s transparency register
under: 453103789-92.

2
For further information please see: Europacable Contribution to Public Consultation on an EU
Initiative to Reduce the Cost of Rolling out High Speed Communication Infrastructure in Europe,
Brussels, 14 July 2012, www.europacable.com

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