A QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION OF

MARKET ORIENTATION
MEASUREMENT SCALE FOR
VIETNAMESE INSTANT COFFEE
INDUSTRY

Case: Trung Nguyen, Nescafé, and Vinacafé

LAHTI UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED

SCIENCES
Degree programme in International
Business
Thesis
4th April 2015
Nhu Anh Mai
Lahti University of Applied Sciences
Degree Programme in International Business

MAI, NHU ANH A qualitative examination of market orientation

measurement scale for Vietnamese instant coffee
industry

Case: Trung Nguyen, Nescafé, and Vinacafé

Bachelor’s Thesis in International Business, 98 pages, 7 pages of appendices

Spring 2015

ABSTRACT

Market orientation is a topic that draws much attention of marketing researchers

since the 1950s. There has been many studies contribute to the understanding of
this subject. And, researchers find out that market orientation brings many benefit
to the company. Most of the studies adopt qualitative method and are conducted in
cross-industry context. The cross-industry analysis while provide a broad view of
market orientation and business performance, it lacks of focus on a specific
industry. Previous theses confirm the relationship between market orientation and
business performance in different industries. There exists an urge to concentrate
the focus on a specific industry. Moreover, the author realizes that the market
orientation has not yet received much attention in Vietnam because Vietnamese
company lacks of knowledge and tool to apply it into practice. As a result, this
thesis comes into exists with the purpose to provide readers knowledge about
market orientation, benefits of market orientation, and how to measure it in the
Vietnamese instant coffee context.

The outcome of the research points out that the market orientation positively
affects business performance of case company. In addition, the study reveals that
traditional measurement scales for market orientation need modification to fit the
practice of Vietnamese companies. The modified version of measurement scale is
presented as one of the outcomes of this study. This proposed measurement scale
will help Vietnamese instant coffee companies to keep track of their business
activities and improve company performance.

The thesis has achieved its objectives. After reviewing, the validity and reliability
of the study are confirmed. However, the study inevitably has some limitations
that this study is restrictedly applied to instant coffee industry and that it is
geographically limit to Vietnamese market. The sample of this study is small and
restraints the ability to generate a general theory. Hence, further research should
be conducted to generalize the thesis results.

Key words: market orientation, market orientation measurement, MARKOR,

MKTOR, Vietnamese coffee industry, business performance.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Research Objectives and Questions 2
1.3 Research Method and Data collection 3
1.4 Theoretical Framework 6
1.5 Importance of the Research Topic and Contribution of the
Study 8
1.6 Scope and Limitations 9
1.7 Thesis Structure 10

2 MARKET ORIENTATION 13
2.1 Delineation of Market Orientation 13
2.2 History of Market Orientation 18
2.3 Kohli and Jaworski view 21
2.3.1 Antecedents of Market Orientation 22
2.3.2 Consequences of Market Orientation 24
2.4 Narver and Slater’s view 26
2.4.1 Behavioral Aspects 27
2.4.2 Long-term focus and business performance 28
2.5 Mutual and Distinctions between Kohli and Jaworski’s and
Narver and Slater’s view 32
2.6 Other perspectives on Market Orientation 33
2.6.1 Shapiro’s point of view 33
2.6.2 Ruekert’s strategic perspective 35
2.6.3 Desphandé’s customer perspective of market orientation 37
2.6.4 Summary of views on market orientation 38
2.7 Market Orientation measurement scales 39
2.7.1 MARKOR scale by Kohli, Jaworski & Kumar 40
2.7.2 MKTOR scale by Narver & Slater 43
2.7.3 Comparison of two measurement scales 45

3 INDUSTRY OVERVIEW 47
3.1 Industry Overview 47
3.1.1 Précis 47
3.1.2 Key players in the field 48
3.2 Market Overview 50
3.3 Consumption Habit: Current Situation and Future Trend 52
4 METHODOLOGY 55
4.1 Research Method: Exploratory Study 55
4.1.1 Case Study Strategy 56
4.1.2 Importance of Case Selection 56
4.1.3 Random Technique? 57
4.1.4 Case Selection Techniques 58
4.2 Research Context: Vietnamese instant coffee industry 61
4.3 Data Collection Procedure 61
4.4 Protocol Development 62
4.5 Data Analysis 63

5 CASE COMPANIES/ ANALYSIS/ FINDINGS 67

5.1 Within-case analysis 67
5.1.1 Vinacafé BH 68
5.1.2 Trung Nguyen 68
5.1.3 Nescafé 69
5.2 Cross-case analysis 71
5.2.1 Market orientation impacts on business performance 71
5.2.2 Market orientation measurement scales’ selection and
assessment 73
5.2.3 Proposed items of the measurement scale 76

6 CONCLUSION, BENEFITS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE

RESEARCH 79
6.1 Conclusion 79
6.2 Benefits of the research 83
6.3 Validity, Reliability and Limitations 84
6.4 Suggestions for further research 85

7 SUMMARY 86

REFERENES 88

APPENDICES 99
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. Research Design
FIGURE 2. Deductive Approach
FIGURE 3. Antecedents and Consequences of Market Orientation. Self-
elaborated from Jaworski and Kohli (1993)
FIGURE 4. Narver and Slater's model of Market Orientation (1990)
FIGURE 5. Thesis Structure
FIGURE 6. The three pillars of marketing concept. Self-elaborated on Kotler and
Keller (Management Marketing 2012)
FIGURE 7. Kohli and Jaworski's view on market orientation (MARKOR).
Adopted from: Kohli and Jaworski (1990)
FIGURE 8. Narver and Slater's view on market orientation (MKTOR model).
Source: Adapted from Narver and Slater (1990)
FIGURE 9. Market share of Vietnamese instant coffee market in 2011. Self-
elaborated from Vietnamnet (2013)
FIGURE 10. Market share of Vietnamese instant coffee market in 2013. Self-
elaborated from Ipsos (2013)
FIGURE 11. GDP per capita and GDP per capita (PPP) of Vietnam during 1985-
2012. Adapted from The World Bank (2013)
FIGURE 12. Vietnam Age Group in 2014. Adopted from CIA Factbook (2014)
FIGURE 13. Vietnamese coffee consumption compared to the world. Adopted
from Ipsos (2013)
FIGURE 14. Domestic market of instant coffee by type. Adopted from Ipsos
(2013)
FIGURE 15. Vietnam domestic consumption versus total production in 2011-
2020. Adopted from International Coffee Organization (2013)
FIGURE 16. The ladder of Analytic Abstraction. Adopted from Miles and
Huberman (1994)
FIGURE 17. Relationship between Performance and Market Orientation among
case companies
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. Different views on Market Orientation

TABLE 2. MARKOR Measurement Scale
TABLE 3. MKTOR Measurement Scale
TABLE 4. Market orientation studies using MARKOR or MKTOR
TABLE 5. Case Selection Techniques
TABLE 6. Examples of Codes and according Literature items
TABLE 7. Case Companies
TABLE 8. Selection of Measurement Scales
TABLE 9. Proposed Measurement Scale
TABLE 10. Answers for research questions
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AMA American Marketing Association

CAQD Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis

CEO Chief Executive Officer

GDP Gross Domestic Product

HOSE Hochiminh Stock Exchange

MSI Marketing Science Institution

R&D Research and Development

ROA Return on Assets

ROI Return on Investment

SBU Strategic Business Units

SCA Strategic Competitive Advantage

SSCI Social Sciences Citation Index

WCA World Coffee Association

1 INTRODUCTION

“Before I refuse to take your questions, I have an opening

statement.”

Ronald Reagan

The purpose of this chapter is to put forward the overview of the thesis, its content
and structure. This chapter begins with the background of the study and gives
explanations why the topic is chosen. Next, the research objectives are declared.
Later, the research questions are proposed based on the objectives. The research
method, follows after that, is to introduce the method applied in this study. Then,
the theoretical framework supplies readers with main theories and concepts that
are used in this work. Next, the author will point out the importance of the study
and the limitations encountered. Finally, the chapter is concluded with the thesis
structure.

1.1 Background

Since the concept of marketing was introduced in 1959 by Giancarlo Pallavicini

and later developed by Kotler, there was assumption that there exists a bond
between marketing concept and business performance. The marketing concept is a
business school of thought, an ideal or a policy declaration that guides company
activities (Barksdale & Darden 1971.). However, company philosophy is not
always congruent with its execution which is reflected by a company activities
and behaviors (Kohli & Jaworski 1990.). In the context of this study, the term
“market orientation” is used to depict a company’s realization of the marketing
concept. Thus, a company is called a market-oriented organization when company
behaviors and activities are in harmony with the marketing concept (Kotler &
Keller 2012.). Not until Kohli and Jaworski (1990), and Narver and Slater (1990)
proposed a model for validating and measuring the relationship between market
orientation and business performance, there had been much devotion of
researchers’ effort on testing the marketing concept and its effect on the company
performance or strategic business units (SBU). The positive results of those
studies confirm this bond (Kohli & Jaworski 1993b; Kumar, Subramanian &
Yauger 1998; Mahmoud 2011; Ly, Dornberger & Nabi 2010; Han, Kim &
 2

Srivastava 1998; Hult & Ketchen Jr 2001; Zhou, Yim & Tse 2005; Kumar, Jones,
et al. 2011). However, there are some problems that merge from those studies.
First, most of the conducted research covers cross-industry area. This may lead to
the lack of focus on an individual industry, which offers a deep knowledge and
understanding of the effect of market orientation on the specific industry and its
bond to business performance (Mahmoud 2011). Furthermore, most research uses
the two main methods: the quantitative method and meta-analysis (literature
review) to validate the link between market orientation and business performance
(Ortega & Criado 2012). This encourages the author to follow a new approach to
test the link between market orientation and business performance in a specific
industry. In this case, the author chose the Vietnamese instant coffee industry as
during the desk research for this topic, the author realized there is a shortage of
research on market orientation and business performance in Vietnam (Ngo &
O'Cass 2010). Furthermore, the author will propose a measurement scale for
measuring the market orientation business performance, specifically designed for
companies operate in Vietnam instant coffee industry. This scale is based on the
works of Narver and Slater (1990), and Kohli and Jaworski (1990, 1993a).

1.2 Research Objectives and Questions

As mentioned above, the broad purpose of the paper is to propose a measurement

scale that is the most suitable and practical for measuring market orientation
activity among instant coffee companies in Vietnam. More specifically, the author
will propose specific items for market orientation measurement scale, which is
particularly designed for Vietnamese instant coffee industry based on the findings
and suggests during the research. In order to specify the broad purpose of the
research, the following objectives of the research are set:

 Describe the market orientation definition and development history

 Introduce the measurement scales of market orientation

 Using the traditional measurement scale MARKOR (Kohli & Jaworski

1990) and MKTOR (Narver & Slater 1990) to measure the effect of
market orientation on Vietnamese instant coffee industry
 3

 Propose a suitable measurement scale if the traditional measurement scale

is inappropriate for the Vietnamese instant coffee industry

In order to successfully achieve the objectives above, the following questions are
proposed as a guideline for the research process of this study:

1. What is the definition market orientation?

2. How many views are there on market orientation?

3. What are the benefits of market orientation for a company performance?

4. How many ways are there to measure the market orientation performance
of a company?

5. Are the traditional market orientation measurement scales suitable for the
Vietnamese instant coffee industry to measure their performance of market
orientation?

6. If they are not, which modification should be implemented? If needed,

which elements of the traditional scales should be removed? Is it necessary
to add new elements into the scale? If yes, which elements will be
included?

1.3 Research Method and Data collection

The research methodology of this study will be summed up by the figure below:
 4

FIGURE 1. Research Design

Following, the author is going to explain the choice of research methodology step
by step.

According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009), there are three main
approaches: Deduction, Induction and Abduction. The two former approaches are
broadly used in due to theirs ease of application. Burney (2014) explains the
deductive approach as the logical reasoning from general theory to more specific
findings. On the other hand, the inductive approach is described as a process that
moving from specific observations to broader generalization and establishes
theories. This latter approach, however, contains risk of uncertainty as the
approach always needs confirmation from further research to prove its validity.

In any circumstance, the research approach is chosen based on the character of the
research. In this paper, the author begins the study with previous theories, and
combines with the author’s observations to achieve new conclusions. Therefore,
the deductive will be employed in this study as the purpose of this study to gain
new findings from earlier theses.
 5

FIGURE 2. Deductive Approach

Among different research methods, qualitative and quantitative are the most
common used in research. Quantitative is employed in studies that test the
relationship between variables. Usually, this method is combined with deductive
approach to give the best result. The other method is qualitative research.
Qualitative method is used in research to study the relationship between
participants’ meaning. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) suggest that
qualitative method combines with deductive approach is suitable “to test an
existing theoretical perspective”. Kumar (2005) advised that the choice between
quantitative and qualitative should be considered based on the aim of the study
which is to explore, confirm, or to quantify the findings or can be stood on the use
of findings: to formulate policy or to understand the process.

Based on the purpose of the study, the method will be chosen accordingly. The
main purposes of this thesis are to investigate the relationship between market
orientation and company performance, and to propose a suitable measurement
scale to measure the market orientation specifically for Vietnamese instant coffee
companies. This thesis’s purpose dictates the exploratory nature of the research.
Keegan (2009) suggested that qualitative method answers the questions
concerning topics of what, why and how. As a result, it is reasonable for the
author to implement qualitative method in this study.

Data collection is the crucial process that gathers information and data, and
measures them to make the ground for the research’s conclusion (Sapford & Jupp
2006). In this research, data collection process is conducted through semi-
structured interview, and the structured surveys, which were done by the case
companies’ staff. First of all, the structured survey (the measurement scale) is sent
companies to analyze the relationship between company performance and market
 6

orientation. After that, the author directly interviews case companies’ staff to
evaluate the usefulness of the measurement scales and asks them (case companies’
staff) for suggestion. The secondary data utilized in this research is mainly from
books, published articles, and academic journals. Some electronic sources are also
employed to get an up-to-date point of view of the study’s context.

1.4 Theoretical Framework

This thesis contains two main parts the theoretical framework and the empirical
case companies. In the theoretical part, the author is going to review the literature
and previous works relate to market orientation and business performance. There
are many points of view on the market orientation and business performance. The
most prominent conceptualization of this topic are the two concepts MARKOR
(MARKet ORientation) by Jaworski and Kohli (1990) and MKTOR by Narver
and Slater (1990). The majority of academic works on market orientation are
based on these two MARKOR and MKTOR models. There are also some
different schools of thought about market orientation, which will be discussed in
the literature review. Below there are figures that depict the two models, which
will be used as the main framework of this thesis.
 7

FIGURE 3. Antecedents and Consequences of Market Orientation. Self-

elaborated from Jaworski and Kohli (1993)
In this model, top management, interdepartmental, organizational system are the
antecedents (or the elements/ seeds) of Market Orientation. If a company is able to
execute these elements well, it will lead to the improvement of company
performance, which is considered to be the consequence of Market Orientation.
These concepts will be specifically described in chapter 2. Following is the figure
describes MKTOR model.
 8

FIGURE 4. Narver and Slater's model of Market Orientation (1990)

The MKTOR model includes the three behavioral components: customer
orientation, inter-functional coordination and competitor orientation. According to
Narver and Slater (1990), the outcome of these behaviors increases the company
long-term profit and continuously creates superior value for customers.

1.5 Importance of the Research Topic and Contribution of the Study

Market orientation was first presented by McKitterick (1957) more than sixty
years ago in the 1950s. This concept attracted much attention and effort of
academic researchers and quickly expanded after the publication of the two
inspiring works of Kohli and Jaworski (1990) and Narver and Slater (1990) .
However, according to Gray, et al. (1998), the two constructs of Kohli and
Jaworski (1990) and Narver and Slater (1990) should be examined under various
business environments and cultures. The examination would help to enrich the
applicability of the instrument, sharpen and make it be more trustworthy market
orientation concept (Gray, et al. 1998). From the macro perspective, this study
will contribute to the effort of making the market orientation concept more
reliable and trust worthy. In addition, both business and scholars are interested in
the effect of market orientation on daily business activities and in the cost of
 9

implementing market orientation behaviors (Anderson, Fok & Scot 2000; Kumar,
Rust, et al. 2004).

At present, the market environment is turbulent more than ever. Hence, every
company is actively seeking for a business orientation that provides completive
advantage over competitors. The market orientation is the solution that firms are
looking for (Kumar, Jones, et al. 2011). This study shall provide Vietnamese
companies the crucial knowledge of market orientation which help them to
implement the market orientation into practice and to track the progress of the
implementation.

One important thing should be put in mind that most research on market
orientation and its implementation take place in the America and Europe.
However, it is safe to assume that the market orientation will affect Vietnamese
companies in the same way as it affects any American or European company (Ly,
Dornberger & Nabi 2010). In addition, Vietnam has just opened its market in the
1990s and Vietnamese business have limit knowledge of strategic marketing
which leads to restraint implementation of market orientation (Napier 2005). By
directly interviewing the marketing personnel of case companies, this study will
unveil the level of the implementation of market orientation into practices and its
impact on company performance in Vietnamese instant coffee industry.

Last but not least, this study contributes to the existing knowledge of market
orientation as the research on market orientation of Vietnamese instant coffee
market which has not been done before. In addition, this study also put up a
measurement scale that helps Vietnamese business assess their market orientation
implementation and this measurement scale also can be used by researchers in
their future research concerning similar topic.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

Before beginning, some caveats and clarification must be proclaimed. This study
is to validate the bond between market orientation and business performance
among the top companies in instant coffee industry and to propose a suitable
measurement scale for measuring the practice of market orientation in Vietnamese
 10

instant coffee industry. Therefore, the context of this study geographically limits
to Vietnam. Any attempt to apply this outcome to another market should be put in
to serious consideration. The author firmly believes that the outcome of this
research shall shed light on the effectiveness of marketing practice of coffee
companies that operate in the Vietnamese market and give them a proper
measurement scale by using relevant marketing metrics. However, limitations are
inevitable.

According to an analysis of more than 50 studies published studies from 1990 to

2008, the research on market orientation can be divided into three main lines,
which are conceptualization and measurement, antecedents and consequences, and
implementation (Pandelica, Pandelica & Dumitru 2009). In this study, the author
decides to choose study about the conceptualization and measurement of market
orientation in the Vietnamese instant coffee industry. Therefore, other extended
environment factors will be neglected.

Furthermore, the evaluation of market orientation and business performance

would be more fulfilled if the customers’ point of view is tested.

Last but not least, with the limit of the author’s ability, this research is conducted
using a small number of cases. This causes difficulty to bring out new theory as
many different aspects have not been validated. However, there is one thing to
keep in mind, and that is, the purpose of this study is not to offer a generalized
result but to evaluate the usefulness of market orientation measurement practicing
of Vietnamese instant coffee companies in a specific context with the aim of
theory building.

1.7 Thesis Structure

This part is planned to guide the reader through the thesis systematically. To begin
with, the table of content will illustrate the structure of the whole thesis concisely.
Next, the following text will explain each chapter in brief.
 11

Chapter 1: Introduction
• Back ground
• Research objectives
• Research questions
• Importatnce and Contributions
• Scope and Limitations
• Thesis Structure

Chapter 2: Market Orientation

• Definition of Market Orientation
• Development of Market Orientation over time
• Jaworski and Kohli's Market Orientation model
• Narver and Slater' Market Orientation model
• Other authors' model of Market Orientation
• Market Orientation measurement scales

Chapter 3: Industry overview

• Brief overview of Vietnamese instant coffee industry
• Keyplayers in the Vietnamese instant coffee industry
• Market overview
• Comsumption habit and trend

Chapter 4: Methodology
• Research Method
• Research Context
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis

Chapter 5: Analysis and Findings

• Research Design
• Within-case Analysis
• Cross-case Analysis

Chapter 6: Conclusions,
recommendations and limitation
• Discuss the results
• Recommendations for further research
• Limitations of the study
 12

Chapter 7: Summary

• Summary of the research

References

• List of References used in the study

FIGURE 5. Thesis Structure

This study contains seven chapters. It starts with the introduction of the back
ground of the study. In this introduction, the objective is drawn and the research
objective will be proposed as a research guild line for this study. Following, the
literature review offers reader knowledge concerning the core definitions and
theoretical frameworks of the study. Then, the industry overview provides readers
understanding concerning the research context. Next, the methodology part will
explains the process of how data is collected and how it is analyzed. The empirical
study will show reader the analysis process and the results of the analysis will be
drawn. The study follow with the discussion of results. The author will point out
the limitation of the study and suggest topics for further research. The study ends
with a summary of the research and a list of references
 13

2 MARKET ORIENTATION

”The most important thing is to forecast where customers are

moving and be in front of them”

Philip Kotler

After going through different articles, journals and research in the past to the most
recent in 2013, the author realized the importance of market orientation concept
that makes it became one of the core studies of marketing academics. The author’s
interest is to develop this idea in firms that encounter difficulties academically and
managerially to help them compete in the tough Vietnamese instant coffee
industry. This chapter is to describe theories concerning market orientation and
the development of the concept in order to give the readers basic knowledge about
what market orientation is; explain the reasons why it is important to companies
and how to measure the impact of market orientation on business performance.

This literature review part begins with the definition of the concept of market
orientation. In this part, readers are provided with a handful points of views,
components and characteristics of market orientation from different authors. Next,
the development of the market orientation will be reviewed. After that, the two
profound works of Narver &Slater (1990) and Jaworski & Kohli (1990, 1993a) on
market orientation are recapped. Along with the two profound works, other points
of view on market orientation are also mentioned and described in this part.
Finally, the introduction market orientation measurement scale: MARKOR by
Jaworski and Kohli (1993a), and MKTOR by Narver & Slater (1990) will end this
part.

2.1 Delineation of Market Orientation

The principle of any business out there in the market is to optimize their earning at
the highest possible level. In order to accomplish that mission, companies have to
obtain the sustainable competitive advantage (SCA) over their competitors
(Gudlaugsson & Schalk 2012.). Thus, it is important for any manager to recognize
and comprehend the orientation that allows firms to acquire the SCA. Overtime,
the idea of SCA has been evolving through different forms. In the past, the SCA is
 14

mostly emphasized on economies of scale, standardization (production

orientation) or a various product line (product orientation), which provides the
companies abilities to offer their customers a wide range of products and services
at an affordable price. Recently, this strategic orientation has been switched to
market orientation which accentuates the ability of business to continuously
creating superior values to the customers (Kotler, Kartajaya & Setiawan 2010).
Market orientation is first mentioned as a strategic framework that facilitates
companies to implement the marketing concept. It encourages companies
constantly tracking and reacting to market volatility by putting the customers in
the heart of their strategy (Kohli & Jaworski 1993a). Since the 1990s, there have
been many published articles that show the positive relationship between market
orientation and business performance (Kirca, Jayachandra & Bearden 2005). Most
of the findings confirm that the market orientation positively relates to the
capability of companies to create superior values. In the best paper awarded by
Marketing Science Institute, Day (1993) argued that the more effort companies
pay to study the market, the higher is the possibility that companies will
successfully perceive and respond to unexpected incidents in the unstable and
shredding market.

It is safe to assume that the market orientation is founded on the same principles
as the marketing concept. A brief review of literature definition of marketing
concept will offer a solid proof for the assumption. Lavidge (1966) thinks that
marketing is a set of activities that circle around the three main focus of a
business: the customer, the operation of marketing and the company profit.
Alderson and Green (1964) state that the marketing concept must contain finance,
production, and research and development (R&D) activities (about customer and
market). Kotler (2012) claim that the marketing concept is built on the main three
pillars: customer-centered, coordinated marketing and profitability. Jaworski and
Kohli (1990) also provide a definition of market orientation: “it appears
reasonable to conclude from the literature that a market-oriented organization is
one in which the three pillars of the marketing concept: customer focus,
coordinated marketing, profitability are operationally manifest”, which can be
understood that market orientation is the implementation of marketing concept
into business activities.
 15

In the next step, the author will offer explanation of the three pillars of marketing
to facilitate reader to catch the main idea of the concept. Customer-centered or
customer focus suggests that companies should invest much on the research
activities that boost the knowledge and understanding of companies over
customers’ needs, wants, demands, and expectations (Kotler & Keller 2012).
After knowing those demands and expectations, the next step the companies
should do is to design products and services that satisfy those needs. The
marketing planning, survey, market intelligence generation, and dissemination
will help to secure the success probability this process (Gudlaugsson & Schalk
2012). The focus on integrated marketing implies that the companies’ marketing
activities are well coordinated and all those activities should look after each other.
Lastly, the profit focus implies that profitability is a significant measurement scale
for any project, strategy decision, and management as the principles for the
existence of any company is to gain profit for its stakeholders.

FIGURE 6. The three pillars of marketing concept. Self-elaborated on Kotler and

Keller (Management Marketing 2012)
The marketing concept has been widely accepted to be categorized by two types:
the “old” marketing concept and the “new” marketing concept (Osuagwu 2006).
Gunnay (2002) depicts the “old” marketing concept as a philosophy with the main
concerns are customer-orientation, innovation and profit. These concerns will play
 16

as incentive for creating satisfied customers. While the “old” marketing concept is
viewed as a philosophy, the “new” marketing concept is more explicit. The “new”
marketing concept includes customer-orientation, market intelligence (intelligence
generated through surveys, research), value delivery, market targeting and value
proposition, total quality management, continuous learning and improvement in
products/services, customer-oriented culture, coordinated and integrated business
activities. All the these mentioned features of ”new” marketing are tailored toward
achieving better efficiency and effectiveness, which ultimately provide superior
advantages over competitors. To sum up, the “new” marketing concept is a way of
carrying out business. It is a business culture and an integral part of market
economies (Matsuno, Mentzer & Rentz 2005).

There have been several terms used to betoken the market orientation construct
(Narver &Slater 1990; Kohli & Jaworski 1990; Shapiro 1988; Harris & Ogbonna
2001). Some notable illustrations comprise “integrated marketing” (Felton 1959);
“marketing oriented” (Gummesson 1991); “customer-oriented” (Kelly 1992);
“market-led” (Piercy 1997); “market-oriented culture” (Harris 1998a; 1998b).
Even the concept is called by different names, there is unspoken agreement in the
literature that there are few differences among them (Shapiro 1988). However, the
term “market orientation” is widely accepted as the most relevant label to depict
the construct (Kohli &Jaworski 1990; Narver & Slater 1990). The following
paragraphs will give some of the most frequently utilized taxonomies and
definitions of market orientation.

A number of authors defined market orientation as a pattern of organizational

cultures in which employees of whole organization are systematically and wholly
committed to the process of continuously creating superior customer value (Kohli
& Jaworski 1990; Narver & Slater 1990; G. Day 1994; Deshpandé, et al. 1993;
Ngansathil 2001). Kohli and Jaworski (1990) claim that the market orientation is
rather a kind of a degree, which means market orientation should be embodied
within companies since the beginning. These authors think that the difference
between companies is the level of implementation of the concept. Narver and
Slater (1990) affirm the idea of Kohli and Jaworski, and add that market
orientation cannot be just simply switched on or off. A market oriented company
 17

is not just a company that is customer-led. That company also demands the effort
of the whole organization to be completely carried out in the long term and this
usually leads to a complete change in company culture.

The three main factors of market orientation concept: customer orientation,

competitor orientation, and inter-functional coordination, are long-term in vision
and profit-directed, claimed Narver and Slater (1990). By extensively
interviewing manager and executives, they come up to conclusion that market
orientation is able to offer consolidative direction for the efforts and projects of
individuals in organization, hence leads to better functioning. An extensive stream
of research and empirical evidences since the 1990s has discovered a substantial
bond between market orientation and several measurement items of business
performance like profitability, sales growth, customer satisfaction, innovation and
so on. For an organization to adopt market orientation, their employees must share
the same goal and work together toward it. As Zeithaml and Bitner (2004) claim
that employees who have their colleagues endorse and empower them, tend to
show a great esprit de corps and create super customer value. Hence, the
interdepartmental coordination among employees is of crucial for companies that
want to achieve high level of market orientation. The following text will describe
some comments of different authors on market orientation.

Bisp (1999) state that market orientation is a sequence of company’s actions to

acquire, interpret and apply the information about current clients, new clients and
rivals to gain competitive advantages. In addition, Bisp also thinks that the ability
to continuously learning of organization and the ability to successfully manage the
human resources attract and develop workforce that have needed knowledge and
skills, will secure the success of increasing market orientation. In another work,
Farell (2000) agree with Bisp and state that the organizational learning ability
plays a vital role of implementing market orientation. There is one important point
that Bisp (1999) advises people that they should not confuse market orientation
and marketing orientation. While marketing orientation has a functional focus,
Bisp (1999) thinks that market orientation has a behavioral focus with the
manifestation of company culture and strategy.
 18

Narver, Slater and Tietje (1998) depicts market orientation is more of a business
culture with the main factors culture, management and market orientation, are
interconnected. These authors think that, for a company to successfully adopt
market orientation, the top management figures must obtain a crystal clear vision
and this vision should be disseminated from the top to the bottom. In a market
oriented company, the company’s mission, vision and values must be
communicated clearly in a way that every employee acknowledges his or her role.
This communication helps company be able to change, adapt and survive in a
volatile market where the competition is harsh and expectation of customers is
increasingly demanding.

Recently, Kotler and Armstrong argue that good market oriented company is a
company that can equalize the customer orientation and the competitor orientation
within organization. Hence, a company which adopts market orientation and fails
to equal the two orientations within company will certainly end up performing
badly (Kotler & Armstrong 2010.).

Gudlaugsson’s comment on market orientation portrayed market orientation as

behaviors that implement market concept and has characteristics of gathering
market data, analyzing data and disseminating the processed information
throughout organization (Gudlaugsson & Schalk 2012). Gray et al. (1998) situates
that the definition of market orientation in the works of Narver and Slater (1990),
and Kohli and Jaworski (1990) are widely accepted as the most accurate
definition.

2.2 History of Market Orientation

The labels like market-driven, market-oriented and customer-focus have been

perceived as proactive strategy with customers are put in the middle of it. The idea
of putting customers into the middle of focus of business planning is considered to
be very modern one. Companies that follow this idea are described as ones that
have activities surrounding customers’ needs and wants, which are studied
thoroughly and understand very well (1999). One of the most famous marketing
guru, Peter Drucker, argues that marketing is not a specialized functional activities
 19

but it should be defined as “the whole business seen from the point of view of its
final result, that is, from the customers’ point of view.” (Drucker 1954). The
market orientation concept is founded based on marketing concept which is quite
new and emerged in 20th century. Another definition of marketing is quoted from
the American Marketing Association (AMA) website (American Marketing
Association 2013):

”Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating,

communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for
customers, clients, partners, and society at large. (Approved July 2013)”

Bagozzi, Corronel and Rosa (1999) argue that company must utilize its marketing
activities and turn it into a competitive edge to make it satisfies and exceeds
customers’ needs and expectations, achieves company mission and outperform
other rivals.

One of the earliest marketing researchers is Paul Converse. He is considered to be

one of the first researchers that made an extensive review of marketing concepts
in 1945. Converse went through a great number of books and studies about
marketing. In addition, he also revised knowledge from marketing courses that
were taught throughout American universities about the subject until the 1940s.
There was an amazing point that caught Converse’s attention. In 1878,
businessmen and merchants started to have interest in making more revenue by
increasing sales, improving sales processes and ways to increase demand for their
products and services. As a result, they expected this would lead to increase the
customers’ purchase and started to educate their sales force how to consistently
sell more goods. Gradually, this knowledge was spreading and gaining fame and
finally lead to the foundation of marketing courses in the university of Illinois in
1901, one of the earliest in the world (Gudlaugsson & Schalk 2012.).

In the early days of marketing textbooks, economic theory dominated in the

content of those books. The very first research papers with empirical evidences on
marketing and related subjects were published in the early of the 1920s (Converse
1945; 1951). One of the earliest academic journals about marketing, the Journal of
Marketing was founded in 1936. It attracted 600 subscribers in the first year in
 20

service. The demand for such academic journal increased fast among businessmen
and academics in the States.

In 1948, the AMA (2013) introduced the primary definition of marketing, which
made sense at the time:

”The performance of business activities toward, and incident to, the flow
of goods and services from producer to consumer”

Take a look back to the new definition of marketing by AMA in 2013, we clearly
notice from both definitions, marketing is viewed as a specialist function that
manage decision-making actions that create offers which meet customers’ wants
and needs in the purpose of satisfying company’s goals (Grönroos 2006).

The boom of marketing academic courses is also an indicator for the importance
of this subject. According to AMA, it is currently having around 40,000
subscribers and about 750,000 readers, in the United States only. In the last
decades, the academic courses, textbooks and studies of marketing have breached
the mindset of businessmen around the world. Nowadays, marketing is one of the
must-have departments in any company.

The market orientation is considered a new concept and a part of marketing

theories. Before “market orientation” became the term depict the concept of
adopting marketing concept into practice, many researchers and marketing
professionals described it in various ways. One of the descriptions is from
management guru Drucker (1954), which stated that customers are the only one
that can define what a company is by assessing company’s ability to satisfy their
needs and expectations. In order to facilitate the development pathway of market
orientation, the Marketing Science Institution (MSI) organized a conference about
“developing a market orientation” in 1987. Desphandé (1999) describes the main
intention of this forum is to present some early findings from studies of the
implementation of market orientation, and to encourage a new wave of
researching regard a proper definition, application model and measurement scale
of market orientation. After the forum took place, there was a tremendous stream
of research regard market orientation. In the following forum in 1990, both
 21

academic researchers and companies’ personnel joined the pulpit to express their
experiences with market orientation. The wave of market orientation research
reached its peak in 1994 when MSI recognized it as the most popular research
topic.

In 1990, two remarkable studies, Kohli and Jaworski (1990) and Narver and Slater
(1990), were published. The studies are so prominent that they became a
monument and shed light for the application of the market orientation theory into
business research. The first paper was from Kohli and Jaworski (1990). The paper
depicts the antecedences and consequences of market orientation and the external
factors that moderate the effect of market orientation. The second paper by Narver
and Slater (1990) came out later in the same year. Narver and Slater offered a
framework for market orientation with three dimensions: customer orientation,
competitor orientation ad inter-functional coordination. In the following text, both
views of market orientation will be put under scope.

2.3 Kohli and Jaworski view

In July 1990, the paper of Kohli and Jaworski “market orientation: the construct,
research propositions and managerial implications” was published. This paper put
a firm base theory regard market orientation for researchers. In this paper, Kohli
and Jaworski suggest that market orientation be the adoption of marketing concept
into practical activities of companies. The authors also put forward a model of
market orientation practices in their study. The model contains three main pillars:
the collection of market data, the dissemination or processed data, and the taken
actions based on the intelligences gathered. The model MARKOR (MARket
ORientation) is the result of the extensive surveys and interviews of 62
individuals, 33 held marketing positions, 15 held non-marketing positions, and 14
held senior management positions from 47 companies in the United States. The
industry sector of 47 sample companies is various and so is their size.

In their study, the authors used Return on Asset (ROA) and sales growth as
indicator for measuring company´s performance. They found out that the
profitability was also another outcome of the adoption of market orientation, and
 22

not an element of it. Kohli and Jaworski did not view market orientation is an
aspect of organizational culture but rather a process oriented. Kohli and Jaworski
(1990) defined market orientation:

“Market orientation is the organization-wide generations of market

intelligence pertaining to current and future customer needs, dissemination
of the intelligence across departments, and organization-wide
responsiveness to it.”

It is to say that market orientation can be considered as the adoption of marketing

concept where a firm whose activities are in harmony with the concept is
considered a market oriented firm. In the MARKOR model of Kohli and
Jaworski, the market intelligence plays role of initiating market orientation. The
market intelligence concerns the data collection, data assessment of customer
needs and wants, competitors’ data and government regulations which may affect
those needs and wants. The following major role of market orientation is the
organizational learning. Organizational learning is considered by the authors as
the main the creation of market orientation. The principle of organizational
learning is that every individual of organization must participate in a constant
process of gathering, disseminating and communicating data surrounding all
departments in an organization. There is one crucial thing to put in mind regard
this model is that this critical role, organizational learning, is not the sole task of
the marketing or sales department but rather it requires the participation of whole
organization individuals. This school of thinking is similar to recommendation of
Narver and Slater (1990), Slater and Narver (1994), and Shapiro (1988) on the
significance of interdepartmental coordination. The following text will describe
the market orientation model of Kohli and Jaworski in detail with two main parts:
antecedents and consequences.

2.3.1 Antecedents of Market Orientation

In the antecedent part of market orientation, Kohli and Jaworski suggested three
groups of antecedents, which are top management, interdepartmental dynamics
(interdepartmental coordination), organizational systems.
 23

Top management plays a crucial role of enhancing market orientation of

organization. Two authors emphasized the importance of top management by
stating that top management would encourage individuals in organization tracking
changes of market, sharing market intelligence and be more responsive to market
needs. Moreover, the authors thought that top management were the factor that
trigger market orientation because “unless an organization gets clears signals from
top managers about the importance of being responsive to customer needs, the
organization is not likely to be market-oriented”. In addition, the top management
individuals should possess a positive feeling towards organizational learning and
changing. They also should have ability bearing risk because risk aversion is
considered a factor that slow down the market orientation process (Kohli &
Jaworski 1993a.).

Next, interdepartmental dynamics is the second factor of market orientation’s

antecedents. Interdepartmental dynamics refers to formal and informal
communication and relationships among different departments of organization.
The research’s findings of Kohli and Jaworski indicate that the relationship among
department has serious effect on the practice of market orientation. In a
fragmented organization where relationship among departments is weak,
information and market data are not well distributed and stagnant. Consequently,
the market orientation activities of organization are in danger. Contrastingly, in a
connected organization, data/information stream flows among departments
flawlessly. This leads to cooperating atmosphere in organization and facilitates the
development of market orientation. Hence, interdepartmental dynamics is of
importance to market orientation.

Last but not least, the final group of market orientation is organizational systems.
Organizational systems concern the characteristics of organization’s system. Kohli
and Jaworski explained that in the organization which has high formality and
centralization level would, expectedly, create obstacles market orientation because
it prevents the flow of information/data and knowledge sharing among
departments. In these organizations, the important information or market
intelligence takes long time to reach relevant authorities or departments but when
the information is able to be reached right personnel, the information is already
 24

obsoleted. This characteristic seriously harms market orientation behaviors. Other

authors also agree with this idea. Levitt (1960) argue that departmentalization and
specialization are the main barriers to organizational communication, which lead
to decrease in intelligence dissemination. Hence, for an organization to increase
its level of market orientation, it must possesses organizational system where the
employees understand their role and importance in the organization, and get to
know that certain behaviors will lead to more profit, hence more bonus for
themselves. This kind or organizational system will encourage employees involve
deeply in market orientation behaviors. The study of Kohli and Jaworski
suggested that the extent of responsiveness to market intelligence depends on the
design and selection of products and services, target market and production,
distribution and promotion of products (Kohli & Jaworski 1993a).

2.3.2 Consequences of Market Orientation

Generally, Kohli and Jaworski suggested that market orientation will benefit
organizations in three facets: employee response, customer response and business
performance (1990). In the subsequent paragraphs, the consequences of market
orientation will be explain clearly.

With respect to employee response, in their study, Kohli and Jaworski found out
that market orientation contributes psychological and social benefits to
employees. The authors mentioned the benefits are (1) esprit de corps, (2)
organizational commitment, and (3) job satisfaction. They also suggested that the
higher the level of market orientation is, the greater the benefits are. Moreover,
these benefits could lead to a coherent product focus, better sales performance, a
broader view of product reviewing – which gives result of better differentiation
(Kohli & Jaworski 1993a.).

Concerning customer response, the study pointed out that market orientation
practices could help organization attracts more customers. Then, those customers
would spread their words to other people in their network, which significantly
increase the organization’s potential clients.
 25

In regard to business performance, market orientation was also proven to offer

some positive signals. However, market orientation may not be a critical element
under some conditions. Though, the study of Kohli and Jaworski showed that the
better extent of market orientation application, the higher profit, sales, demand
and market share the company will gain. It is worth to put in mind that in some
cases, market orientation contributes insignificantly to company performance,
especially in market where the competition is low, technology development is
slow and business environment is stable. Hence market orientation only show its
significance in a market with reverse condition where the market turbulence is
high with stiff competition and fast-paced technology innovative.

In a second research regarding market orientation in 1993, Kohli and Jaworski

found positive results of market orientation effect on companies. Moreover, in
1990, the authors confirmed the hypothesis that market orientation is founded
based on three main facets, which are customer focus, interdepartmental
coordination and profitability. The figure below will sum up the idea of Kohli and
Jaworski concerns market orientation in brief.

FIGURE 7. Kohli and Jaworski's view on market orientation (MARKOR).

Adopted from: Kohli and Jaworski (1990)
 26

The figure illustrates the communication between intelligence generation,

intelligence dissemination and market responsiveness. Intelligence generation is
the process of gathering information/data concern customers, rivals and market
changings. This information/data should be distributed efficiently among
departments in order to help organization get updated with current situation. The
distribution and sharing information/data is call intelligence dissemination. As
mentioned above, this element depends much on the connection of an
organization. The third element, responsiveness, is the outcome of the precedent
elements. Specifically, the responsiveness only happens when intelligence sharing
process is comfortable. The intelligence sharing phase is comfortable when there
is an emphasis from the top management. Therefore, if the two previous processes
were carried out accordingly, the responsiveness would be a triumphant result.

2.4 Narver and Slater’s view

The year 1990 is a memorable year for the development in the academic research
on market orientation. After the study of Kohli and Jaworski published in April,
three months after, in July, Narver and Slater introduced their paper “The Effect
of a Market Orientation on Business Profitability”, which is considered another
remarkable view on market orientation. Similar to Kohli and Jaworski’s intention,
Narver and Slater wanted to build a model of market orientation and offer a utile
definition for market orientation. The research of Narver and Slater is quite
extensive, which attracted the participation of managers of 140 SBU (strategic
business unit) (both commodity products business and non-commodity business)
in a single major western corporation, and their view on market orientation is
different from two previous authors. Unlike Kohli and Jaworski who regards
market orientation as behavioral perspective, Narver and Slater consider market
orientation to be an organizational culture (Ortega & Criado 2012). Moreover,
Narver and Slater took market orientation definition to another level by reasoning
that market oriented companies should equally focus on customers and
competitors. This point of view is later adopted in Kotler and Keller’s theory
(Kotler and Keller 2012). Moreover, interdepartmental coordination is also given
prominence to as this is a way to create simultaneity among departments of an
 27

organization and make it a part of organizational culture. The definition of Narver

and Slater on market orientation can be divided into two main parts: the
behavioral part and decision principles (for behavioral part). The behavioral part
consists customer orientation, competitor orientation and interfunctional
coordination. The decision principles, which drive the company behaviors,
include long-term focus and profitability. The following text will explain
definition of market orientation of Narver and Slater in more detail.

2.4.1 Behavioral Aspects

There are evidences from research papers, which confirm that market orientation
activities’ results would benefit companies in a materialized way. The extent of
market orientation can be detected by employees and customers satisfaction and
loyalty. Companies which possess excellent practice of market orientation are able
to offer their customers great experience by highly skilled and professional staffs.
Customers of those companies will perceive greater value for the money they
spent on products/services. In addition, the staffs of those companies also gratify
with the working environment which lead to the increase in their loyalty toward
companies. It is easy to recognize the contribution of previous research works in
Narver and Slater’ investigation. Day and Wensley (1988) suggest that market-
oriented companies are not only capable of understanding their customers but also
developing knowledge of their customers’ customers and customers’ business
environment which are utilized to increase companies’ ability to predict and
respond to customer’s wants and needs in the future. This suggestion is in
harmony with Kohli and Jaworski’ recommendation (1990) that companies
instantly gather and examine information of customers in order to react to
contingence which may emerge in the future. In order to acquire those knowledge,
employees of those companies must deeply involve in association with customers,
shift their focus on service delivery process, and handle their customer relations
accordingly (Narver and Slater 1994). These ideas are the main principles of
customer orientation aspect.

The next aspect is competitor orientation. Competitor orientation requires

companies to continuously identifying, tracking and analyzing the strength,
 28

weakness and capability of both current and potential rivals. This idea is very
reasonable though not totally mint. Before, Levitt already argued that along with
customer focus, organization should concentrate on competitors as well because
multidimensional view provides organization broader view on market and help to
fulfill current and potential needs and expectation of customers (Levitt 1960.).

Interfunctional coordination is the third facet of the marketing behavioral aspect.

This facet suggests all departments in company be well coordinated to serve
customers accordingly. This suggestion is based largely on the outcomes of
Shapiro’s research on market orientation which suggests that market orientation is
not the same as marketing orientation because market orientation not only requires
the marketing department but also the whole organization has to participate in the
process of satisfying customers (1988). According to this school of thought, the
role of individuals and departments in companies is of crucial as they must obtain
appropriate Later, Kotler and Keller also supported this way of practicing business
and call it “integrated marketing” (Kotler & Keller 2012).

Narver and Slater think that a true competitor and customer orientation must cover
all activities from generating intelligence concerns customers and rivals,
analyzing the intelligence to spreading the intelligence throughout departments
(1990). Hence, the market oriented organization must secure the ability to create
favorable environment and business systems for the generation, analysis and
distribution of intelligence to achieve competitive advantages by providing
superior value for customers.

2.4.2 Long-term focus and business performance

In a previous research, Felton found out that market oriented organizations have
tendency of possessing a long-term focus on profits and applying market
orientation to a great extent (Felton 1959). Traditionally, it is supposed that short-
term focus on profit is contrast to long-term profit performance. In another words,
short-term focus on profit may undermine the profitability in the long run.
However, interestingly, a research of Levitt (1960) proves this assumption is not
quite correct and affirms that short-term profit focus and long-term profitability is
 29

in harmony. Levitt explained the relationship as following: The main company’s

competitive edge is to offer superior value to customers; obviously, rivals respond
and try to decrease company’s value superiority and hence, company answer by
adding more value to customer (short-term react to competition), example:
company tries to increase product value’s offers. Provided that company
successfully respond to its rivals and this process can repeats itself, the processes
become a feedback loop which strengthen company’s competitive edge in the long
run and lead to positive effect on profitability. Therefore, in order to remain alive
and prosper in an aggressive market, company is advised to concentrate on
building a long-term strategy that facilitates the practices of market orientation.
Gudlaugsson and Schalk (2012) emphasized that market orientation is not just a
business status that can be switched on or off but rather a long-term focus that
requires company to cluster resources on it.

Narver and Slater (1990) confirmed the relationship between market orientation
and business profitability (measured by Return on Investment – ROI) in their
investigation on a forest industry company. Their study was so remarkable that
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) has shown more than 100 results that refer
to this study. Moreover, the field of study that refer to this study is not only
limited in marketing theory but also extend to marketing management and
marketing strategy documents (Kotler & Heskett 1994; Kohli & Jaworski 1993a;
Desphandé 1999). In the study, Narver and Slater used Return on Investment
(ROI) to measure the business profitability. In addition, they only investigated in a
limited context: forest industry. The limited context of the research may lead to
constraint of generalizing the study’s result. In 1993, Kohli and Jaworski
(1993a)conducted a wide-range research to test the relationship between market
orientation and business profitability. The collected sample is huge and from
various industries. 500 biggest companies are chosen from Dun and Bradstreet
Million Dollar Directory list. Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and marketing
managers of these companies are the object of the interviews, to obtain their
assessment of their company’s market orientation practices and profit
performance. Interestingly, contrast to the suggestion of Narver and Slater’s study
(1990), Kohli and Jaworski found no serious association between their measure of
market orientation practice and company performance, either ROA) or market
 30

share. This outcome is problematic as the generalization’s ability of Narver and

Slater’s study may be called into question. In another words, Narver and Slater’s
outcome could be assumed to be restrictedly applied to some cases and does not
relate to all companies and industries. In an effort to revisit their study outcome
which stated market orientation and profitability are directly proportional, in
2000, Narver and Slater replicated the research using various samples to a greater
extent and different interviewees’ evaluation of market orientation and business
performance. This is to remove the limitation of context in their old research.
Once again, Narver and Slater found potent evidences for the relationship between
market orientation and business performance (profitability). Interestingly, the
bond between market orientation and business performance shows even more
vivid signals in this study. In addition, market orientation practices and outcomes
are said not only be influenced by internal factors (employees’ behaviors, top
managers’ vision and emphasis...etc.) but also be affected by business
environments and competition levels (Aaker 1989). This characteristic is also
proven by recent studies (Gudlaugsson & Schalk 2012; Kumar, Jones, et al.
2011). Moreover, in a revision of market orientation research, Ellis (2005)
discovers that market orientation shows more significant signs in developed
countries than it does in developing economies. One of the reasons for this
condition is the level of knowledge of customers in developing countries is rather
low. Consequently, customers in developing countries do not pay much attention
to the differences among offers from companies. This reduces the incentives for
companies to adopt market orientation practices in their culture. Besides, the lack
of competition and capitalism also contributes to the less effectiveness of market
orientation in developing countries. Vietnam is considered to be a developing
country (CIA Factbook 2014). Therefore, market orientation can be assumed to
have less effectiveness in Vietnam. However, studies of market orientation
practices in Vietnam prove otherwise (Le, Pham & Evangelista 2013; Ly,
Dornberger & Nabi 2010). These studies point out that companies whose better
orientation toward customers gain higher business performance against their direct
competitors, which does not put much effort on listening to customers. Overtime,
market orientation has gained fame and popular in this market. It is safe to assume
the effect of market orientation on company performance holds true in Vietnam
 31

market and also in Vietnamese instant coffee industry where, currently, more than
10 companies are doing business in this field (fierce competition) with large
capital concentration and customers’ awareness for instant coffee is increasing
(USDA 2013). Consequently, it is reasonable to expect market orientation status
in Vietnam is similar to that in developed countries to some extent.

To have a general look on Narver and Slater’s view of market orientation, a

simple model will be presented below. In this model, the elements: customer
orientation, competitor orientation and inter-functional coordination will be
circling around the core principles of market orientation: long-term focus and
profitability. Narver and Slater think that prerequisite for the successful outcomes
of company market orientation practices is embodied within these elements. If
there is no continuous process of data generation (tracking market and customers’
changes) and company’s innovation, company will not possess enough
information and mean to provide customer additional values. Provided company
successfully executes the process of continuously provide customers with superior
values, this will lead to better profit performance in long term. While the
advertising or marketing campaign can temporarily boost company revenue, these
tactics cannot provide a sustainable profit performance. Rather, company should
build its own system that can secure profit performance through company’s
reputation and image. The obvious way to achieve this is to obtain increasing
repeated-customer and this is the consequence of continuously offering superior
values to customers.

FIGURE 8. Narver and Slater's view on market orientation (MKTOR model).

Source: Adapted from Narver and Slater (1990)
 32

Before going to other authors’ point of view on market orientation, it is advised to

examine the similarities and differences between Kohli and Jaworski’s and Narver
and Slater’s view on this subject.

2.5 Mutual and Distinctions between Kohli and Jaworski’s and Narver and
Slater’s view

At a glance, the point of view of two models looks similar to some extent.
Interestingly, two models well supplement each other in some aspects. To a great
degree, many authors who had conducted review on market orientation agreed
upon that two mentioned models are the fundamental for who want to discover the
meaning of market orientation construct. Additionally, many studies drew
conclusion that market orientation practices (in case of well conducted) can grant
companies competitive advantages over rivals. Generally, two models emphasize
the important role of intelligence of customers and rivals to be a requirement for a
successful market orientation. Moreover, two models also mention the need of top
managers and employees’ participation in the market orientation practice process.
Last but not least, two models also describe that market orientation is build based
on the equalization of three factors: customers, competitors and internal forces.

Kohli and Jaworski’s and Narver and Slater’s models may look like twin models.
However, they have some distinguished features that readers should take note.
The model of Kohli and Jaworski (MARKOR) put more emphasis on customers
because they think market orientation as the realization of marketing definition
which is discussed above. On the other hand, the model of Narver and Slater
(MKTOR) underlines the effort internal forces of organization (top managers and
employees) and describes market orientation as the corporate culture, which is the
driver of particular customer or competitor oriented activities and eventually lead
to competitive advantages over rivals in the market.

In conclusion, it is advised by different authors that if one wants to conduct

research on market orientation, it is beneficial to review the two models. The two
models will give fundamental ideas on what market orientation concept is and
how to increase the market orientation performance. A combination of two
 33

models would result to a fluent market orientation practice. Following, other

opinions of some researchers on market orientation will be discussed so readers
can have some different views about this topic.

2.6 Other perspectives on Market Orientation

As market orientation topic is considered a valuable resource for marketing

research, there have been various contributions from different researchers to this
topic. It is worthwhile to review some of the most remarkable way of thinking

2.6.1 Shapiro’s point of view

Two years before the publication of studies of Narver & Slater, and Kohli &
Jaworski, Shapiro laid the first brick on the foundation of market orientation
research. The Shapiro review on market orientation is one of the fundamental
concepts for the development of later researchers in market orientation study.
Shapiro (1988) agrees with earlier definitions on market orientation that market
oriented companies are organizations that put concentration not only on customers
but also on competitors and on surrounding context like market turmoil, legal
policies (that affect companies’ business performance). Using story of a company
name Wolverine, Shapiro (1988) describes his point of view on market
orientation. Shapiro clearly defines that market orientated is not marketing
oriented, which was commonly mistaken at the time. In addition, Shapiro tries to
unify terms had been used to describe the market orientation’s nature like “market
oriented”, “market-led”, “market driven” and “customer oriented” and argues that
these term can be used equivalently. He also gives a clear explanation for the
characteristics of market orientation. Shapiro (1988) explains that market
orientation symbolizes for series of activities that access to all prospects of the
company. Market orientation, according to Shapiro, is definitely not a hackneyed
phrases always be used to polish company’s image in public that “company is
getting close to the customer”. Due to the various clients with diverse wants and
needs that company is serving, it is impossible and pointless for company to “get
close to the customer”. Therefore, Shapiro offers three crucial and practical
characteristics that make a company a market oriented company.
 34

Firstly, “information on all important buying influences permeates every

corporate function” (Shapiro 1988). By stating this, Shapiro means that all the
information concerning market, people and decision making factors (when, how
and where to buy the products) must be well analyzed and distributed throughout
company departments (like Research and Development, Marketing, Sale,
Manufacturing…). This state can exclusively be achieved under the participation
and supervision of top management officers. By achieving the understanding of
this information will secure the company on the first step of becoming a market
oriented organization.

Secondly, “strategic and tactical decisions are made inter-functionally and inter-
divisionally” (Shapiro 1988). Generally, in every company, each department has
different objectives. And sometimes, these objectives cause conflict among
departments because different departments specialize in a specific function and
possess unique point of view over the same situation. Consequently, this will lead
to fragmentation in company structure, and stagnancy in cooperation and
performance. This situation is described in Shapiro’s work as:

“Barriers had arisen among Wolverine’s functional departments as each

was on its own little island”

Unlike common companies, market oriented companies have a unique system that
encourages departments to exchange ideas over disputes to find a solution that
harmonizes different points of views. Every department should thoroughly grasp
the culture of listening to the differences and frankly speaks out their ideas in an
honest and active way. This is what the second characteristic of a market oriented
company should be.

Finally, “Divisions and functions make well-coordinated decisions and execute

them with a sense of commitment” (Shapiro 1988). To achieve the optimal
business result, ordinarily, the executers should also take part in the planning
process. A candid discussion on business strategies, tactics and implementations
will propagate an atmosphere of commitment on the goals set. In reality, this,
however, is not always possible. The most troublesome for the performance of
cross-functional coordination is specialization of each department in company. It
 35

cannot be blamed as for each department, financial for example, to think like
another department, like production, it could not reach its peak performance and
execute the tasks effectively. Though, if each department keeps marching to the
beat of its own drum without taking a look to the company ultimate goal, the
execution of business plan will be sluggish and ineffective. Company must hold
an idea that successful products don’t come easy. It is not a simple process that
marketing department sends a set of requirements to R&D and R&D department
will make a prototype to send to manufacturing department for mass production.
Rather, it is the product of successful internal connection among departments,
combine with a decent coordination from senior managers, where people from
different function and division in company raise opinions, talk about solutions and
approaches. Consequently, after discussions, people will converge their
concentration to company´s ultimate goal. Not only internal connection generates
candid communication, solid coordination and strong commitment among
employees in company. But it also lifts up the strength of different functional and
divisional people. On the other hand, a lack of communication with a poor
coordination necessarily leads to inappropriate resources usage and waste of
market opportunities.

2.6.2 Ruekert’s strategic perspective

Ruekert (1992) conducted a research that demonstrated the empirical evidences of

the relationship between market orientation and business performance from
strategic perspective. The author realized some important matters that had not
received appropriate attention like the gap of market orientation adaption among
business units in organization, the way managers develop and maintain market
orientation in business they manage, or to what extent the market orientation show
the payoff for the firm´s effort. The research offers observations on three
organizational strategic concerns: the variation level among strategic business
units in organization, the impact of market orientation on business unit´s
organizational systems, and the impact of market orientation to individual´s
attitudes and business unit performance in organization. Ruekert (1992) argues his
choice to concentrate on strategic perspective (strategy development and
 36

execution) as following reasons. First, developing a market orientation is a crucial

strategic change in organization and there is evidence shows that the planning
process have impact on shaping strategic change (Dutton and Duncan 1987).
Second, by focusing on the strategic planning process, it is easy to determine the
intention of management even before the intention is executed through actual
behaviors. Hence, it provides opportunities to connect the gap between proposed
actions of the management and the actions that are already executed (Mintzberg
1978). Finally, Ruekert argues that the planning process is the bridge that link up
the market information acquisition and the responsiveness to customers’
expectation, which are proposed by previous researchers like Kohli and Jaworski
(1990), and to certain degree, Shapiro (1988).

The Ruekert research’s outcomes confirm several assumptions about market

orientation. In the first place, the author found out empirically the difference in the
adoption of market orientation among business units within organization. This
result explains the phenomenon that business, specifically big corporations, adopt
or unsuccessfully adopt market orientation or fail to recognize the difference of
these market orientation activities among departments at business unit level. On
another words, even though the business is said to be market oriented, chances are
that some of its business units may not perform the market orientation
accordingly. Thus, for top management level to improve the company market
orientation performance, the problem approach should be implemented from the
bottom up (business unit level to top management level). The next finding
indicates the influence of organizational support processes unto market orientation
level. The support processes include recruiting, training, and rewarding and
compensating employees. However, these support processes only achieve the
optimal result when they are combined with changes in organizational structure
that backing market orientation. In addition, the research reasserted the outcome
that other previous market orientation studies pointed out: the level of market
orientation positively relate to employees’ attitude (Esprit de corps (Kohli and
Jaworski 1990)). In a business, when the level of market orientation increases, the
attitude of employees toward the company, management individuals accordingly
increase. As a result, this lead to increase in adapt ability, customer
responsiveness and productivity of business. This finding again confirmed market
 37

orientation is a right path for any business have intention to adopt it. The last
finding, and also the most important one, of the research is that the level of market
orientation adoption correlate to company’s long-term profitability. This result is
compatible with the study of Narver and Slater (1990), which states that the
market orientation adoption positively influence the long-term financial
performance of business.

2.6.3 Desphandé’s customer perspective of market orientation

In his study, conducted in 1993, Desphandé approached market orientation from a

different perspective to other previous scholars: customers’ perspective.
Desphandé et al. (1993) think that study on market orientation’s perspectives is
sufficient if the main target of market orientation, customers’ point of view is not
examined. Desphandé et al.’ research is to answer four questions concern business
performance and organizational cultures, the correlative on customer orientation
(marketers’ and customers’ perspective) and business performance, the
differences between marketers’ and customers’ perspective on market orientation
and the importance of customers’ perspective of market orientation on business
performance, and finally the correlation between innovativeness and company
business performance. The most significant finding in his study confirms that the
perception of customers on company’s market orientation has great impact on
company’s business performance. Moreover, this perception of customers is more
important than company itself perception on market orientation. The study also
discovers the relationship between innovativeness and company business
performance. Desphandé et al. suggest company employ the culture of both
customer oriented and innovative to achieve success in business performance. The
authors emphasize that the lack of any element will lead to suffer of business
performance. In addition, Desphandé et al. show, unsurprisingly, the
inconsistency of the perception between marketers and customers on market
orientation. This situation, Desphandé et al. argue, may impact the judgment of
customers on the company market orientation effort, and so lead to problem of
improving business performance. The authors highly encourage company to
 38

combine both self-assessment and customers’ rating to support performance

improvement.

2.6.4 Summary of views on market orientation

There are, clearly, differences in these above approaches. However, one thing
should be put in mind that the differences between approaches lies on the
emphasis rather than the component difference. In general, the very simple market
orientation components contains “customer orientation” and “competitor
orientation” with four-step processes of information: acquisition of information,
sharing information, processing of information, and utilization of information.
Each author has a different point of view to approach market orientation base on
these components and processes. While Kohli and Jaworski (1990) drew attention
to the processing of market information, Shapiro (1988) emphasized on decision
making process and Ruekert (1992) stressed on strategy development. At the end
of the day, the two most wildly accepted models of market orientation are Kohli
and Jaworski’ (1990), and Narver and Slater’ (1990).

Before moving to the next part discussing measurement scales of market

orientation, the below table will sum up all ideas about market orientation of
different researchers.

TABLE 1. Different views on Market Orientation

Authors Definition of Market Orientation

Kohli and Jaworski (1990) “…organizational wide generation of market

intelligence pertaining to current and future
customers’ needs, dissemination of the
intelligence across departments and
organizational wide responsiveness to it” (Kohli
and Jaworski 1990)

Narver and Slater (1990) “the organization culture that most effectively
and efficiently creates the necessary behaviors
 39

for the creation of superior value for buyers and,

thus, continuous superior performance for the
business” (Narver and Slater 1990)

Ruekert (1992) The degree to which business unit (1) obtains

and uses information from customers (2) to
develops a strategy which will meet their needs,
and (3) implements that strategy by being
responsive to customers’ needs and wants.
(Ruekert 1992)

Shapiro (1988) The criteria for a market oriented consist:

“information on all important buying influences
permeates every corporate function”, “strategic
and tactical decisions are made interfunctional-
ly and interdivisional-ly”, and “divisions and
functions make well-coordinated decisions and
execute them with a sense of commitment”
(Shapiro 1988)

Desphandé, et al. (1993) “the set of beliefs that puts the customer’s
interest first, while not excluding those of all
other stakeholders such as owners, managers,
and employees, in order to develop a long-term
profitable enterprise” (Deshpandé, et al. 1993)

2.7 Market Orientation measurement scales

Among different models offered by various researchers, the two most significant
measurement scales for market orientation are MARKOR of Kohli & Jaworski
(1993b) and MKTOR of Narver & Slater (1990). The two measurement scales
were first used to determine the adoption level of market orientation and business
performance among companies in the States. According to the summary of market
orientation research of Chan & Ellis (1997), major positive results of market
 40

orientation and business performance relationship have been confirmed, by using

either MARKOR or MKTOR scale, in the US-setting environment. The concern
for positive impacts of market orientation on business, resonantly, increases
globally. Researchers all over the world start to conduct studies regionally to
verify the hypothesis. Abundant final outcomes from different markets in several
countries like Hong Kong (Chan & Ellis 1997), Vietnam (Ly, Dornberger & Nabi
2010), Ghana (Hinson & Mahmoud 2011), Australia (Farell 2000) and others,
unexpectedly, confirm the hypothesis.

Moreover, there are some studies investigated the role of the two scales
MARKOR and MKTOR in measuring the market orientation (Matsuno, Mentzer
& Rentz 2005; Moorman & Rust 1999). The outcomes affirm the two scales
originated by Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar (1993b), and Narver and Slater (1990)
to be superior and particularly accurate to measure impacts of market orientation.
The following text serves as description in detail the two market orientation
scales.

2.7.1 MARKOR scale by Kohli, Jaworski & Kumar

This scale was developed based on the work of Kohli and Jaworski (1990), which
is the initial concept of market orientation. There are three main components of
the model: intelligence generation, intelligence dissemination, and responsiveness,
with total 22 items. According to Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar (1993b), the model
can be described as following:

 Intelligence generation (6 items): the process of collecting and assessing

customers’ needs and external factors that influence those needs. These
intelligence can be obtained “through a variety of formal as well as
informal means (e.g., informal discussion with trade partners) and may
involve collecting primary data or consulting secondary data” (Kohli and
Jaworski 1990)
 Intelligence dissemination (5 items): the formal and informal distribution
of processed market information throughout Strategic Business Units in a
given organization (Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar 1993b).
 41

 Responsiveness (9 items): the respond of organization to the market

information that is collected, assessed and disseminated throughout the
organization (Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar 1993b).

It goes without saying that MARKOR scale’s main function is to examine the
extent to which Strategy Business Units in a given organization involve in the
process of collecting, assessing, and disseminating formally and informally, and
respond to the market information by developing effective marketing programs.
The scale was, initially, introduced accompanying 32 items, and with the number
item of market intelligence, intelligence dissemination and responsiveness are ten,
eight and fourteen respectively. After a period of testing and refining, the scale,
finally, was reduced to 20 items (Kohli, Jaworski and Kumar 1993b). The final
MARKOR scale is describe as below:

TABLE 2. MARKOR Measurement Scale

Intelligence generation

1. In our business unit, we meet with customers at least once a year to find
out what products or services they will need in the future.
2. In this business unit, we do a lot of in-house market research.
3. We are slow to detect changes in our customers’ product/service
preferences.
4. We survey end-users at least once a year to assess the quality of our
product and service offerings.
5. We are slow to detect fundamentals shifts in our industry (e.g.,
competition, technology, regulation)
6. We periodically review the likely effect of changes in our business
environment (e.g., regulation) on customers

Intelligence Dissemination

7. We have interdepartmental meetings at least once a quarter to discuss

market trends and developments.
 42

8. Marketing personnel in our business unit spend time discussing

customers’ future needs with other functional departments.
9. When something important happens to a major customer or market, the
whole business unit knows about in a short period.
10. Data on customer satisfaction are disseminated at all levels in this
business unit on a regular basis.
11. When one department finds out something important about competitors,
it is slow to alert other departments.

Responsiveness

12. It takes us forever to decide how to respond to our competitors’ price

changes.
13. For one reason or another we tend to ignore changes in our customers’
product or service needs.
14. We periodically review our product development efforts to ensure that
they are in line with what customers want.
15. Several departments get together periodically to plan a response to
changes taking place in our business environment.
16. If a major competitor we to launch an intensive campaign targeted at our
customers, we would implement a response immediately.
17. The activities of the different departments in this business unit are well
coordinated.
18. Customer complaints fall on deaf ears in this business unit.
19. Even if we came up with a great marketing plan, we probably would not
be able to implement it in a timely fashion.
20. When we find that customers would like us to modify a product or
service, the departments involved make concerted efforts to do so

Even though MARKOR’s empirical results are more consistent and systematic
compared to MKTOR (Lado, Maydeu-Olivares & Rivera 1998), MARKOR scale
is questioned by its methodological basis. This is mainly because MARKOR
 43

utilized various specimens from different industry without giving clear

information concern type and characteristic of these specimens.

2.7.2 MKTOR scale by Narver & Slater

The MKTOR scale first appeared in the work of Narver and Slater in 1990. It is
supposed to be one of the first measurement scales for market orientation.
MKTOR contains three main components: customer orientation, competitor
orientation, and interfunctional orientation (Narver and Slater 1990). Following is
the brief description of three components of MKTOR:

 Customer orientation (6 items): the ability to understand target customers’

needs in order to provide them constantly with exceptional services
(Narver and Slater 1990)
 Competitor orientation (5 items): the understanding of competitor in term
of “short-term strengths and weaknesses and long-term capabilities and
strategies” (Narver and Slater 1990)
 Interfunctional Coordination (3 items): the capability of top management
to regulate and distribute company resources in an efficient way “to create
superior value for target customers” (Narver and Slater 1990)

The MKTOR scale, even though, is not as popular in the States as the MARKOR
is, it has been tested in various setting markets like Japan (Deshpandé, et al.
1993), Australia (Pulendran, Speed and Widing 2000) and other countries.
Therefore, MKTOR is considered to be more reliable than MARKOR is, in term
of statistical perspective (Gauzente 1999). The content and items of MKTOR are
listed in the table as following:

TABLE 3. MKTOR Measurement Scale

Customer Orientation

1. Our business objectives are driven primarily by customer satisfaction.

2. Our strategy for competitive advantage is based on our understanding of
customers’ needs.
 44

3. We constantly monitor our level of commitment and orientation to

serving customers’ needs.
4. We give close attention to after-sale service.
5. We measure customer satisfaction systematically.
6. Our business strategies are driven by our beliefs about how we can
create greater value for customers.

Competitor orientation

7. Our salespeople regularly share information within our business

concerning competitors’ strategies.
8. Our top managers from every function regularly visit our current and
prospective customers.
9. We rapidly respond to competitive actions that threaten us.
10. We target customers where we have an opportunity for competitive
advantage.
11. Top management regularly discusses competitors’ strengths and
strategies.

Interfunctional coordination

12. We freely communicate information about our successful and

unsuccessful customer experiences across all business functions.
13. All of our business functions (marketing/sales, manufacturing, R&D,
finance/accounting, and so on) are integrated in serving the needs of our
target markets.
14. All of our managers understand how everyone in our business can
contribute to creating customer value.

Even though the scale has been widely accepted and utilized, it is inevitable a
subject of criticism. Kohli et al. (1993b) criticized MKTOR to be over-
emphasized “customer” element over other elements (competitor and
interfunctional coordination).
 45

2.7.3 Comparison of two measurement scales

There is a number of studies that examine market orientation using either two
measurement scale MARKOR or MKTOR. This part is to provide readers some
of the most recent studies in this perspective. The following table contains studies
that are published from 1993 to 2012.

TABLE 4. Market orientation studies using MARKOR or MKTOR

Author Measurement Testing Size of Methodology

Scale site sample
(country)

Farrell, and MARKOR and Australia 861 Quantitative

Oczkowski (1997) MKTOR companies

Le, Pham, and MARKOR Vietnam 300 Quantitative

Evangelista (2013) companies

Ly, Dornberger MARKOR Vietnam 66 Quantitative

and Nabi (2010) companies

Ellis (2006) MARKOR Multi 56 studies Literature

countries Review

Woller (2002) MKTOR Multi SME Literature

countries Review

Ortega and Criado MKTOR and Spain 5 Qualitative

(2012) MARKOR companies

Farell, and MKTOR Australia 340 Quantitative

Oczkowski (2002) companies
 46

Matsumo, MARKOR U.S.A 1334 Quantitative

Mentzer, and companies
Rentz (2005)

As we can see, the quantitative method dominates the studies of market

orientation. The other method like qualitative and literature review also fairly
present. According to the table above, it is complex to decide which measurement
scale between MARKOR and MKTOR is better for studying the market
orientation in Vietnamese instant coffee industry. The use of the market
orientation measurement scale reveals a particular theoretical orientation
(Gauzente 1999). While the MARKOR emphasizes on the organizational aspect,
MKTOR concentrates more on the customer perspective. Ellis (2006) agreed on
this comment. He added in his paper that MKTOR possesses a strong correlation
to customer value. On the other hand, MARKOR is specifically constructed in
term of intelligence generation, dissemination and responsive activities, which
belong to organizational perspective and may be less correlated to performance
(P. Ellis 2006.).

In addition, both measurement scales have been widely examined in different

contexts. Most of the time, these scales require modifications. In an extensive
analysis and comparison of the construct of market orientation measurement scale,
Farell and Oczkowski (1997) favored MARKOR to MKTOR and explained that
MARKOR’s structure is balance. However, these authors did not think the
original model of MARKOR and MKTOR are good enough. They offered a
modified version of 10-item MARKOR and 8-item MKTOR. These modified
scales are considered to be the most proper modification so far (Ortega & Criado
2012.).
 47

3 INDUSTRY OVERVIEW

“It is easier to go down a hill than up, but the view is from the
top.”

Arnold Bennett

This part contains three subparts: the industry overview provides readers with
basic understanding of Vietnamese instant coffee market. The market overview
introduces to readers general information concerning Vietnam. This third part of
the research ends with consumption habit which depicts the current habit of
consuming instant coffee and gives a prediction on consumption trend.

3.1 Industry Overview

The industry overview offers readers basic information concerning the current
situation of the coffee industry in Vietnam. The industry overview contains two
parts. The first part give readers the overview about the industry while the second
part contain more specific detail about the most prominent companies in this
industry.

3.1.1 Précis

Coffee was introduced to Vietnam by French colonists in the 19th century. A

coffee plantation was first built in the Northern Midland of Vietnam in the late
1800s and another one was built in the North Central Coast of Vietnam later in the
early 20th century. After that coffee plantation started expanding to Highland area,
in 1945, Vietnam had several plantations with the cultivation area up to 10
thousand hectares (United Nation Industrial Stategy Project 1998). Since then,
coffee has gradually embedded into Vietnamese culture. Currently, Vietnam is
one of the top exporters of coffee bean in the world. However, the vast majority of
Vietnamese coffee product is for export and the domestic market is ignored. This
leads to the burden for the export activities in the import-export balance. As the
competition of the exportation of coffee becomes stiff, Vietnamese coffee export
companies started to show their lacking of proper competency. In 2010, there
were 153 active coffee exporters. This number fell dramatically. As of 2013, there
 48

are 30 companies that survive (MISA 2013). Furthermore, the stagnant of growth
in revenue of exporting coffee has been show by the increase of only 2 percent in
2013 compared to 2011 (USDA 2013). As a result, the obvious solution for
Vietnamese coffee industry is to put more concentration on the domestic market
(Ipsos 2013). Presently, the Vietnamese coffee market is valued at $287,34
million and it is forecasted the market value will reach $573,75 million in 2016
(MISA 2013). One important feature to be put in mind of Vietnamese coffee bean
production is that Robusta contributes to over 95 percent of the total output while
the Arabica occupies most of the 5 percent left over. This feature of Vietnamese
coffee bean production is crucial as the Robusta bean is the main ingredient for
making instant coffee (Centro Farms 2013). Therefore, instant coffee industry
would be at huge advantage of production phase.

3.1.2 Key players in the field

As mentioned before, the Vietnamese market is valued at $287, 34 million and a

third of this value is contributed by instant coffee market (MISA 2013). Currently,
the instant coffee market in dominated by three biggest players: Trung Nguyen,
Nescafé and Vinacafé Bien Hoa. One interesting feature should be noted that three
companies come from different background. Vinacafé is State-Owned Enterprise,
while Trung Nguyen is private firms and Nescafé from Nestlé, is a multinational
company. There has been no official report for Vietnamese instant coffee industry
in 2013 is published yet. However, according to Vinaresearch, the online survey
community of W&S, the Big Three occupies 70,8 percent of the market share. At
a glance, it is quite pleasure for the three companies to dominate the market.
However, to take a look back to 2011 when the Big Three made up 96 percent of
the market (Vietnamnet 2013), it is clear that there is a big change in the market
share of the Big Three in the past compare to the current situation. The shrunk in
the market share of the Big Three reflects the vigorous competition of the instant
coffee market. Furthermore, the competition among three companies is also really
tense. Vinacafé leads the market with 26,3 percent of share; Vinacafé Bien Hoa
follows up with 22,8 percent of market share, and Trung Nguyen falls behind
 49

closely with 21,7 percent of market share (Ipsos 2013). The figures below show
the market share of the Vietnamese instant coffee in 2011 and 2013 respectively.

FIGURE 9. Market share of Vietnamese instant coffee market in 2011. Self-

elaborated from Vietnamnet (2013)

FIGURE 10. Market share of Vietnamese instant coffee market in 2013. Self-
elaborated from Ipsos (2013)
The constant growth of instant coffee market with double-digit every year paints a
lucrative picture that lures domestic and foreign companies into the playing field
(Ipsos 2013). The market has become more mature and fragmented. It is worth
noting that even though the proportion of enterprises with foreign investment is
small compared to local companies, their market share has been soaring fast in the
 50

past three years (Ipsos 2013). Recently, the Vietnamese Ministry of Industry and
Trade just issued Circular 08/2013/TT-BCT that prevents Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) firms from directly purchasing agricultural products (include
coffee bean) from farmers and establishing buying network. This move is to
protect the domestic firms that are threatening to be overwhelmed by FDI firms,
which have more capital and human resources (Vietnamnews 2013). Though, this
ban may restrain the FDI firms from certain business activities, it may not stop
them from jumping into such a profitable market.

It is safe to predict that the remunerative market will continue to fuel the tension
between current rivals as well as encourage the emergence of new brands and
competitors. The Big Three must put much effort if they want to keep their
leading position (Vietnamnet 2013).

3.2 Market Overview

Vietnam is a populous country located in South East Asia with population is about
89,6 million (IMF 2013). After the two wars with France and United States,
Vietnam was ruled by the communist government. Suffered by the closed market
policy of the communist regime, Vietnamese economy endured a huge decline. In
1986, the ruling government tried to open the market again with Doi Moi policy.
Since then, the economy of Vietnam has witnessed a fast economic
transformation. The average income per capita of Vietnam increases from $437 in
1986 to $1.401 in 2013 (IMF 2013). In 2013, it is estimated that Vietnam
achieved a growth rate of 5,42% (Bloomberg 2013). Huge population depicts
Vietnam is quite a large market. The economic development shows Vietnamese
would be great potential customers. These figures indicate Vietnam has a strong
base of consumer with disposable income for instant coffee if it is well exploited.
The chart below depicts the overall increment of personal income of Vietnamese
over period.
 51

FIGURE 11. GDP per capita and GDP per capita (PPP) of Vietnam during 1985-
2012. Adapted from The World Bank (2013)
Beside the income, other figures are worth to be analyzed that is the age group
and the sex ratio as the instant coffee is consumed in Vietnam generally by young
generation and middle age and varies by gender (Male tend to consume more
coffee than Female) (International Coffee Organization 2014). Vietnam is
considered a young country with 68,3 % population is from the age group of 15-
64 and nearly a quarter of the population is from the age group of 0-14. The elder
group (age 65 and above) accounts for only 5,6% of the population. The median
age of Vietnamese is 29,2 years old (CIA Factbook 2014). The sex ratio in
Vietnam favors for male with the figure of 1:1,12 (female: male).
 52

FIGURE 12. Vietnam Age Group in 2014. Adopted from CIA Factbook (2014)
All the data above show that Vietnam is a promising market not only in term of
market share but also in term of disposable income because two third of the
Vietnamese population are young people and their incomes possesses an
increasing tendency.

3.3 Consumption Habit: Current Situation and Future Trend

Even though coffee has been introduced Vietnam more than 100 years ago and
Vietnam is, currently, the second biggest coffee exporter after Brazil, the domestic
consumption of coffee in Vietnam is surprisingly low. This may be a surprising
fact at first sight. However, Vietnam is a traditional tea-drinking country. The tea
consumption dominates the coffee consumption on the choice of Vietnamese for
hot drink. Recent signals, nevertheless, reveal a change in trend of hot drink
choice of Vietnamese consumers. As the open policy starts to show its
effectiveness not only on economy but also in social culture, the Vietnamese
young generation is more exposed to Western culture. As a result, a new coffee
culture in Vietnam started to emerge (International Coffee Organization 2013). In
a report of World Bank in 2007, it estimated Vietnamese may consume 70.000
tons coffee a year. Another figure of World Coffee Association (WCA) describes
Vietnamese consumption of coffee was nearly 0,5kg coffee/year per capita which
accounts for 3,6 percent of the total coffee production in Vietnam. This figure
shows Vietnamese consumption of coffee extremely lagged far behind the average
consumption other members of WCA, which is roughly 25,2 percent of their
domestic production (Vietnam Trade Promotion Agency 2007). To understand the
situation more precisely, more recent data is examined. According to Ipsos report
on Vietnam coffee industry in 2013, the performance of Vietnamese consumption
of coffee is better than it was in 2007. The coffee consumption per capita of
Vietnam also increases to 1,5kg/ year. The latest data of coffee consumption in
Vietnam is also considered low compared to WCA’s average consumption.
However, the data has painted an appealing picture on the impressive growth of
the Vietnam market. The consumption of coffee per capita has been triple in
weight (from 0,5kg to 1,5kg) and nearly double in the share of total coffee
 53

production of Vietnam (from 3,6 percent to 6 percent). The chart below depicts
the relation of Vietnam’s coffee consumption compare to other countries in the
world.

FIGURE 13. Vietnamese coffee consumption compared to the world. Adopted

from Ipsos (2013)
Of the coffee consumption in Vietnam, instant coffee makes up one third (USDA
2013). The teenagers and middle age people tend to favor instant coffee over
ground coffee products. Currently, in the market, Vietnamese consumers are
offered various type of instant coffee. Among them, the 3-in-1 (coffee-milk-sugar)
instant coffee is now the most favorite formula in the market, follows by the
traditional 2-in-1(coffee-sugar). In the near future, the trend of consuming instant
coffee among Vietnamese consumers is predicted continue to surge steadily (Ipsos
2013).

FIGURE 14. Domestic market of instant coffee by type. Adopted from Ipsos
(2013)
 54

FIGURE 15. Vietnam domestic consumption versus total production in 2011-

2020. Adopted from International Coffee Organization (2013)
To sum up, there is a current change of preference of Vietnamese on hot-drink.
Coffee consumption becomes a social culture. Vietnamese consumers start to
realize the convenient of instant coffee product. Hence, there is still a plenty room
for growth in this market. However, the consumption of these product is still low
and companies need to put much effort in order to fully exploit the market’s
potential.
 55

4 METHODOLOGY

“Every discourse, even a poetic or oracular sentence carries

with it a system of rules for producing analogous things and
thus an outline of methodology.”

Jacques Derrida

The focus of this study is to explore the sufficiency of the traditional market
orientation measurement scale; MARKOR and MKTOR, for companies operate in
Vietnamese instant coffee market. In order to successfully achieve this objective,
the author strongly believes that the qualitative research is the well-suited method.

Ngo, Le and Lee (2010), Ngo and O’Cass (2010) suggest for deeper case studies
to go further on the research of market orientation among Vietnamese companies.
Following these suggestions, author decides to apply the case studies to explain
the market orientation practice of companies in Vietnamese instant coffee
industry, observe its effect on companies’ performance and offer a measurement
scale to measure the effect.

This chapter is to clarify the methodology applied in this study. First, the author
describes and states our selection of research method. Next, the author explains
the context of the research. Data collection part will follow after that. The
protocol, which assists the data collection, and the data analysis process will end
this part.

4.1 Research Method: Exploratory Study

Exploratory study is usually adopted if one wants to acquire the first knowledge
of an undiscovered facet that possibly is a context-specific phenomenon. Most of
the cases, exploratory study usually is used with case study strategy. Using case
study strategy can grant researcher possibility to achieve deeper intelligence. In
this study, the chosen method is required to solve the question whether the
traditional market orientation measurement scales are adequate for the specific
context: the Vietnamese instant coffee industry.
 56

4.1.1 Case Study Strategy

The case study strategy is one of several ways that a research is carried out in the
field of social science (Yin 1994). A case study strategy is usually adopted when
one wants to explore “contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context”
(Yin 1994, 1). According to Yin (1994) there are several justifications to secure
the employment of case study method: (1) examines and studies a phenomenon in
the actual context, (2) multiple sources of data is put into consideration, (3) the
barriers between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly visible.
Furthermore, Eisenhardt (1989) advise that researcher should employ case study
research when the existing theories concerning theoretical interest are not
adequate. In this study, the research in Vietnam concerning market orientation is
limited (Le, Pham & Evangelista 2013). Last but not least, Eisenhardt (1989) also
suggested that the number of case study is ideal between three to ten cases. For
the reasons above, the case study strategy suits perfectly for this study.

4.1.2 Importance of Case Selection

There is one thing to put in mind that the cases selected must be representative for
the target population of research topic. If the cases selected are not representative,
the outcome of the research would be considered unreliable and wasteful (Gerring
2004). In order to choose right case to study, one must understand the definition
of case study and adopt appropriate selection techniques. Even the key word case
study is widely used, it is equivocal, which can be interpreted differently depend
on research designs (Seawright & Gerring 2008). For the purpose of this research,
case study is defined as concentrated analysis of a single unit/ small number of
units. The result of the concentrated analysis of small units will help researcher
understand or draw conclusion on a larger set of similar units (population of
units/cases). In addition, there is another type of case study. In this type of case
study, the researcher wants to study specific feature of a particular case.
Therefore, the problem of selecting case does not exist. However, the nature of
this study is to test the relationship between business performance and market
orientation of Vietnamese instant coffee companies and to propose a measurement
scale for market orientation afterward. Consequently, the selection of case must be
 57

undertaken carefully to increase the reliability of the study. The following text
will introduce to readers the case selection techniques that are frequently used in
academic research.

4.1.3 Random Technique?

Before going to detail on specific methods for case selection, a question deserved
to be raised whether it is possible to choose a case randomly. There is some
arguments favor the random method to select the case as this method will prevent
the selection bias. The selection bias is usually introduced when researchers select
their case in a goal-directed fashion. This way of comprehending comes from the
logic of quantitative research method (Sekhon 2004.).

However, there might be serious problems occur if researcher decides to choose a

very limited samples by random method without any categorization or assortment
before. Two simple Monte Carlo examples were offered by Seawright and
Gerring (2008) to depict the possible problems of selecting the case study
randomly. Each set includes a sample of cases and a variable of interest ranging
from 0 to 1, with the mean of 0,5, in the population. In the first set, computers
creates 500 random samples, each includes of one thousand cases. In the second
example, 500 random samples are generated but each includes only five cases.
The question of the experiments is how representative the random samples in two
examples are. Apparently, both examples generate unbiased samples. The mean
average of the first set is 0,499, while the mean average of the second set is 0,508.
It is obvious to notice that both mean average of two sets is approximately
equivalent to the true mean 0,5. However, the mean of the second is 0,008
different than the true mean, and the mean of the first set is 0,001 different than
the true mean. This indicates that the mean of second set is more spread out than
the mean of the first set. When the sample size are large with number of sample is
equal to or larger than 1.000, the standard deviation is acceptable at the value
around 0,009. If the sample size is too small and falls below five, the standard
deviation is significant at the value about 0,128. From this result, Seawright and
Gerring drew a conclusion that for a comparative case study, if the case sample is
equal or less than five, the random method would decrease the representative level
 58

of the case for the population. Apply to this study; there are total three case
companies to be analyzed. Hence, the random technique cannot be applied.

4.1.4 Case Selection Techniques

The case selection in any case study research must have two characteristics: be
representative and has useful variation on the dimension of theoretical interest.
The selection of case is directed by how a case is positioned in a research context.
Apparently, there are seven different ways to select case for a case study research,
which are typical, diverse, extreme, deviant, influential, most similar, and most
different. Each method of case selection has its own usage purpose (Seawright &
Gerring 2008). Below is the table that summarizes all the techniques and their
usages.

TABLE 5. Case Selection Techniques

Method Definition Usage Representativeness

Typical Cases (one or Confirmatory; to By definition, the

more) are typical probe causal typical case is
examples of mechanisms that representative,
some cross-case may either given the specified
relationship. confirm or relationship.
disconfirm a
given theory

Diverse Cases (one or Exploratory or Diverse cases are

more) exemplify confirmatory; likely to be
diverse values of illuminates the representative in the
X, Y, or X/Y. full range of minimal sense of
variation on X, representing the full
Y, or X/Y variation of the
population.
 59

Extreme Cases (one or Exploratory; Achievable only in

more) exemplify open-ended comparison with a
extreme or probe of X or Y larger sample of
unusual values of cases.
X or Y relative to
some univariate
distribution.

Deviant Case (one or Exploratory or After the case study

more) deviate confirmatory; to is conducted, it may
from some cross- probe new be corroborated by
case relationship. explanation for a cross-case test,
Y, to disconfirm which includes a
a deterministic general hypothesis
argument, or to based on the case
confirm an study research. If
existing the case is now an
explanation (rare) on-lier, it may be
considered
representative of the
new relationship.

Influential Cases (one or Confirmatory; to An influential case

more) with double-check is typically not
influential cases that representative. If it
configurations of influence the were typical of the
the independent results of a cross- sample a whole, it
variables. case analysis would not have
unusual influence
on estimates of the
overall relationship.
 60

Most similar Cases (two or Exploratory if the Most similar cases

more) are similar hypothesis is X- that are broadly
on specified or Y-centered; representative of the
variables other confirmatory if population will
than X1 and/or Y. X/Y-centered provide the
strongest basis for
generalization

Most different Cases (two or Exploratory or Most different cases

more) are confirmatory; to that are broadly
different on (1) eliminate representative of the
specified necessary causes population will
variables other or (2) provide provide the
than X1 and Y. weak evidence of strongest basis for
the existence of a generalization
causal
relationship

After assessing through the case selection techniques and the manner of this study,
the authors decide to use the typical case selection method to apply in this study.
The reasons for this decision are based on the purpose of the research, which are
(1) to test and propose a measurement scale of market orientation based on
previous studies and scales, and (2) to confirm or disconfirm a given theory.

Following is the explanation for the selection of three case companies. The main
reason for the author to choose these company because of their size. The
Vietnamese instant market is currently occupied by many companies, foreign and
domestic ones. However, the majority of market shared is occupied by Vinacafé,
Trung Nguyen, and Nescafé (Ipsos 2013). According to Nielsen (2012),
Vietnamese instant coffee market is immature and the consumption trend being
led by the three largest companies Nescafé, Trung Nguyen and Vinacafé. Many
smaller companies tend to follow up the three companies’ movement. Therefore,
selecting three companies to be case study satisfy the representative category of
 61

the research. Moreover, according to Hinson and Mahmoud (2011), by choosing

leading companies in the arena, researchers can prevent the possible noises from
small cases in the market, which cause deteriorating to the study reliability.

4.2 Research Context: Vietnamese instant coffee industry

Vietnam is chosen as the testing context for this research because the author
desires to unveil the market orientation phenomenon in the instant coffee industry
in this country. Previously, this context was examined in the market orientation
perspective by different researchers (Ngo & O'Cass 2010; Ly, Dornberger & Nabi
2010; Le, Pham & Evangelista 2013; Ngo, Le & Lee 2010). Regarding the result
of these studies, even though the degree of this effect varies among industries all
of the studies confirm that there exists a positive relationship between market
orientation and business performance, where the business performance is
considered differently from customer satisfaction, financial performance to market
share. Therefore, the selection of Vietnam as the testing site fits the author’s
desire and is supported by previous researchers. There is one important feature of
those previous studies that they are conducted using cross-industry study, except
for the case of Ly, Dornberger and Nabi (2010). This study follows similar path
that Ly, Dornberger and Nabi did in 2010, and that is to focus on a specific
industry. By conducting the research in this way, the author is able to obtain a
deeper knowledge of market orientation effect in Vietnamese instant coffee
industry. Thus, this is a strong incentives for the author to explore Vietnamese
context by providing empirical evidences to resolve the research questions.

4.3 Data Collection Procedure

The data collection in Vietnam is historically challenging as Vietnamese

companies practice a custom not to leak out information for research as they think
the information is of crucial for their business. Fortunately, with the help of
author’s acquaintances and their personal network, the author was able to contact
with authorities of case companies.
 62

Before conducting the interview, an informative e-mail was delivered to all

authorities of case companies. In the e-mail, some simple questions were asked
concerning the market orientation practice of companies. This e-mail is important
as it provides the interviewees some impressions on what would be going to take
place on the forthcoming interview.

The interviews took places from June to September of 2014. The author chose to
interview CEO or marketing manager of selected companies. This was suggested
by Kohli and Jaworski (1990), Narver and Slater (1990) because CEO and
marketing manager are the ones who are in charge or directly involve in
marketing strategy and activities of companies.

The duration of in-depth interview varied from 30 to 60 minutes. Recorded by

audio recorder, the interviews afterward were transcript to Word document, and,
later, saved into ATLAS.ti. All information that extracted from interviewees was
based on prepared protocol. In additional, the author also gathers information of
case companies from various sources like annual report and news.

4.4 Protocol Development

Taking the purposes of this study into account, which are to examine the
relationship between market orientation and business performance and the
usefulness of traditional measurement scales for Vietnamese instant industry, the
author decided to use the measurement scales described in the literature: MKTOR
and MARKOR. These measurement scales adopt the Liker scale to calibrate their
own items. The Likert scale contains five or seven items from strongly agree,
agree, neutral, disagree to strongly disagree. It is the scale that measures positive
or negative of the interviewees´ opinion toward a statement. The interviewees
were asked to complete three tasks which are, firstly, to assess the relationship
between market orientation and company performance, secondly, to evaluate the
usefulness of the measurement scales, and, finally, to suggest additional items,
which are suitable, specifically, for the industry. Reader can look up for protocol
in the Appendix 4.
 63

4.5 Data Analysis

Data analysis should be seen as a continuous activity rather than one time process.
In studies adopt qualitative approach, data analysis is considered as an interplay
between collected data and theory. It is an anarchic, puzzling, sluggish yet
inspired and engaging procedure to bring out the structure and message of the data
(Marshall & Rossman 1989). Often, the ladder of analytical abstraction of Miles
and Huberman (1994) has been used as a trusted method of analyzing data for
qualitative research method. In this study, the author adopts this analysis strategy
to facilitate and guide the analyzing process once the data is fully gathered. The
process of ladder of analytical abstraction is depicted in the figure below.

FIGURE 16. The ladder of Analytic Abstraction. Adopted from Miles and
Huberman (1994)
 64

For the convenience of conducting qualitative analysis, the ATLAS.ti software is

utilized. ATLAS.ti is a computer aided qualitative analysis software that is
suggested in many research method course books as well as it is commonly used
in qualitative research (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2009). ATLAS.ti, using
grounded theory technique, which has similar process to the analytic abstraction,
grants researchers ability to code, to sort and to analyze qualitative data in an
organized fashion (Strauss & Corbin 1990; Charmza 2014). The procedure to
process the collected data by ATLAS.ti is described step by step as follow.

The first step is to assign the data into ATLAS.ti database. Before that, the author
transcript the interview from the audio into Words documents. For the ease of
coding and analysis process, the script was translated from Vietnamese to English.
After that, the author created a new “Hermeneutic unit” for this research. The
hermeneutic unit included all the documents as the database for the research.

The next step is to create codes. From the documents, the author selected various
quotations have keywords which relate to the research purpose, for example:
“market orientation”, “profit”, “company performance”…, and assigned them as
codes. Some of the quotation does not have exactly the same as the terms used in
the literature. For example as in the interview of Vinacafé, the participant replied:
“…who understand and respond to customer’s need while fully utilize the internal
resources…”. This phrase was coded as “customer focus” because that is the
intention of the participant to imply the market orientation element. These codes
are called In vivo codes. The use of these codes, originates from the grounded
theory, is to keep the research concept in line, as much as possible, with the
participants’ answer in their own words (Charmza 2014.). Below is the table
presents some examples of codes and the according literature items.

TABLE 6. Examples of Codes and according Literature items

Quotation Literature item Code

“We not only know Narver and Slater (1990) Competitor

about the competitor focus
- Top management
product but also their
regularly discusses
 65

method to approach the competitors’ strengths

customer.” (Vo 2014) and strategies.

Jaworski and Kohli (1990)

- When something
important happens to a
major customer or
market, the whole
business unit knows about
in a short period.

“Our employees spend Narver and Slater (1990) Customer focus

much time
- Our strategy for
communicating with
competitive advantage is
other people: potential
based on our
customers, clients,
understanding of
suppliers.” (N. Le 2014)
customers’ needs.
- We constantly monitor
our level of commitment
and orientation to serving
customers’ needs.

Jaworski and Kohli (1990)

- In our business unit, we

meet with customers at
least once a year to find
out what products or
services they will need in
the future.
 66

“who understand and Narver and Slater (1990) Customer focus

respond to customer’s
- All of our business
need while fully utilize
functions
the internal resources”
(marketing/sales,
(Pham 2014)
manufacturing, R&D,
finance/accounting, and
so on) are integrated in
serving the needs of our
target markets.

Jaworski and Kohli (1990)

- When we find that

customers would like us
to modify a product or
service, the departments
involved make concerted
efforts to do so.

After finishing the coding process, the final step, yet the most important step, is to
create the connections among the codes. The purposes of this step are to make
clear the relation between codes and to reveal the structure of the data base on
research concepts.
 67

5 CASE COMPANIES/ ANALYSIS/ FINDINGS

“…You will never really understand a person until you consider

things from his point of view…Until you climb to his skin and
walk around in it.”

Harper Lee

This part illustrates the analysis of the data collected through surveys and
interviews. The outcome of the analysis is to draw a conclusion on the
relationship between market orientation and companies’ performance, and
propose a suitable measurement scale for instant coffee companies operate in
Vietnam (base on suggestions of managers and CEO of interviewed companies).

The data is processed and analyzed with the help of Computer-Assisted

Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQD) software ATLAS.ti. The use of this software
offers a clear overview of collected data which cover different perspectives of the
study.

The analysis consists two parts within-case analysis, to begin with, and, to end
with, cross-case analysis. The within-case analysis plays a role as a summary of
cases while cross-case analysis acts as a comparison among cases under similar
configurations (Khan & VanWynsberghe 2008.).

5.1 Within-case analysis

In this part, the information about each company is collected by asking CEO or
marketing managers of case companies to answer the survey. The informants were
asked to give details concerning their opinions on the relationship between market
orientation and business performance, their assessment of the practicality of the
measurement scales, and, if able, their suggestion for additional items added to the
scale, based on their experience, to make it more useful. In the following text,
each company is described in more detail.
 68

5.1.1 Vinacafé BH

Founded in 1969 by a French engineer Marcel Coronel and successfully produced

the first batch of instant coffee in 1977, Vinacafé is considered to be the oldest
instant coffee in Vietnam. Even under closed economy policy of communist
regime prior 1990, Vinacafé successfully grew into an international brand by
exporting to Soviet and other Eastern European markets. In 2004, Vinacafé
became a joint stock company and changed its name to Vinacafé Bien Hoa Joint
stock Company, or in short Vinacafé BH. According Vinacafé BH’s annual
report, the company reached its highest in the market in 2005 with 50% of market
share compared to 33% market share of its direct competitor, Nescafé (Nestlé).
However, Vinacafé BH started to show stagnant in the performance lose a part of
market share to direct competitors: Trung Nguyen and Nescafé. With the effort to
regain its market lead position, in 2011, Vinacafé BH was listed in Hochiminh
stock exchange (HOSE) so as to increase its capital. In the following year,
Vinacafé BH’s distribution channel strategically merged with Masan Consumer’s
distribution channel in order to increase the accessibility to customers all over
Vietnam. In the same year, Vinacafé BH founded its R&D department that it may
be able to produce new products fit customers’ needs. Ever since the date of its
foundation, Vinacafé shows a strong customer-orientation in marketing strategy
by always describing itself as coffee made by Vietnamese for Vietnamese. As of
2013, the company revenue reached 110 million USD (Vinacafe BH 2013), show
an increase of nearly 45% compared to 2012. Though Vinacafé BH is still behind
Nescafé, the gap between them is significantly close.

5.1.2 Trung Nguyen

Trung Nguyen is founded in 1996 in Buon Me Thuot, Vietnam, by Dang Le

Nguyen Vu. Initially, Trung Nguyen was a small private coffee grounding
company. Two years later, in 1998, Trung Nguyen open its first coffee shop in
Vietnam, marking the first step of Trung Nguyen to setting up its chain
throughout Vietnam and in other countries of the world. In the year 2001, Trung
Nguyen announced its slogan “explore creative inspiration”, which became their
main business philosophy as of today, and it helped Trung Nguyen to gain the
 69

recognition and love over consumers across Vietnam. In 2003, Trung Nguyen, for
the first time, introduced their instant coffee product G7. Out of expectation, G7
received the highest score, with 89 percent of votes, in a blind test to choose the
best instant coffee in Vietnamese market. This is the moment indicates Trung
Nguyen officially joined the instant coffee market. In line with company
mission’s “dominate domestic market – expand the global market”, Trung Nguyen
founded its first overseas office in Singapore in 2008. This step is considered to
be the initial move in the global export of the company. In 2010, Trung Nguyen
already exported its products to over 60 countries in the world include the United
States, Canada, Germany, Japan etc. As of today, Trung Nguyen, from a tiny
startup in middle of Vietnam, has transformed into a global company with the
revenue of over 200 million USD. Trung Nguyen apparently does not want to stop
when CEO Dang set goal for the company to reach 1 billion USD of revenue by
2016. Nowadays, Trung Nguyen is recognized in Vietnam as an example for the
changing of Vietnamese economy, the ambition of young Vietnamese companies
and the pride of Vietnamese coffee industry (Trung Nguyen Group 2013.).

5.1.3 Nescafé

Different from two previous competitors, Nescafé, from Nestlé, is a foreign

instant coffee brand. Nescafé has a rich history with more than 70 years serving
customers all over the world. Nescafé officially joined Vietnam market in 1998. It
was expected, by their international reputation, that Nescafé would easily capture
the market share and became the market leader. Unsurprisingly, Nescafé, along
with Trung Nguyen and Vinacafé, successfully educated Vietnamese the practice
of starting a day with a cup of coffee. However, Nescafé, unlike Trung Nguyen
and Vinacafé, tried to introduce Vietnamese an “international” coffee flavor,
using its international prestige. At first, this tactic showed effectiveness. Later, as
Trung Nguyen and Vinacafé started to concentrate to marketing campaign and
convinced Vietnamese consumers that only Vietnamese coffee flavor suits
Vietnamese the most. Nescafé, then, need to adjust their approach to customers by
increase the proportion Vietnamese coffee in their instant coffee products. Small
mistake lead to big catastrophes. Nescafé, accidentally, gave its market lead
 70

position to Trung Nguyen and Vinacafé and had to chase marketing campaigns of
competitors. Even though this was considered a step backward for Nescafé, it was
a really valuable lesson for company at that time. After the incident, Nescafé
became more oriented specifically for Vietnam market. The change of orientation
in marketing campaigns showed the determination and effort of Nescafé to
capture the market share from fierce competition. With the rich experience and
solid financial background, Nescafé successfully launched several counter
campaigns over Trung Nguyen and Vinacafé. According to the report of Nielsen,
these campaign, eventually, bore fruit when Nescafé, victoriously, replaced
Vinacafé to be the market leader (Nielsen 2012.). Nescafé learned well the lesson
of being listening to customers and localizing their product to fit local people.

For the convenience of readers, the three case companies will be epitomized by
the table below.

TABLE 7. Case Companies

Vinacafé Trung Nguyen Nescafé

Interviewee Name Pham Quang Vo Thi Ha Le Nhi

Vu Giang

Current Chairman of Marketing Marketing

position the Board Manager Manager

Previous CEO Sale Management/

experience representative marketing

Company Founded 1969 1996 1998

profile year
(Vietnam)

Revenue 110 Million 97 Million USD 113 Million

(Vietnam - USD (~88,2M Euro) USD
2013) (~100M Euro) (~102M Euro)
 71

Market 22,8% 21,7% 26,3%

share
(Vietnam -
2013)

In the next part, the author is going to make a comparison among case companies
on the impact of market orientation on company performance, and on the selection
of measurement scales.

5.2 Cross-case analysis

In this part, the analysis process of collected data will be described in detail. The
method, which is used to analyze the data, is called cross-case analysis. This
method considers each case as a separate individual to study. As a result, the
outcome of the analysis will bring out the similarities or differences among cases.
For this study, the analysis will aim at three targets: the impact of market
orientation on performance of instant coffee companies, the assessment and
selection of market orientation measurement scales, and, finally, the proposed
market orientation measurement scale suggested by case companies. For the ease
of the readers to follow, below is the figure to summarize the targets.

5.2.1 Market orientation impacts on business performance

As mentioned before, since the 1950s, there has been various research investigates
the relationship between market orientation and company performance. This
relationship is proven positive in different industry and culture. In the case of
instant coffee industry, this relationship is supposed still hold true. In fact, all the
case companies in this studies considered market orientation to be the core of their
company performance. The relationship between market orientation and company
performance is measured by using the information given by respondents and
financial reports of their companies.
 72

According to a meta-analysis of Ellis (2006), a major of market orientation’s

studies use respondents’ evaluation based on financial measure scales (return on
assets – ROA, and sales growth) to assess the business performance of the
company. In line with this method, in the interview, the author asked respondents
to assess the performance of her or his company with respect to the two financial
metrics.

Firstly, in the case of Vinacafé, company’s representative said in the interview

that:

“…As you can see in the annual report, even the market in general was not
so good, we achieved a positive result in 2013. The sales revenue was
2.300 billion VND (equivalent to 100 million EUR). This sale figure
increased around 9 percentage compared to the last year (2012) figure.
This is due to our launch of a new product in this year, which is the result
of our effort to respond to customer’s demand… I believe that in this
industry who understand and respond to customer’s need while fully
utilize the internal resources will be the winner… I consider market
orientation is they element to maintain the optimum company
performance” (Pham 2014)

Following are the responses of Trung Nguyen and Nescafé accordingly:

“…Our sale revenue in 2013 shows a 3 percent increase compared to that

of 2012. This is mostly due to the effort of the company to satisfy the need
of the customers. We are proud that Trung Nguyen is considered among
customers to be the symbol of young Vietnamese business generation.
Listening to customer is our guideline for every decision of Trung
Nguyen. However, this is a competitive market. Competition is inevitable
and hence, we must carefully analyze their (competitors) movement. Being
market oriented provide us needed tool to achieve our goal… (Vo 2014)”
“…Well, concerning about our performance, I would say that our
company depends much on customers’ preference. As a foreign company,
customers used to perceive our product as alien and not familiar with
Vietnamese taste. By time, we overcame customers’ bias by our effort to
 73

localize our product. We strongly believe that market orientation is the

right direction and allows us to have propitious profit in our sales
performance…” (N. Le 2014)

The relationship between company performance and market orientation can be

illustrated in the figure below.

FIGURE 17. Relationship between Performance and Market Orientation among

case companies
In each case, the author reassessed the company reports in regard to sales
performance. The result varies from 3 percent to 9 percent in growth rate. All in
all, the result suggests that, in general, market orientation has a positive effect in
the company performance.

5.2.2 Market orientation measurement scales’ selection and assessment

It is true that our case companies experienced fairly positive performance in the
market at the moment. As a matter of fact, the analyzed data above shows that, of
the two measurement scales, the interviewees, who are in charge of monitoring
daily marketing activities, prefer MKTOR scale to MARKOR. To explain for this
preference, Vinacafé representative said that:

“Because our company realized the importance of customers and our

company practice surround customers’ need, we would like to use a
measurement scale, which enables us to determine who are our potential
customers, partners, and distributors. We went through all the items from
 74

both scales and came to agree that MKTOR, compared to MARKOR, is a

more appropriate tool.” (Pham 2014)

In previous market orientation studies, researchers compared and evaluated the

practicality of the market orientation scale MARKOR and MKTOR. The
outcomes favored MKTOR to MARKOR in term of practicality, such as Wren
(1997). Wren concluded that MKTOR scale has items, which are relevant to
directly measure customer orientation. Therefore, Trung Nguyen, not surprisingly,
chose MKTOR as its favorable scale between two examined scales. Said Trung
Nguyen’s marketing manager:

“Our concentration is to build a Vietnamese coffee brand for Vietnamese

people. In order to fulfill that objective, we must grasp every bit of
knowledge about our customers… After taking a look at both given scales,
we realize that MARKOR is suitable for internal assessment of marketing
department. However, the scale lacks of focus to what we need: the
feasibility and customer focus. Apparently, MKTOR is easier to use,
comply with realistic scale items. Hence, I appreciate MKTOR more than
MARKOR. And in Trung Nguyen, we are trying to adopt this scale to
evaluate our progress…” (Vo 2014)

In the case of Nestle, this company, a foreign corporation entered Vietnam in the
early 1990s, long recognized the importance of market orientation. Without
understanding local customers, Nestle will not be able to compete, or even to enter
a foreign market, in international market. Market orientation gives Nestle what the
company needs the most: knowledge about customers. However, using the
knowledge without measuring the progress and performance will lead to stagnant
and decrease the efficiency. Acknowledging this flaw, Nestle developed its own
measurement scale, which is similar to MKTOR, for the market orientation
activities of the company. Hence, marketing manager of Nestle, not surprisingly,
favor MKTOR to its counterpart scale, MARKOR. To defend company’s choice,
she said:

“MARKOR and MKTOR are not unfamiliar to us. When we developed

our own market orientation measurement scale, we studied the two scales
 75

thoroughly. MARKOR is a good scale but its sophistication tendency

makes it a less practical scale, which can be easily adopted by marketers.
We chose MKTOR because it has items that measure the internal and
external factors, which we are interested in such as customers, competitors
and partners. In my opinion, MKTOR is a perfect scale and it can be used
by any company, which has interest to track its performance in marketing
interaction with customers…” (N. Le 2014)

From the interview of case companies, MKTOR is the preferred scale of the two
scales. This result reveals that case companies appreciate the customer aspect
more than the organizational aspect. And hence, MKTOR is more suitable and
reliable for company to use in term of practical manner. This outcome repeats the
outcome of previous study on market orientation measurement scale. Farell and
Oczkowski (1997) pointed out that MKTOR possesses items that emphasize on
customer aspect, while MARKOR, is more balance in overall structure, but
concentrates on organizational aspect. The following table summarizes the
selection of measurement scale among case companies.

TABLE 8. Selection of Measurement Scales

Companies MKTOR MARKOR

Customer Competitor Interfunctional Intelligence Intelligence Organizati

onal
Orientation Orientation Coordination Generation Dissemination Responsiv
eness

Trung Nguyen x x x

Vinacafé x x x

Nescafé x x x

In the following text, after confirming MKTOR is more suitable than MARKOR
to measure market orientation in Vietnamese instant coffee industry, the author is
going to examine if the traditional MKTOR is enough to measure market
 76

orientation in this context or the scale needs adjustments so that it can be used
properly.

5.2.3 Proposed items of the measurement scale

Even the outcome of the selection shows that MKTOR is a preferred scale, the
scale needs some adjustments, suggested by case companies, to be fully adopted
into practice. The proposed item for the scale is the result of the integration
between the traditional MKTOR scale and the practical experience of case
companies. Following is the suggestion from the three participants. First of all, the
author took a look at suggestion of Vinacafé. The suggestion is describe as below:

“We suggest that, regard the customer orientation, the item number one
(our business objectives…), item number five (we measure customers’
satisfaction…) along with item number two of competitor orientation
should be cross out from the scale. According to our experiences, these
items are redundant and not important to the scale in total. We have
experimented several times and can confirm that the removal of three
items insignificantly affect the reliability of the scale” (Pham 2014)

Before examining Trung Nguyen’s suggestion, the author decided to assess the
suggestion of Nescafé first because the company already has the benchmark scale
that is similar to MKTOR scale. Here is the suggestion from Nescafé’s marketing
manager:

“From our company’s perspective, we think that the original MKTOR

should be simplified to make it more compact and easy to administer.
With the consideration of the reliability of the scale after modified, we
have tried out different reductions and come to the most compact yet
reliable scale. From the customer orientation, we remove item number one
(our business objectives…), four (we give close attention…) and five (we
measure…). From the competitor orientation, we remove item one (our
salespeople regularly…), two (our top managers from every…), and three
(we rapidly respond…). The new 8-scale is easy for the marketing people
 77

to remember while still maintain the accuracy for our company.” (N. Le
2014)

Different from two companies, Trung Nguyen suggested that:

“We think, for us, the MKTOR scale is sufficient to evaluate company’s
market orientation. We went through to see if any modification is needed.
But it turned out the MKTOR fit perfectly for our company. Therefore, I
suggest to keep the original scale.” (Vo 2014)

To sum up, Trung Nguyen suggested to keep the original while other companies
suggested modification and confirmed the modification remain the reliability of
the scale. The modification of the scale are: from the customer orientation, the
item number one (Vinacafé, Nescafé), four (Nescafé), five (Vinacafé, Nescafé)
and from competitor orientation: the item number one (Nescafé), two (Vinacafé,
Nescafé), three (Nescafé) will be removed from the original scale. For the ease of
the reader, the author presents the new scale as follow.

TABLE 9. Proposed Measurement Scale

Customer Orientation

1. Our strategy for competitive advantage is based on our understanding of

customers’ needs.
2. We constantly monitor our level of commitment and orientation to
serving customers’ needs.
3. Our business strategies are driven by our beliefs about how we can
create greater value for customers.

Competitor Orientation

4. We target customers where we have an opportunity for competitive

advantage.
5. Top management regularly discusses competitors’ strengths and
strategies.
 78

Interfunctional Coordination

6. We freely communicate information about our successful and

unsuccessful customer experiences across all business functions.
7. All of our business functions (marketing/sales, manufacturing, R&D,
finance/accounting, and so on) are integrated in serving the needs of our
target markets.
8. All of our managers understand how everyone in our business can
contribute to creating customer value

The proposed scale measures three aspects of market orientation the customer
orientation, the competitor orientation and the interfunctional coordination. All the
items of the scale use the Likert scale 7-score, in accordance to the original scale
of Narver and Slater (1990), to measure the adaptation of market orientation (1 =
strongly disagree, 4 = neutral, and 7 = strongly agree). This proposed scale is in
harmony with suggestion from many previous studies suggest that different
contexts have different effects onto market orientation and may require a new
measurement scale (Kohli and Jaworski 1990), (Kumar, Rust, et al. 2004),
(Narver and Slater 1990).
 79

6 CONCLUSION, BENEFITS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

“One worthwhile task carried to a successful conclusion is

better than 50 half-finished task.”

B.C Forbes

6.1 Conclusion

The main purpose of this research is to offer a market orientation measurement

scale to aid the practice of market orientation among instant coffee companies in
Vietnam. Additional goals of this study are to explain the definition of market
orientation and to explore the relation between market orientation and company
performance. These additional goals were carried out to offer a deeper
understanding of the topic and to emphasize the importance of the main outcome
of the study. By analyzing previous studies concerning this topic and interviews
from marketing-related personnel of case study’s companies, the author was able
to fulfill the targets of the research. The point of this chapter is to sum up the
outcomes of the research and explain how these outcomes answer the questions
raised at the beginning of the study.

TABLE 10. Answers for research questions

1. What is the The first objective is to explore what is market orientation.

definition of The definition of market orientation can be traced back to the
market emergence of marketing definition in the 1950s. There are
orientation? several definitions for this concept. These definitions evolve
gradually by time as many famous researchers commented
2. How many
and contributed to this topic. Some of the most prominent
views are there
definition of market orientation can be described as follow.
on market
Bisp (1999) suggested that market orientation is a sequence of
orientation?
actions, which a company needs to gather, interpret and make
use of information concerning customers and competitors to
gain competitive advantages. Kohli and Jaworski (1990)
described market orientation as a process to generate,
dissemination of intelligence and the process requires a whole
 80

organization to respond to the intelligence. Ruekert (1992)

claimed that for a company to be market oriented, that
company must fully understand and practice three things:
obtain and use information from customers, develop a
strategy based on the collected information, and respond to
customers’ demand by implementing the strategy. Narver and
Slater (1990) indicated that market orientation is an
organization culture that creates behaviors to achieve superior
advantages over competitors. Shapiro (1988) listed criteria
that a market orientated company must possess: “information
on all important buying influences permeates every corporate
function”, “strategic and tactical decisions are made
interfunctional-ly and interdivisional-ly”, and “divisions and
functions make well-coordinated decisions and execute them
with a sense of commitment”. Desphandé et al. (1993)
consider market orientation is a set of company’s belief,
which put customers’ interest into the core of it while still
maintain balance of the stakeholders’ interest to make long-
term profit. In addition, Kotler (2012) argued that to fully
make use of market orientation, company must maintain the
balance among customer orientation, competitor orientation
and take care of its own suppliers.

To sum up, market orientation can be simply considered as

the act of apply marketing definition into company practice to
gain competitive advantages and make profit (Felton 1959.).

3. What are the The next objective of this research was to explore the relation
benefits/effects between market orientation and company performance. This
of market part contains two areas of research. The first area is the desk
orientation on research. The desk research of market orientation offer a
company review on previous studies about the relation between market
performance orientation and company performance in different contexts.
The second area is the field research. This area reveals the
 81

relationship between market orientation and company

performance in Vietnamese instant coffee market.

From the literature review, there are many findings on the

relationship between market orientation and business
performance. Felton (1959), confirmed that market
orientation brings company a long-term profit. Kohli and
Jaworski (1990) also suggested that market orientation
benefits company in three domain: employees respond,
customer respond and business performance. However, in the
research, the authors found no positive result in the company
performance. This result may lead to confusion if marketing
is really need for companies. I an effort to revisit the research
three years later, Kohli and Jaworski (1993b) found positive
relationship between market orientation and company
performance. Other researchers had similar result as well.
Narver and Slater (1990) measured this relationship by using
ROI on forest industry companies and found positive result.
As the research on market orientation is conducted all around
the world, there was a notice from Ellis (2005) that market
orientation has lesser impact in developing countries compare
than that has in developed countries. This notice challenged
the practicality and the importance of this study. The author
conduct several review on different literature and discover
that the impact of market orientation on company
performance in Vietnam is significant (Le, Pham and
Evangelista 2013; Ly, Dornberger and Nabi 2010).

To secure the practicality and importance of this study, the

author decided to examine the relationship between market
orientation and company performance in the case companies.
Only if the case companies considered this relationship is
positive, the research is meaningful. Otherwise, the research
is a waste. The interview, conducted from June to September
 82

2014, revealed that all the participants perceived market

orientation plays a crucial key to their companies’
performance. The participants agreed that by applying market
orientation, their sales revenue did increase. By assessing the
annual report of case companies, the author saw that the
increase in sale of all three companies was positive and varied
from three percent to nine percent, despite the market was
turbulent at the time. Nonetheless, the participant emphasized
the importance of being market oriented by confirming that
only understand and respond to customers’ demand while still
maintain the internal resources is the winning formula for this
instant coffee industry.

To sum up, both findings from desk research and field

research validate the positive relationship between market
orientation and company performance. In other words, market
orientation benefits company both in short and long run.

4. How many According to Gray et al. (1998), among different proposed

ways to scales for market orientation, MARKOR (1993b) and
measure MKTOR (Narver and Slater 1990) are the best measurement
market scale for this concept.
orientation
MARKOR (1993b) contains 20 items and measure market
performance of
orientation through three domains: intelligence generation,
company?
intelligence dissemination and responsiveness. This scale
measure the ability of the company to collect and analyze
data, to spread out and discuss the analyzed data, and to
create a respond to the recognized problems.

MKTOR (Narver and Slater 1990) contains 14 items and

measure market orientation through three aspects: customer
orientation, competitor orientation and interfunctional
orientation. The scale covers not only the external factors but
 83

also internal factor that company concerns. Even though it is

less popular than MARKOR, it is considered to be more
practical than MARKOR by some studies (Farrell and
Oczkowski 1997) (Gauzente 1999).

The detail structure of MARKOR and MKTOR is displayed

in the Appendix 1 and Appendix 2.

5. Are the Based on the interview of marketing-related personnel from

traditional three case companies, all of them agreed that MKTOR is
measurement superior to MARKOR when it comes to the practicality. The
scale suitable empirical research also shows that the traditional
for the measurement scale is suitable for measuring market
Vietnamese orientation in Vietnamese instant coffee market. However, the
instant coffee original MKTOR needs some modification to be able to adapt
industry? to Vietnamese market. After gather all the opinions of
participants, the new scale has 8 items, significantly simpler
6. Which
than before, includes customer orientation (3 items),
modification
competitor orientation (2 items) and interfunctional
should be
orientation (3 items). The structure of propose scale is in
implemented to
Appendix 3.
traditional
scale to make it
suitable for
Vietnamese
instant coffee
industry?

6.2 Benefits of the research

This research’s outcomes clearly benefit not only the case companies and the
instant coffee companies in Vietnam but also the academic research of market
orientation.
 84

For the case companies, this research suggests that by adopting market
orientation, company performance will be improved and gain more customer base.
In addition, this research offer company measurement tool to assess their market
orientation activity to make sure company is on track and administer company
performance. The importance of the measurement scale to companies is confirmed
by the field research of this study.

This research also has contribution to academic research. The outcomes of this
research contribute knowledge of market orientation in a new context, Vietnamese
instant coffee industry, and confirms the hypothesis of previous studies that
market orientation has positive effect on the company performance. Furthermore,
the research offers a new direction for future studies by offering the possibility to
assess the proposed scale by quantitative methods.

6.3 Validity, Reliability and Limitations

This research is carried out based on the suggestions of previous studies in the
subject of market orientation. The reliability and validity of earlier studies are
guaranteed because they were published on the trustworthy magazines, academic
journals like Journal of Marketing, Journal of Management, and other academic
books. Therefore, the information on literature review and the adaptation of these
information into this research is reliable. Furthermore, the interview and the semi-
structured survey were conducted with the CEO and marketing managers of big
companies in Vietnam, whom the author supposes to have deep knowledge of the
industry. Thus, the author believes the information gained from the interview and
the survey is considered to be highly reliable.

The research inevitably has some limitations. First of all, the research is carried
out with concentration on Vietnam market and on instant coffee industry,
specifically. Therefore, the outcome of this study geographically limit within
Vietnam and also limit in instant coffee industry. The result of the research should
be only viewed in this context. Further research is highly recommended if anyone
wants to apply the result of this study into different context.
 85

In addition, the author acknowledges that the empirical research of this study is
limited with a small number of case companies. This limitation restricts the ability
to generate a new theory and hence may affect the validity of this study. However,
it should be kept in mind that the research is not to offer a general theory but to
evaluate the measurement of market orientation among companies in a particular
industry (Vietnamese instant coffee industry). This lays a foundation for new
theory to be tested in future research. By figuring out limitations of the research,
the author removes the ambiguity of the research, increases the validity and
suggests clear directions for future studies.

All in all, the author is confident that the research is highly valuable, and the
reliability and validity are of no doubt.

6.4 Suggestions for further research

Base on the result of this research, there are two directions that the author suggest
for further investigation. First of all, this modified measurement scale is built on
qualitative research. Hence, to increase the reliability of this scale, it needs to be
tested by a broad sample with quantitative study.

Secondly, the relationship between market orientation and company performance

is verified in this study. However, this field of study needs more samples in order
to generalize this relationship at a larger extent.

The author suggested two directions for further research:

1. Quantitatively examines the measurement scale.

2. Testing market orientation and business performance relationship
considering original MKTOR and proposed scale.
 86

7 SUMMARY

The purposes of this study are to examine the relationship between market
orientation and company specifically concentrates on instant coffee industry in
Vietnam, and to offer the measurement scale to measure the effect of market
orientation on company performance. The outcomes of this research are valuable
in two aspects: theory and practicality. This study supplements the study of
market orientation in Vietnam context because this marketing aspect is rarely
studied in Vietnam. In term of practicability, the application of this research’s
outcomes grants company significant advantage over competitors as the sooner
company adopt market orientation, the greater effect will be.

The research starts at chapter 2 with the review of literature of market orientation
from the 1950s to the most recent. The knowledge from these literature offers
basic knowledge for this research. Market orientation is defined and reviewed in
different way of thinking. In this part, the method of measuring market orientation
and measurement scales are also introduced.

In chapter 3, the research context (Vietnam) is put under the scope. The overview
of research context includes market overview of Vietnam, the instant coffee
industry overview, and the consumption trend and habit of Vietnamese
consumers.

Chapter 4 describes the methodology that is used in the research. This chapter
depicts in detail the selection of case companies, data collection procedure, the
research context, and the analysis protocol.

Chapter 5 is the description data analysis process. There are two main parts in this
chapter: the cross analysis and within case analysis. The within case analysis
analyzes the case companies individually, while the cross case analysis makes a
comparison among case companies. The result of the analysis is also the outcome
of the research.

Chapter 6 discusses the conclusion of the research. In this chapter, the author
presents the answers to the research questions raised in chapter 1. The reliability
 87

and limitations of the research are also revised. The suggestion for further
research is also made in this chapter.
 88

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. MARKOR MEASUREMENT SCALE

Intelligence generation

1. In our business unit, we meet with customers at least once a year to find
out what products or services they will need in the future.
2. In this business unit, we do a lot of in-house market research.
3. We are slow to detect changes in our customers’ product/service
preferences.
4. We survey end-users at least once a year to assess the quality of our
product and service offerings.
5. We are slow to detect fundamentals shifts in our industry (e.g.,
competition, technology, regulation)
6. We periodically review the likely effect of changes in our business
environment (e.g., regulation) on customers
7. When we find that customers would like us to modify a product or
service, the departments involved make concerted efforts to do so.

Intelligence Dissemination

8. We have interdepartmental meetings at least once a quarter to discuss

market trends and developments.
9. Marketing personnel in our business unit spend time discussing
customers’ future needs with other functional departments.
10. When something important happens to a major customer or market, the
whole business unit knows about in a short period.
11. Data on customer satisfaction are disseminated at all levels in this
business unit on a regular basis.
12. When one department finds out something important about competitors,
it is slow to alert other departments.
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Responsiveness

13. It takes us forever to decide how to respond to our competitors’ price

changes.
14. For one reason or another we tend to ignore changes in our customers’
product or service needs.
15. We periodically review our product development efforts to ensure that
they are in line with what customers want.
16. Several departments get together periodically to plan a response to
changes taking place in our business environment.
17. If a major competitor we to launch an intensive campaign targeted at our
customers, we would implement a response immediately.
18. The activities of the different departments in this business unit are well
coordinated.
19. Customer complaints fall on deaf ears in this business unit.
20. Even if we came up with a great marketing plan, we probably would not
be able to implement it in a timely fashion.
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APPENDIX 2. MKTOR MEASUREMENT SCALE

Customer Orientation

1. Our business objectives are driven primarily by customer satisfaction.

2. Our strategy for competitive advantage is based on our understanding of
customers’ needs.
3. We constantly monitor our level of commitment and orientation to
serving customers’ needs.
4. We give close attention to after-sale service.
5. We measure customer satisfaction systematically.
6. Our business strategies are driven by our beliefs about how we can
create greater value for customers.

Competitor Orientation

7. Our salespeople regularly share information within our business

concerning competitors’ strategies.
8. Our top managers from every function regularly visit our current and
prospective customers.
9. We rapidly respond to competitive actions that threaten us.
10. We target customers where we have an opportunity for competitive
advantage.
11. Top management regularly discusses competitors’ strengths and
strategies.

Interfunctional Coordination

12. We freely communicate information about our successful and

unsuccessful customer experiences across all business functions.
13. All of our business functions (marketing/sales, manufacturing, R&D,
finance/accounting, and so on) are integrated in serving the needs of our
target markets.
14. All of our managers understand how everyone in our business can
contribute to creating customer value.
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APENDIX 3. PROPOSED MEASUREMENT SCALE

Customer Orientation

1. Our strategy for competitive advantage is based on our understanding of

customers’ needs.
2. We constantly monitor our level of commitment and orientation to
serving customers’ needs.
3. Our business strategies are driven by our beliefs about how we can
create greater value for customers.

Competitor Orientation

4. We target customers where we have an opportunity for competitive

advantage.
5. Top management regularly discusses competitors’ strengths and
strategies.

Interfunctional Coordination

6. We freely communicate information about our successful and

unsuccessful customer experiences across all business functions.
7. All of our business functions (marketing/sales, manufacturing, R&D,
finance/accounting, and so on) are integrated in serving the needs of our
target markets.
8. All of our managers understand how everyone in our business can
contribute to creating customer value.
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APPENDIX 4. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

(The interview protocol is written in Vietnamese and also the interview is

conducted in Vietnamese. Here is the English translation of the protocol)

We are interested in learning how and why your company operate and measure
company performance (market orientation). We appreciate your cooperation to
participate the survey and interview, which will take about 30 minutes. Following
are the information the interview requires.

I. PERSONAL INFORMATION
 Name:
 Position in company:
 Professional experience (in your current company and previous):

II. COMPANY INFORMATION

 Year of foundation:
 How many employees are there in your company?
□ 1 - 99
□ 100 - 499
□ 500 - 999
□ Over 1000
 What is the revenue of your company?
□ Under $5.000.000
□ From $5.000.000 – $10.000.000
□ From $10.000.000 – $50.000.000
□ Over $50.000.000
III. MARKET ORIENTATION MEASUREMENT SCALES
1. Your own experience on the impact of market orientation:
 Do market orientation offer advantages to your company over
competitors?
 How does market orientation affect company’s revenue?
 Can you tell the difference before and after company conduct
market orientation into practice?
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2. Measuring market orientation’s impact:

 How does your company measure the impact of market orientation
on company performance?
 Please describe which item or variable would you use to measure,
and why?
3. Selection of measurement scale:
There are two academic measurement scales for market orientation. They
are MARKOR and MKTOR
 MARKOR ( created by Kohli and Jaworski – FIGURE 1)
 MKTOR (created by Narver and Slater – FIGURE 2)
(MARKOR and MKTOR is shown for interviewee)

Based on your experience and your company situation, please assess these
following questions:
i. Of the two mentioned measurement scales, which is more
suitable for your company and qualified for further
modification? Why?
□ MARKOR
□ MKTOR
□ Why? _______
ii. The elements of two measurement scales is summarized in the
table below
MARKOR MKTOR

Customer Orientation Intelligence Generation

Competitor Orientation Intelligence Dissemination

Inter-functional Coordination Responsiveness

 Do you think the construct of measurement scale

appropriated?
 Do you think there should be any adjustment to the
measurement scale? If yes, what item should be added?
Why? Why not?
 105

 What is the impact and importance of market orientation

on your company performance (regard to ROA and sales
growth)?

Thank you for your time and participation in our interview. Please feel free to
contact me via e-mail if you have any question to ask. Best regards.