Basic principles of geological

and thematic mapping

Pavel Hanžl and Kryštof Verner (eds.)

with co-authors
David Buriánek, Jiří Šíma, Jana Janderková, Eva Kryštofová,
Martin Paleček, Tomáš Hroch, Karel Martínek, Leta Megerssa,
Kristýna Hrdličková and Václav Metelka

Czech Geological Survey

Geological Survey of Ethiopia
2018
Reviewed by Ameha Atnafu Muluneh, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia

Language editor: Matůš Sadloň

© Czech Geological Survey, Geological Survey of Ethiopia

ISBN 978-80-7075-951-6
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Types of geological and thematic maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2) Topographic base map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Characteristics of the topographic map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Magnetic declinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3) Remote sensing in geological mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1 Digital elevation models (DEMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Tectonic interpretation of remotely sensed data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Optical imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4) Parts of the geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1 Geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Legend (Key) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Text information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 The lithostratigraphic scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 The geological cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 List of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.7 Summary of the geological units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.8 Map sheet index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5) Data source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1 Field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2 Laboratory data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Palaeontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Data archive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6) Geological field techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6.1 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2 Rock and lithological description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.3 Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.4 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5 Illustrations and photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

7) Compilation of geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7.1 Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
IV

7.2 Elements of geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.3 The lithostratigraphic scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.4 Fair copy map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8) Explanation notes to geological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

8.1 Title page, contents and abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.3 Main body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.4 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.5 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9) Hydrogeological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1 Components of hydrogeological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2 Hydrochemical map and scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.3 Data for hydrogeological mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.4 Explanatory notes to the hydrogeological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

10) Geological risks and geomorphology map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

10.1 Desktop study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.2 Field data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
10.3 Synthesis and transformation of data to general geo-hazard map . . . . . . . . 72
10.4 Explanatory note to the geo-hazard map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

11) Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

11.1 Soil survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.2 Soil description and classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
11.3 Compilation of soil map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Appendixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Appendix 1
Symbols used in build of geological index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Appendix 2
The most common geological map symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Appendix 3
Rocks classification and lithological description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Appendix 4
Symbology in hydrogeological map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Appendix 5
Symbology in geohazard map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Appendix 6
Recommended codes for the Reference Soil Groups, qualifiers and specifiers . . . . 107
 V

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 Explanation of latitude and longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 2 Magnetic deviation δ from geographic north .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 3 Shield volcano Dema’ali Terara, Afar depression, NE Ethiopia.
Note NW striking normal faults of Red Sea Rift system.
Map is 40 km wide (multidirectional shaded relief map
generated from ASTER DEM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 4 An example of granitoid intrusion (rounded body bottom centre)
into folded Proterozoic metasediments. 60 km south of Axum,
northern Ethiopia, optical satellite imagery in true color,
image is 15 km wide (©2018 DigitalGlobe by Google). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 5 NNE striking normal fault escarpments of the Main Ethiopian
Rift system, east of Dobi Graben, Afar Depression, NE Ethiopia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 6 NW striking Dobi Graben normal fault escarpments, which are part
of the Red Sea Rift system, Afar Depression, NE Ethiopia.
Note also salt deposits in the graben basin and small alluvial fan (left). . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 7 Diagram showing atmospheric transmission vs. electromagnetic
wavelength, position of Landsat and ASTER spectral bands are
indicated (NASA/USGS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 8 Schematic layout of the sheet of the geological map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 9 An example of a field documentation card used
by the Czech Geological Survey in Mongolia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 10 Diagram of the tables and their relationships in the database
of geological reference points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 11 The principle of measuring the orientation of linear and planar
structures and their presentation on the geological map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 12 Projection of N–S striking and 50° W dipping plane.
Fig. 13 Projection of a line plunging 50° to the west (after Rowland et al. 2013). . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 14 An example of a sample card used by CGS in Mongolia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 15 An example of a sample label used for geochemical prospection
in Lesser Caucasus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 16 An example of outcrop illustration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 17 Schematic expression of the V-rule in block diagrams and maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 18 Idealised layout of Geo-hazard map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
VI

List of Tables
Tab. 1 Landsat spectral bands, wavelengths and applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tab. 2 Characteristics of the equal-area projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Tab. 3 Principles of the creation of a geological index
for various kinds of rocks, for symbols see appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Tab. 4 Structure of the legend table for further GIS processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Tab. 5 Borehole inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tab. 6 Spring inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tab. 7 Dug well inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tab. 8 Water hole inventory (a typical water point in desert areas
in a dry wadi bed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Tab. 9 Field equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Tab. 10 Assessment of water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Tab. 11 The example of the soil profile description – Dystric Nitisol
(Profile ID DE164) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Tab. 12 Survey intensity versus scale and sampling density
(according to Dent and Young, 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Tab. 13 Type of soil survey versus scale, purpose and methods used
(according to Dent and Young, 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
 5

Preface

This guidebook has been compiled in aid of field geological and thematic mapping
activities at 1 : 50,000 scale. In practice, the geological maps should be readable and
consistent, which requires a series of steps and a logical build-up to realize such map
outputs.
The guidebook has been prepared based on the experience of joint field mapping
activities of geologists from the Czech Geological Survey and Geological Survey of
Ethiopia between 2015 and 2018 as a result of development projects funded by the Czech
Development Agency in the framework of the Development Cooperation Program of the
Czech Republic in Ethiopia.
These projects were designed to assess geological and environmental hazards based
on geological and related geo-scientific maps. An effort has been made to maintain the
traditional techniques in the field of geological survey and research combined with recent
advances in geoscience methods and approaches. These methods and approaches will
contribute to the comprehensive knowledge of geological environment in Ethiopia with
many practical applications.
This manual is not intended to replace the standard field geological mapping
guidebooks and other locally adopted standards, but rather complement it by bridging with
the current demand of users. It is strongly believed that the wider professional community
will benefit from the use of this guidebook.

Kryštof Verner
1) Introduction

Geological mapping is a step-by-step process, which culminates in a compilation of

a geological map. Up on completion of the geological map, applied maps of various
thematic objectives are more efficiently compiled. The objectives of basic geological
mapping are to describe and depict the geological composition and structure in a particular
area and subsequently to serve as the basis for depicting mineral occurrences, prognostic
evaluation of industrial and non-industrial raw materials, groundwater resources
assessment and delineation of geological hazards and geological factors affecting the
environment.
Libraries and internet are full of texts about field, graphical, laboratory or computer
techniques on how to collect, process and publish geological data. However, geological
mapping cannot be learnt in lecture halls or in laboratories alone. It should be strongly
supplemented with precise field observation where also continued experience is gained
from every natural encounter in the process. Geological mapping covers wide spectrum
of techniques from natural science to field and laboratory data analysis, handcraft, and
imagination and curiosity and practicality. Any two geological maps cannot be identical as
each geologist reflects different style and expression of his viewpoint, making geological
mapping also kind of an art.
The data gathered and the maps compiled are normally intended to serve the needs
of the state and public administration, in particular for decision making when planning
civil works, and formulating policies on energy, minerals resources and environmental
protection. These data are also made available for use by educational establishments,
museums, foundations, and public service organizations, as well as by the private sector.
The geological maps can be used for academic reasons (how our planet and life were
formed) but in fact geological maps are essential for economic development not only of
individual countries but the whole continents.

1.1 Geological map

Geological map is a scaled-down representation and interpretation of the structure of

selected area of the upper part of the Earth crust usually drawn on the topographic base
map. Geological map shows (using various colours and symbols) the distribution of
different kinds of rocks, and boundaries between them that would be seen on the Earth
surface if the soils were removed.
The function of geological and derived maps is:
• to explore natural resources (raw materials, groundwater, surface waters, geothermal
energy, etc.).
• to locate rocks of particular age, lithology, structure ….
• to reconstruct geological history of an area.
• to estimate composition and character of soils.
• to identify geological hazards.
8 G eoscience mapping guidebook

• to estimate physical parameters of rocks for engineering geology.

• to locate/identify sites with bedrocks suitable for waste disposal.
• to solve theoretical and applied problems leading to advances in geology and the earth
sciences in general.
• to teach geology and related disciplines.

1.2 Types of geological and thematic maps

Geoscience maps are commonly divided according to scale and purposes.

Division of geological maps according to the scale:
• 1 : 10,000,000 and smaller – maps of entire continents or the Earth on a single sheet;
• 1 : 1,000,000 to 1 : 5,000,000 – synoptic maps of continents or countries;
• 1 : 500,000 – maps of countries, provinces or states;
• 1 : 200,000 and 1 : 250,000 – regional maps;
• 1 : 25,000 and 1 : 50,000 – detailed geological maps in well-investigated countries;
• 1 : 10,000 and larger – standard scale for field surveying and detailed investigation.

Purposes of geological maps are closely related to their scale. While maps of smaller
scale provide overview information about large geological units and regional tectonics,
maps of larger scales illustrate distribution of rocks and specific geological features in
a greater detail.

According to the content of maps, the following can be distinguished:

• Geological base map depicts distribution of the geological units and rocks including
the Quaternary cover. Usually at a scale of 1 : 25,000 to 1 : 75,000.
• Geological map of the bedrock (solid) depicts pre-Quaternary geological units in the
mapped area.
• Tectonic map shows the orientation and character of lithotectonic units and tectonic
features governing the geological structure of the mapped area.

The described maps are the base for derived and specialized maps, which could be:
• Geophysical map.
• Geochemical map.
• Map of mineral resources.
• Hydrogeological map.
• Map of engineering-geological zoning.
• Map of geodynamic phenomena.
• Soil map.
2) Topographic base map

2.1 Characteristics of the topographic map

A topographic map provides information on the existence, location, and the distance
between natural and human-made features on the Earth’s surface. It also indicates
variations in the terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation cover.
Therefore, topographic base maps have many purposes, but the prime purpose is to give
a graphical two-dimensional representation of the defined portion of the Earth’s surface.

The International Cartographic Association defines Topographic Maps as follows:

Topographic maps are maps of various scales which incorporate variety of information.
The basic coverage (state large-scale map series) is based on measurements done in the
field and/or from aerial photographs. Derived topographical maps (of medium and small
scales) are prepared by reduction and generalization from the original basic maps.
In short, it can be said that a topographic map is a graphical representation of the
three-dimensional configuration of the Earth’s surface in two dimensions. It shows the
size, shape and distribution of landscape features, and presents the horizontal and vertical
positions of those represented features. The features in topographic maps can be divided
into four major groups:

Relief: Depicted with contour lines or by shaded relief.

• A  contour line is a line joining points of equal elevation on a surface. Elevations are
given in meters (or feet) above mean sea level. Every point along a contour line has
the same exact elevation. Contour lines can never cross each other. A contour line
must close on itself. Some contour lines will have their elevation marked next to them,
but not in all cases. In order to calculate the height of any contour line, you need to
know the contour interval. An easy way to recognize real world slopes on the map is
to think of the distance between contour lines on the topographic map where the lines
represent certain constant elevation value. If the distance between contours is very far
apart, it indicates a gradual increase in elevation and hence low slope or flat terrain. If
the lines are on the other hand too close to each other, the change in elevation occurs
very quickly, indicating a steep slope or terrain.
• A   shaded relief is a specific type of terrain representation that uses colours and shading
to show heights and features on the map. Shading on a topographic map is used to give it
a more realistic view. Mountains actually look like mountains instead of just contour lines.

Water features: they represent oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, springs etc. A river
network is a mandatory feature that makes it easy to navigate the map.

Vegetation: they represent wooded and cleared areas. Topography for geological maps is
usually used without forests, because the green colour of forests would distort the colours
of individual geological unities.
10 G eoscience mapping guidebook

Cultural features: they represent all the human-made features: buildings, roads, railroads,
land boundaries, etc.

Topographic maps usually show a geographic graticule (a network of longitude and

latitude lines on a map or chart that relates points on a map to their true locations on the
Earth) and a coordinate grid (network of parallel and perpendicular lines superimposed
on a map and used for reference) for better finding of relative and absolute positions of
mapped features.

2.2 Coordinate systems

Coordinate systems are frameworks that are used to define unique positions. The
coordinate system that is most commonly used to define locations on the three-
dimensional Earth is called the geographic coordinate system. It is a three-dimensional
reference system that locates points on the Earth’s surface. The unit of measure is usually
decimal degrees. A point is described by two coordinate values: latitude and longitude
(Fig. 1). Latitude is defined as the angle formed by the intersection of a line perpendicular
to the Earth’s surface at a point and the plane of the Equator. Latitude values range from
–90 to +90 degrees. Points situated north of the Equator have positive latitude values,
while points lying south have negative values.
Lines of latitude are also called parallels because a particular value of latitude forms
a circle parallel to the Equator. A meridian is formed by a plane that passes through
the point and the North and South poles. The longitude value is defined by the angle
between that plane and a reference plane. The reference plane is known as the prime
meridian. The most common prime meridian passes through Greenwich, United Kingdom.
Longitude values range from –180 to +180 degrees with negative values lying west of
prime meridian.

N (+)

80°E 55°N
Latitude

W (–) E (+)
55°Latitude

80°Longitude
0 20 60 80
Longitude

S (–)
Figure 1. Explanation of latitude and longitude (https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/
SSEPEK_10.0.0/spatl/src/art/0sbp5004.gif).
 T opographic base map 11

A projected coordinate system is a two-dimensional representation of the Earth. It

uses Cartesian coordinates based on linear units of measure. It is based on a spherical
earth model and its coordinates are converted to x, y coordinates on the flat projection.
The intersection of the x and y axes is the origin and usually has coordinates of
(0, 0). The values above the x axis are positive, and the values below the x axis are negative.
The lines parallel to the x axis are equidistant from each other. The values to the right
of the axis are positive, and the values to the left of the y axis are negative. The lines
parallel to the y axis are equidistant. Mathematical formulas are used to convert a three-
dimensional geographic coordinate system to a two-dimensional flat projected coordinate
system. The transformation is referred as a map projection.
Map projections are classified by the projection surface used, such as conic,
cylindrical, and planar surfaces. Depending on the projection used, different spatial
properties will appear distorted. Projections are designed to minimize the distortion
of one or two of the data’s characteristics: the distance, area, shape, direction, or
a combination of these properties might not be accurate representations of the data
being modelled.
There are several types of projections available. While most map projections attempt
to preserve some accuracy of the spatial properties, there are others that attempt to
minimize the overall distortion. The most common types of map projections include:

• E qual area projections preserve areas and distort shape, angle, and scale.
• C onformal projections preserve angles; the area of the map is distorted. Conformal
projection includes Transverse Mercator projection.
• Equidistant projections maintain the scale along one or more lines, or from one or
two points to all other points on the map. If you go outside the data set, the scale will
become more distorted.

Ethiopian topographic maps use projected coordinate system Adindan / UTM zone
37N with parameters:

WKID 20137
Projection Transverse Mercator
False Easting 500000
False Northing 0
Central Meridian 39
Scale Factor 0,9996
Latitude Of Origin 0
Linear Unit Meter –1
Geographic Coordinate System GCS Adindan
Angular Unit Degree (0,0174532925199433)
Prime Meridian Greenwich (0,0)
Datum D Adindan
Spheroid Clarke 1880 RGS
Semi-major Axis 6378249,145
Semi-minor Axis 6356514,87
Inverse Flattening 293,465
12 G eoscience mapping guidebook

2.3 Magnetic declinations

True north is a geographical direction represented on maps and globes by lines of

longitude. Each line of longitude represents direct north and south travel. Compass, on the
other hand, direct you to magnetic north. It is a point in the arctic regions of Canada that
is continually shifting location based on the activity of the Earth’s magnetic fields. There
is a difference between true north on a map and the north indicated by your compass. That
difference is called the magnetic declination and is measured by the angle between true
north and magnetic north when plotted on a map. If the magnetic north deviates from the
geographic to the right, it declares a positive deviation (δ) called declination angle (Fig. 2),
if to the left, it becomes negative. If both directions match, the declination is 0 degrees,
and if they are exactly opposite, the declination is 180 degrees.
Magnetic declinations vary from place to place, depending on the intensity of the
Earth’s magnetic fields. Magnetic declinations in Ethiopia were between +0° 25’ and +2°
41’ in 2017. The accurate calculation of the magnetic declination value for a particular
location in Ethiopia can be used by the service at: https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/

Ng Nm
+

270 90

180

Figure 2. Magnetic deviation δ from geographic north (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:

Magnetic_declination.svg).

Further reading
Ansonm R. W., Ormeling F. J. (1993): Basic cartography for students and technicians.
Published on behalf of the International Cartographic Association by Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers, Science, 212 pp.
Robinson A. H., Morrison J. L., Muehrcke P. C., Kimerling A. J., Guptill S. C. (2007):
Elements of Cartography, 6th Edition. Willey. 688 pp.
Brewer A. C. (2015): Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS Users 2nd Edition. Esri
Press Edition. 250 pp.
Imhof E. (2007): Cartographic Relief Presentation. Esri Press Classics.
Rowland J. B. (1955): Features shown on topographic maps. USGS Circular 368.
Slocum A. T., McMaster R. B., Kessler F., Howard H. H. (2009): Thematic Cartography
and Geovisualization, 3rd Edition.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_declination
3) Remote sensing in geological mapping

Implementation of remotely sensed data and their interpretation can provide a cost effective
method for geological mapping purposes. Most of the Earth`s surface is covered by digital
elevation model (DEM) data, Landsat, Aster and other satellite imagery, which are freely
available. The aim of this contribution is to provide basic information on data types,
which could be used for geological interpretation. Morphology could be easily visualized
using DEMs in the form of coloured elevation maps combined with shaded relief. Also,
Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper, ETM – Enhanced Thematic Mapper, ETM+) band 5
and panchromatic band, and radar images (such as Radarsat or ERS – European Remote
Sensing satellite) can help to understand morphology. Some lithologies (rock types) could
be identified from morphology, but DEM is mainly used for structural interpretation. The
best approach for identification of lithological features, such as lithological boundaries or
hydrothermal alteration zones, is to combine RGB composites from visible and infrared
bands of optical satellite imagery, such as Landsat and ASTER, which are available for
free download on USGS and NASA servers. There are many sophisticated methods, which
can be used to enhance and identify lithologies from optical imagery. Some of them are
mentioned below. Their thorough description is beyond the scope of this short guidebook;
geoscientists needs to ask remote sensing specialists for assistance. This guidebook is
focused essentially on the basic methods, which are effective for mapping and available to
any geoscientist having very basic GIS and remote sensing skills.

3.1 Digital elevation models (DEMs)

The best spatial resolution of DEMs for the geological mapping at a scale of 1 : 50,000 is
10–30 m in pixel size. Good quality data are Aster DEM and SRTM3, both available free
on USGS/NASA servers. LIDAR data based on laser scanning are usually too detailed
(cm–dm in pixel size) and not so useful for identification of geological features at such
scales (1 : 50,000).
Rock types can be accessed by morphological interpretation of the data, as different
rock types have specific depositional landforms and respond to the effects of erosion
differently. Patterns and shapes on the image directly relate to the characteristics of rock
types when comparing drainage systems, shape of valleys, or specific geomorphologic
features. Before such an approach, the climate of the area should be studied.
Sedimentary rocks are usually stratified due to the variations of depositional
conditions and display banded appearance, which may interfere with the nature of
pyroclastic rocks. These are however mostly discernible by their proximity to volcanic
centres or volcanic rocks. The bedding orientation in the sedimentary rocks generally
determines the appearance of the rocks on the surface giving an idea of their dip and strike
angle. Less compacted, finer grained, or carbonate-cemented sequences are more prone
to erosion. Coarse clastic sediments display V-shaped valleys, a widely spaced drainage
14 G eoscience mapping guidebook

pattern and are usually jointed. Fine clastic rocks frequently contain stratification, which
is very thin. At a macroscopic scale, fine clastic sediments form homogenous units up to
hundred meters thick. A dendritic pattern of the drainage system is characteristic. These
sediments are more prone to erosion and usually form negative topographic features.
Extrusive igneous rocks (lavas and domes) pose a huge problem in front of an image
analyst because they are usually interbedded with sediments and pyroclastic rocks. The
differentiation between sediments and volcanic rocks can be solved if we can observe
associated volcanic landforms, such as relics of cones (Fig. 3) or lava flows. A larger
problem is the discrimination between the pyroclastic products and the volcanic rocks
themselves. The exact determination of pyroclastic rocks from their volcanic counterparts
typically needs field checking. Areas covered by volcanic rocks display dendritic pattern
of drainage system and stand out as positive topographic features.
Intrusive igneous rocks form different shapes on the images according to the form
of the intrusion from small elongated dykes to large plutons. They are usually jointed
due to the cooling processes and effects of shrinkage. Being formed by resistant rock
forming minerals, they stand out as positive topographic features (Fig. 4). This is not
always the rule. For example, granites are prone to erosion in arid regions due to the
differences in coefficients of thermal expansion between quartz and feldspar. Acidic to
intermediate rocks do not display prominent regular jointing pattern, which discerns them
from sandstones, and often form onion exfoliation patterns. Basic and ultrabasic rocks
exhibit similar patterns as granitic rocks except for being much darker in tone.
Metamorphic rocks form compact units with almost no jointing patterns. The drainage
systems are finely spaced and dendritic. Metamorphic provinces form positive topographic
reliefs. Most metamorphic rocks display compositional banding representing their original
layering of sedimentary or igneous origin or redistribution of the rock constituents during
metamorphism (Drury 1997). The rocks are typically intensively foliated and folded,

Figure 3. Shield volcano Dema’ali Terara, Afar Figure 4. An example of granitoid intrusion (rounded body bottom centre) into
depression, NE Ethiopia. Note NW striking normal folded Proterozoic metasediments. 60 km south of Axum, northern Ethiopia,
faults of Red Sea Rift system. Map is 40 km wide optical satellite imagery in true color, image is 15 km wide (©2018 DigitalGlobe
(multidirectional shaded relief map generated from by Google).
ASTER DEM).
 R emote sensing in geological mapping 15

which results in complex structures. The variations of composition can only be enhanced
by strong chemical weathering typical in humid regions.

3.2 Tectonic interpretation of remotely sensed data

Structural characteristics of an area can be accessed on remotely sensed images by

interpretations of linear features. Satellite images allow the recognition of features because
of their large synoptic view of an area that otherwise would be difficult to follow and
interpret during field campaigns. The shape of the platy geological features on the Earth´s
surface is determined by their dip angles. Except for thrust, most faults dip steeply and
form straight lineaments relatively unaffected by topography. This rule can be applied
generally – steep structures have straight expressions on the Earth`s surface (veins,
alteration zones, etc.) There are, however, also other possibilities how the linear features
can be interpreted in remotely sensed data; from being actual faults, dykes, steep or
vertical strata, to roads and data artifacts. Neotectonic faults (Fig. 3) can be identified by
(1) their morphology, forming asymmetric ranges with one side corresponding to breaks in
slope or scarps, (2) the displacement of late Neogene rocks and boundaries between them,
structural or erosional surfaces, and (3) the occurrence of straight lines of several tens of
kilometres in length. Images must be systematically compared with geological maps in
order to carefully separate the scarps formed by fault planes (active) from those resulting
from differential erosion of contrasted lithology (ancient). The active fault scarps, even
eroded, are much higher and longer than the scarps formed by lithological contrasts.
Identification of kinematic indicators (strike-slip, normal or reverse fault): Strike-slip
faults have rectilinear traces and they locally bound push-up hills or extensional basins
at step-over or bends of the fault trace. They can be associated with typical patterns such
as tail-crack or horse-tail structures at fault ends. Reverse faults have sinuous traces
and they are associated with half-cylindrical-shaped hills of the uplifted blocks due to
drag folds deforming ancient planar erosion surface in the hanging wall. Normal faults
are recognized by the following geomorphic features: (1) they generally have a widely
arched trace, concave (mainly) or convex toward the footwall, in contrast to the strike-slip
faults, whose trace is generally straighter; (2) they bound tilted plateaus (tilted blocks); (3)
similarly to the case of strike-slip faults, they are not related to half-cylindrical-shaped hills
corresponding to recent drag folds, which accompany active reverse faulting. Mapping of
the recent folds, the synclines, forming lowlands filled with sediments and the anticlines
corresponding to regularly-shaped elongated hills is also possible. It is important to point
out that this approach provides information on the finite strain, but not on its detailed history.
Faults usually develop in conjugate directions where one direction can be dominant. The
recognition of conjugate fault systems allows for general estimation of the maximum and
minimum principal stress axes orientation. Faults represent local weaknesses in the Earth’s
crust and become eroded easily so that they form linear depressions often followed by
streams, which is recognizable on digital terrain models. The higher water saturation of
fault zones provides excellent environment for plants that may grow along the fault line and
enhance its discernment. However, as a rule, other geologically significant features such as
truncations, displacements of lithological units or direct field checking should support the
statement that a linear feature in an image represents a real fault structure. Active faulting in
an area may be beneficial for the recognition of faults as it may produce specific landforms
like headless valleys, facetted spurs, shutter ridges, offset streams or sag ponds.
16 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

As shown in the previous paragraphs, morphological aspects of a terrain (Fig. 5 and 6)

serve as indicators for assessing geological situation when viewed and analysed in
remotely sensed datasets. That is why the investigation of morphostructural features plays
an important role in geological image analysis.
For the purposes of structural interpretation, in addition to DEMs also radar satellite
data can be very helpful (Radarsat, ERS). They are especially helpful in areas with dense
vegetation cover, because they can penetrate vegetation and show soil/rock surface. Radar
interferometry is also used for the measurement of small vertical displacements of the
surface. In radar interferometry, two images of the same place are taken at different times
and merged afterwards. The merging of the two images shows the ground displacement
(if any) that would indicate movement that has occurred between the time the two images
were taken. The tectonic displacement, landslide movement, subsidence or aggradation
of sediments could be detected by such interferometric methods.

3.3 Optical imagery

Images used for geological interpretation usually underwent several phases of pre-
processing. These include georeferencing and/or map transformation to reduce spatial
distortion and to fit to available map data; spatial filtering to „clean“ poor quality data
or radar images, or to sharpen image. After this pre-processing, methods of image
enhancement are applied to increase spectral information in the image, i.e. to increase
„colour contrast“, which means increasing the number of colour hues representing

Figure 5. NNE
striking normal fault
escarpments of the Main
Ethiopian Rift system,
east of Dobi Graben,
Afar Depression, NE
Ethiopia.

Figure 6. NW striking
Dobi Graben normal
fault escarpments,
which are part of the
Red Sea Rift system, Afar
Depression, NE Ethiopia.
Note also salt deposits
in the graben basin and
small alluvial fan (left).
 R emote sensing in geological mapping 17

different lithologies. These methods can include different algorithms of histogram stretch
of all dataset or subset or masked area (it can be very effective for enhancing selected
lithologies), principle component analysis and decorrelation stretch. More advanced
methods of image processing involve algebraic operations with spectral bands (to reduce
topographic correlation and to increase spectral/lithological information), calculation of
specific mineral and vegetation indices, unsupervised and supervised classification.
Panchromatic images (black and white panchromatic band of Landsat) are usually
acquired in visible range of electromagnetic spectra (VIS), so we can see the Earth
surface similarly to how we observe it by human eyes but in grey scales; light rocks
would be expressed by light shades, dark rocks with dark shades; such images are good
for interpretation of morphology, morphotectonics, some lithologies and Quaternary
deposits. True colour composite images such as e.g. Landsat bands 321 displayed as
RGB composite are of a similar importance.
Multispectral images (Fig. 7) such as Landsat or ASTER have also bands in SWIR
(short-wave infrared) range of electromagnetic spectra; Landsat bands 4, 5, 7, ASTER
bands 3 to 9. These are not percepted by human eyes, but there are distinct absorption or
reflectance features of some important minerals and rocks in these bands (spectra). These
bands are most suitable for interpreting most lithologies (Tab. 1).
Thermal infrared (TIR) bands (Landsat 6, ASTER 10 to 14) show surface temperature.
Differences in temperature are dependent mainly on thermal capacity of the material
(rock), overall absorption in VIS and SWIR and sun exposure. Thermal capacity is highly
influenced by water content in soils and rocks. TIR bands are therefore used mainly to
interpret silicate-rich rocks (which have poor absorption features in VIS and SWIR) and
in hydrogeology.
Table 1. Landsat spectral bands, wavelengths and applications

Landsat band
TM/ETM/ wavelength Application
ETM+

Soil/vegetation discrimination; identification of urban areas;

0.45–0.52 mm prominent reflectance of water (the only band for mapping shallow
TM 1
(blue) water sediments, in other bands water has high absorption,
i.e. very low reflectance – almost black), snow, halite.

0.52–0.60 mm Vegetation and agricultural mapping; some rocks and minerals

TM 2
(green) (chlorite, epidote, serpentinite, some volcaniclastic rocks,..).

Plant species discrimination (based on absorption of chlorophyll);

0.63–0.69 mm
TM 3 Fe hydroxides and colloids (Fe soils); identification
(red)
of urban/cultural areas.

0.76–0.90 mm Identification of plant species, vegetation stress, biomass content;

TM 4
(near infrared) contouring water (based on absorption); soil moisture.

1.55–1.75 mm Fe oxides; absorption of gypsum; sensitive to moisture in soils

TM 5
(mid IR) and vegetation; contouring clouds and snow cover.

Vegetation stress and soil/rock moisture identification based

10.4–12.5 mm
TM 6 on thermal emission; thermal mapping
(thermal IR)
(urban areas, water, silicate minerals).

Minerals and rocks identification; especially clay minerals;

2.08–2.35 mm
TM 7 prominent absorption of gypsum; identification minerals with bonds
(mid IR)
Al-OH, Mg-OH, C-O; also sensitive to vegetation moisture.
18 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

For understanding and mapping vegetation cover, the most suitable way is to use visible
and near-infrared bands (VNIR) Landsat 432 or ASTER 321 bands (as RGB false colour
composite – vegetation is in red). To enhance different lithologies and soil types, the most
used band combinations are Landsat 531 or ASTER 421, which enables the identification
of several Fe minerals, shallow water sedimentary bodies, snow and halite in Landsat only.
Band combinations of Landsat 753 or ASTER 542, 642, 742, 842 and 942 work with bands
sensitive to clay minerals (Landsat 7, ASTER 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). These are good for soil mapping,
or e.g. hydrothermal alteration zones are expressed here in yellow and brownish-yellow
colours (because they are abundant in clay minerals and Fe oxides). In ASTER bands
468 (RGB), kaolinite and alunite zones may be expressed in pink and evaporites in white.
There are just a few spectral bands in multispectral images and while the number of
minerals and rocks to be identified are too many, therefore it is not usually possible to
precisely identify lithology. The solution is to follow a strategy by trying various band
combinations to map lithological boundaries – a different colour often represents different
lithology. Images could significantly help with mapping lithological unit boundaries at
the scale of approx. 1 : 50,000 (notice pixel size at about 30 m). Details on units/structures
and particular lithologies must be checked in the field. But spectral mapping has limits.
It is quite common that rocks with similar composition but different texture (granite,
rhyolite, arcose) end up showing no significant difference in tone or colour in the image
meaning, they can appear with similar colours because of similar composition. On the
other hand, a very significant spectral (colour) expression of two rocks may represent only
a minor change in mineralogy (e.g. clayey sandstone, Fe-oxide rich sandstone, organic
rich sandstone) and for the purposes of geological mapping, these rocks should rather be
a part of one unit.
There are also other freely available data, which could be used for geological
mapping, such as: DigitalGlobe optical satellite imagery in visible range available via
GoogleMaps or GoogleEarth.

Figure 7. Diagram
showing atmospheric
transmission vs.
electromagnetic
wavelength, position
of Landsat and ASTER
spectral bands are
indicated (NASA/USGS).

Further reading
Beutel E., van Wijk J., Ebinger C., Keir D., Agostini A. (2010): Formation and stability of
magmatic segments in the Main Ethiopian and Afar rifts. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 293, 3–4, 225–235.
 R emote sensing in geological mapping 19

Beyene A., Abdelsalam M. G. (2005): Tectonics of the Afar Depression: A review and
synthesis. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 41, 1–2, 41–59.
Chorowicz J. (2005): The East African rift system. Journal of African Earth Sciences.
43, 1–3, 379–410.
Dhont D., Chorowicz J. (2006): Review of the neotectonics of the Eastern Turkish–
Armenian Plateau by geomorphic analysis of digital elevation model imagery. Int. J.
Earth Sci. (Geol Rundsch) 95: 34–49.
Drury S.A. (1997): Image Interpretation in Geology, 2nd Edition. Chapman & Hall,
London.
Jordan G., Meijninger B.M.L., van Hinsbergen D.J.J, Meulenkamp J.E., van Dijk
P.M. (2005): Extraction of morphotectonic features from DEMs: Development and
applications for study areas in Hungary and NW Greece. International Journal of
Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 7 163–182.
Saintot A, Angelier J, Chorowicz J. (1999): Mechanical significance of structural patterns
identified by remote sensing studies: a multiscale analysis of tectonic structures in
Crimea. Tectonophysics 313 187–218.
Snyder N. P., Whipple K.X, Tucker G.E., Merritts D.J., (2000): Landscape response to
tectonic forcing: Digital elevation model analysis of stream profiles in the Mendocino
triple junction region, northern California. Gelogical Society of America Bulletin 112 (8):
1250–1263.

On-line resources:
Data
https://www.google.com
https://www.google.com/earth/
https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/
https://landsatlook.usgs.gov/
https://glovis.usgs.gov/
https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
http://www.esri.com/software/landsat-imagery
https://search.earthdata.nasa.gov/search
http://www.tectonique.net/tectask/index.php?option=com_bookmarks&Itemid=4&
mode=0&catid=22&navstart=0&search=*

Textbooks/Courses
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/node/9309
https://www.esri.com/training/

Software
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~biehl/MultiSpec/download_win.html
https://qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html
http://www.esri.com/products
http://www.harrisgeospatial.com/SoftwareTechnology/ENVI.aspx
https://www.hexagongeospatial.com/products/power-portfolio/other-producer-products/
er-mapper
 4) Parts of the geological map

A sheet of the base geological map (Fig. 8) consists of the geological map itself, including
Quaternary formations. It is supplemented by the obligatory information to be placed on
one side of the map. This must include:
• Number and name of map sheet.
• Legend to the geological map.
• Lithostratigraphic scheme.
• Geological cross-section.
• Summary of geological mapping.
• Synoptic description of regional geological units.
• Map sheet index.

According to the need, the map can be supplemented by other optional appendices such
as geophysical, stratigraphic or lithological schemes, 3D model of the relief, etc.
Basic parts of the map sheets are the frame with the geological map itself, key
to the map outside of the map frame, and a map sheet index. These basic parts are completed
by text information and supplementary graphical information all outside the map
frame.

Figure 8. Schematic
layout of the sheet Author(s) TITLE Map No & Name
of the geological map.
LITOSTRATIGRAPHIC
COLUMN

LEGEND

MAP FRAME
(KEY)

AND
GEOLOGICAL MAP ITSELF
Supplementary
information

Imprint Scale Imprint

Map Sheet
GEOLOGICAL CROSS SECTION Index
 P arts of the geological map 21

4.1 Geological map

Geological map is fixed in the frame, which corresponds to the boundary of the
topographic base map and bears information about the coordinate system. The local state
grid is usually drawn based on WGS84 datum.
The geological map depicts and interprets the geological structure of the Earth’s
surface, including sediments forming the Quaternary cover and anthropogenic deposits. It
is a compilation of lithological, stratigraphic and structural observations of the bedrock and
the overlying Quaternary deposits, supplemented by selected tectonic, palaeontological,
hydrogeological and geodynamic data, together with information concerning mineral
resources. Information depicted on the geological map at large scales includes:
• A reas of rocks units defined in terms of lithostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, petrology,
tectonics, Quaternary deposits, and the geological contacts between them.
• A nthropogenic deposits.
• T  he lines of faults and other tectonic elements on the Earth’s surface.
• Z  ones of contact metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration.
• I mportant zones of eluvium and products of fossil weathering.
• I mportant geodynamic phenomena.
• A  ctive and abandoned surface mine workings, adits, and shafts of underground mines.
• I mportant springs of fresh groundwater and mineral waters.
• S  ites of important palaeontological finds.
• P  osition of important boreholes.
• I mportant geological localities.
• L  ines of geological cross-sections.

4.2 Legend (Key)

The legend must include all features shown on the geological map, the geological cross-
section and the lithostratigraphic column. If some of these features appear only in the
lithostratigraphic column or in the geological cross-section, then this should be indicated
in the text describing the individual items of the legend.
The legend is divided according to regional-geological and chronostratigraphic
principles. Classification of separate groups of units within individual chronological
sequences or in regional geological units is indicated by headings above the respective
groups.
Individual items in the legend are indicated by consecutive numbers that will be the
same as those given to the appropriate paragraphs in the explanatory notes. The units in the
legend are arranged in the order of age from the youngest to the oldest. The key to geological
symbols forms an integral part of the legend. This is shown below the last rock unit.
Lithostratigraphic units, rocks and other geological features depicted in the legend are
distinguished by a combination of colour, hatching, index and symbols. The symbols and
colours used should follow the international standards. Graphic depiction of individual
items in the legend is supplemented by basic stratigraphic and petrographic descriptions.
The names of rocks and their regional geological, chronostratigraphic and
lithostratigraphic classification are based on international standards and the terminology.
The names given to rocks in the legend, in the lithostratigraphic column and in the
explanatory notes must be the same.
22 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

4.3 Text information

The upper part of the map sheet could be organized in two rows and contains:
• Name of the map set and type of map (in two rows).
• Name of editor(s) (up to three names).
• Official number and name of the sheet in the state map series.

The lower part of the map sheet contains imprints and scale. The scale in text and
graphical form is completed by information about contour interval and indication of
magnetic declination and imprints. Imprints contain technical information.

Left imprint contains:

• Name of editor and quotation of the map.
• Co-authors (names).
• Editor-in-Chief and Technical Editor (name(s)).
• Technical processing (name(s)).
• Approval (name of responsible person, date).

Right imprint contains:

• Information about map projection and coordinate system.
• Copyright for topographic base.
• Copyright for geological data.
• Name of workplace, year of processing.
• Number of prints.

4.4 The lithostratigraphic scheme

The lithostratigraphic column shows the stratigraphic (chronostratigraphic) sequence of

lithostratigraphic units observed on the surface or, based on drilling data and geophysical
measurements, inferred to be present on the map sheet down to a depth of approximately
1 km, even if these units do not appear at the surface on the map or in the geological cross-
section. The separate geochronological columns are compiled for different lithotectonic
units.
As a rule, the lithostratigraphic column includes only sedimentary, extrusive and
the low-grade metamorphic rocks arranged according to their relative ages and the law
of superposition. In areas with a complex tectonic structure, it is desirable to compile
a separate lithostratigraphic column for each tectonic unit.
Igneous and metamorphic events could be depicted in separate columns if the age
is known.
Lithostratigraphic units are arranged in the column according to stratigraphic
sequence in accord with the actual International Stratigraphic Chart of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy (http://www.stratigraphy.org). If the local lithostratigraphic
units cannot be correlated with chronostratigraphic units of the International Stratigraphic
Chart, then reference should be made to a published regional stratigraphic column.
Estimated thickness of a unit and important stratigraphic hiatus, fossils, fossil soil or
weathering horizons are also depicted.
 P arts of the geological map 23

4.5 The geological cross-section

A geological cross-section without vertical exaggeration is constructed to depict the

inferred geological structure to a depth of 1–2 km (according to scale). This will vary
depending on the characteristic features of the geological structure of the mapped area.
If possible, the line chosen for the geological cross-section should run perpendicular
to the strike of the principal structures and rock units shown on the map sheet, passing
through important elevations and boreholes. The section can be bent to pass through
chosen points or significant topographic features, but unnecessary bends in the line of
section should be avoided. The total length of the geological cross-section must not be
longer than the length of a diagonal of the given map sheet. Starting and terminal points
should be placed on the map margins. The starting point is situated in the more western
part of the cross-section.
All rocks, geological boundaries of units and tectonic structures crossed by the line of
the section should be depicted. The Quaternary cover is only shown when thick enough
to be depicted at the scale of the cross-section.

4.6 List of authors

The names of geologists who have contributed to the original mapping of the sheet are
shown together with the areas for which they are responsible. Sectors newly mapped,
updated or taken from other sources should be distinguished. The individual areas are
numbered. Under each of these numbers, the name of the contributor and the period
during which the mapping was done are shown in the accompanying legend.

4.7 Summary of the geological units

The defined regional geological units and important faults shown on the map sheet are
summarized here. Terms used should match those used in the legend to the geological map.

4.8 Map sheet index

The index map depicts position of the map sheet in State topographic base map and the
scheme consists of two parts. The first part depicts the distribution of map sheets of the
smaller scale within the territory of the State showing the map sheet on which the given
base map lies. The second part shows the position of the given map within the small-scale
map sheet.
5) Data source

The data needed for compilation of a geological map vary in scale and purpose of the
map. In general, they are (1) archival from the previous research and new data originated
during the mapping process directly in the field or in laboratories.
Archival data are important for the preparation of geological project. They comprise
older maps and reports, publications, boreholes, analytical or geophysical data, aerial photos
as well as satellite imageries. They are available in the State geological archives and in
archives of geological companies in printed, and more frequently also in digitalized versions.

5.1 Field data

Geological mapping is the process of making observations of geological phenomena in the

field and recording them. Following the definition of a geological map, the field data are
crucial for the map compilation. The information recorded in the field must be factual, based
on objective examination and made with an open mind. Field documentation comprises:
• Documentation in a topographic map.
• Field notebook.

Documentation in a topographic map

The primary objectives of geological mapping are to locate and identify contacts between
the rocks and geological units.
Traversing is a basic method of geological mapping. It is made by walking a more or
less predetermined route from one point to another, plotting the geology on the way. The
rocks (formations) exposed in the field in the form of outcrops or fragments are marked
on topographic map by colours or agreed symbols as a line (track) along the traverse.
Quaternary cover is marked as an area. The information is completed by a handmade
pencil remarks as the position of reference point, tectonic symbols, geomorphological
features related to geology, springs, man-made excavations and other supplementing data.
Concurrently, traverse could be saved as a track in GPS device or using suitable application
in Smart Phones.
Geological (mapping) tracks should be oriented perpendicular to the main geological
structures on a map and are organized in two stages. The orientation of regional geological
structures is depicted from the older general maps or from the satellite imagery. During
the first stage, regional transects are conducted to reveal the main mappable lithological
and lithostratigraphical units (formations) and boundaries between them. In the second
stage, more detailed information is collected by a combination of traversing (going
perpendicular to the contacts) and contact followings (tracing boundaries between
different rocks formation).
The distance of individual traverses depends on the map scale and complexity of
terrain and geological structure of the area. Generally, it is at least one hundredth of the
 D ata source 25

scale. It means that on a map at a scale of 1 : 50,000, the distance between traverses is
500 meters at maximum.

Field notebook
Field notebook and pencil is as important as hammer or geological compass for
a geologist. The purpose of the field notebook is to expand information in the field map.
Localization, geological data, geomorphological observation, number of samples and its
labels, remarks about terrain accessibility, hand-made pictures as well as non-geological
information are recorded in the notebook. The most important part of the notebook is the
description of various kinds of geological exposures. The notebook must be consequently
linked with the field map by unique label for each reference point.
Together with the remarks in the map, records in the notebook will form the basis of
fair copy of the geological map and written report. These data are also stored in geological
archives for future geological works. It means that the notebook must be well-organized
and legible.
Some geological companies replace standard notebooks by documentation cards
with predefined fields (Fig. 9), which are useful mostly in ore prospecting, geochemical
exploration, mineral exploration or in applied geology.

5.2 Laboratory data

Laboratory work follows the field work and helps to classify rocks and to reveal their
genesis and age. Samplings differ according to the used method. As a standard, the rocks
are generally described on the outcrop based on visual observation (basic composition,
colour, grain size, texture), supplemented by sampling for documentation as well as thin
section analysis if needed at later stage.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE MONGOLIAN ALTAI Figure 9. An example of

Sheet No. Point No. N E Z a field documentation
card used by the Czech
Type of outcrop: Localisation: Author:
Geological Survey in
Type of sample: Date: Mongolia.
Valley: Stream gradient: Grain size:

Fm. Grain
Rock size Composition Alteration Tectonics

Ore minerals: Fossils:

Other observations:
26 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

All samples and results should be related to the reference points and are stored in
separate tables according to the methods used.
According to the results of laboratory works, the classification of rocks are decided
and interpret the origin and evolution of the rocks. Geological mapping uses a variety of
analytical techniques to classify and interpret the origin of rocks:
• Determination of the mineral composition of rocks.
• Determination of the chemical composition of minerals.
• Determination of the chemical composition of rocks.

Methods of determination of the mineral composition of rocks

The choice of sample for a thin section depends on the grain size of rocks and structure of
the rock (e. g. foliation). Fresh samples of about 6 × 9 × 3 cm size are generally preferred.
Hand specimens for structural studies should be oriented in the field. For the mineral
separation, usually samples weighing 2 to 10 kg in total are prepared.

(a) Thin section is about 0.03 mm thick sliver of rock glued on glass slide. Except the
rock, it can be made of mineral or soil and was used with a polarizing petrographic
microscope (standard cover thin section) or electron microprobe (polished thin section).
Thin section is used for identification of the mineral composition of rocks and abundance
of minerals in the rocks (modal composition).
Polished thin sections are different from the thin section in that they are extra ground
to create smoother surface removing even smaller irregularities. These are usually not
covered with glass cover but directly put under microscope for observation through
reflected light from the top rather than transmitted light from underneath the stage of the
microscope, as in the case of think sections. These are used mostly for opaque minerals
and also for electron microprobe analysis of specimen under direct bombardment with
electron beams.

(b) For separation of minerals from unconsolidated sediments or crushed rock, we

use several methods such as magnetic, gravitational, flotation and partial dissolution
techniques (isolation or concentration of a certain type of grains from the sample).
For example, heavy minerals are fractionated using a heavy liquid (e.g. lithium
heteropolytungstate, LST, with density of 2.85 g/cm-3). Mineral grains are examined in
both transmitted and reflected light modes using binocular microscope. Selected grains
are usually sufficient for XRD, WDS or EDS analysis.

Methods of determination of the chemical composition of minerals

For the precise classification of rocks and for the interpretation of evolution of
hydrothermal veins, information about the chemical composition and chemical zonation
of mineral phases are useful. All analytical data must be fully documented in the database
and linked with hand specimen and thin sections.

(a) X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is useful for identification of monomineral

crystalline phases (with a grain size up to several mm) and identification of fine-grained
mixture of minerals such as clays. Only several grams of mineral phases are sufficient
(sample is ground to fine powder).
 D ata source 27

(b) An electron microprobe (EMP) is used to determine the chemical composition

of minerals in polished thin sections. The thin section surface is bombarded with an
electron beam and emitting x-rays from a small area (few microns) at wavelengths
characteristic for the elements being analysed. For interpretation of X-rays, WDS or
EDS detectors can be used. An energy-dispersive (EDS) detector is used to separate
the characteristic X-rays of different elements into an energy spectrum. For providing
fundamental compositional information, it is useful to create element composition
maps (show the spatial distribution of elements in a sample). This method allows
simultaneous analyses of multiple elements in short time, although with low
precision. A wavelength-dispersive (WD) spectrometer is used to isolate the X-rays
of interest for quantitative analysis. The advantage of WDS is the better sensitivity
in comparison to EDS.

(c) The Mössbauer spectroscopy is used to examine the valence state of iron, (Fe, Fe2+,
Fe3+), as well as the type of coordination polyhedron occupied by iron atoms. We need
several grams of pure mineral phases (sample is ground to fine powder).

(d) Optical cathode luminescence permits optical examination of polished thin sections.
Cathode gun (special equipment for optical microscope) bombards the sample with
a beam of high-energy electrons, which generate luminescence in minerals without Fe
(e.g. feldspars) and allows us to see textures and compositional variations.

Methods for determination of the chemical composition of rocks

According to the whole-rocks chemical composition, types of rocks, their genesis and
evolution are determined. For the geochemical analysis, fresh chips of rocks are usually
prepared, weighing 2 to 10 kg (depending on the grain size and homogeneity of samples).
In the laboratory, samples are ground to a fine powder and homogenized. Laboratories
usually use jaw crushers to reduce sample particle size and finally, the sample is pulverized
in an agate planetary mill to a grain size < 0.063 mm (for the analysis, we need only
5 to 20 g).

(a) The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) works on wavelength-dispersive spectroscopic

principles. It is a relative low-cost and widely used method for bulk chemical analyses of
major (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P), minor and trace elements (in abundances
>1 ppm; Ba, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, La, Nb, Ni, Rb, Sc, Sr, Rh, U, V, Y, Zr, Zn) in rocks and
soils. Measurements by XRF are carried out directly on the solid material (about 1 g of
the powdered sample was pressed to the tablet). The detection limit is 10 ppm for W using
XRF, and 0.05 ppm for W using ICP-MS.

(b) Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) is used to determine the

concentration of major, minor and trace elements. A sample is subjected to a neutron
flux and radioactive nuclides are produced. Comparison of the intensity of gamma rays
(product radioactive nuclides decay) with those emitted by a standard permit is necessary
for a quantitative measurement of the concentrations of various nuclides (analyse
numerous elements simultaneously). The main advantage lies in very low detection limits
and small sample sizes (1–200 mg), but several elements (Y, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, and Zr) are
better determined by other analytical methods (XRF).
28 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

(c) Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) combines a high-

temperature Inductively Coupled Plasma source (converts the atoms of the elements
in the sample to ions) with a mass spectrometer (Ag, As, Au, Bi, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni,
Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, Zn, Ba, Be, Co, Cr, Cs, Ga, Hf, Nb, Ni, Rb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Th, U, V, W, Y,
Zr, REE).

(d) Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) is used

for the simultaneous detection of multiple elements. Samples are introduced into the
plasma during a process that produces excited atoms and ions. The constituent elements
can be identified by their characteristic emission lines, and quantified by the intensity
of the same lines. A high sensitivity is typical (low limit of detection for the majority
of elements is 10 ppb or lower) and elements that are difficult to analyse in atomic
absorption spectrometry such as Zr, Ta, rare earth elements (REE), P and B can be
easily analysed.

(e) Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is an analytical method based on the

absorption of UV or visible light by gaseous atoms. The sample becomes atomized by
injecting a solution into a flame. Atoms in the flame absorb the wavelength sent by the
source of light. The absorption of light from a hollow-cathode lamp is proportional to the
concentration. Generally lower detection limits than in ICP-OES.

(f) Other methods of analysis of geological materials are CV AAS (Cold vapour
atomic absorption spectrometry), DCP AES (Direct current plasma atomic emission
spectrometry), DCP AES (Direct current plasma atomic emission spectrometry),
ETAAS (Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry), FAAS (Flame atomic
absorption spectrometry), FAES (Flame atomic emission spectrometry), HG AAS
(Hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry), IC (Ion chromatography), ICP
AES (Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry), ID ICPMS (Isotope
dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry), ID TIMS (Isotope dilution
thermal ionization mass spectrometry), LA ICP MS (Laser ablation inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry), PGAA (Prompt gamma activation analysis), PIXE (Particle-
induced X-ray emission), RNAA (Radiochemical neutron activation analysis), and TIMS
(Thermal ionization mass spectrometry).

Further reading
Rollinson R. (2014): Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation.
Routledge, 384 pp.
White M. W. (2013): Geochemistry. Wiley-Blackwell, 668 pp.

5.3 Palaeontology

Paleontological data are crucial for stratigraphic ranking of sedimentary strata and
depiction of palaeoenvironmental conditions during sedimentation. Macrofossils could be
preliminarily identified in the field, but for precise determination, cleaning and separation
of fossils from the host rocks is important. The process of cleaning, repairing and removing
excess rock from a fossil is known as preparation. Generally, only preliminary cleaning
 D ata source 29

or trimming is done in the field, so that more careful preparation work may be done later
in the laboratory. Final determination of particular species and their stratigraphical age
must be done by experts.
Micropalaeontological studies providing a large amount of information about the
floral or faunal assemblage. Laboratory processing is very important. Different sample
preparation techniques for a micropalaeontological analysis can be used depending on the
required result. For palynomorphs, calcic plankton or diatomites very different procedures
and chemicals are used. The most important techniques include:
• Washing and sieving
• Disintegration in liquids
• Leaching in chemical solutions.

Further reading
http://www.geotop.ca/upload/files/publications/cahiers-de-laboratoire/Micropal_
Methods_2010.pdf
http://www.jpaleontologicaltechniques.org/
http://preparation.paleo.amnh.org/
http://paleobiology.si.edu/fossiLab/projects.html
http://preparation.paleo.amnh.org/assets/Madsen1996Microvertebratepreparation.pdf

5.4 Data archive

Geological maps and reports are traditionally stored in national geological archives, which
are massively scanned and converted to the PDF (Portable Document Format) documents.
Maps are digitalized and converted to the form of GIS-compatible products, which allows
them to be available on line.
Laboratory data are commonly stored in a table form that can be easily linked with
the GIS projects. The most complicated task is the processing of field geological data
conversion into the usable database, mainly because the fact that field notebooks contain
a lot of unclassified information. In all cases, the relational database (a set of related
tables) is the most preferred tool for storing the geological field data and which can also
be linked to a GIS database. There are many professional or open-source software systems
available (commercial: ArcMap and ArcSDE; freeware PostgreSQL rel. database with the
PostGIS extension, Q-GIS package, etc.).
The structure of the database (hierarchy of individual tables) depends on the purpose
of the field work (geological mapping, ore prospection, geochemical exploration,
mineral exploration, hydrogeological investigation, geo-hazards zonation, pedological
mapping etc.). But some attributes such as the localization and the rock description
are common in all cases. While there exist various professional software used in
ore prospecting or mining (e. g. Surpac, RockWare, Vulcan, Micromine, Petrel
etc.), a universal database or system for general geological mapping purpose are
missing.
The basic conceptual scheme representing the field data record is shown in Fig. 10.
All the arrows in the diagram represent 1:N relations. It means that more than one rock can
be exposed at one site, and we have more than one structural measurements or samples
in one rock.
30 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Figure. 10. Diagram

of the tables and their LOCALISATION ROCK TECTONICS
relationships in the
Point_No (ID) Point_No (ID) Point_No (ID)
database of geological Map_sheet_No (ID) Map_sheet_No (ID) Map_sheet_No (ID)
reference points. Geologist Rock (ID) Rock (ID)
Date Grain_size S_type
X Texture Dip_Dir
Y Colour Dip
Z Mineral L_type
Type Fosil Plunge
Size Ore Dip
Localisation Alteration Generation
Description Description Description
Formation
Age

SAMPLE
Point_No (ID)
Map_sheet_No (ID)
Rock (ID)
Label
Type
Remark
6) Geological field techniques

Fulfilling essential, basic field equipment and psychological readiness are two important
qualities ever since the first prospectors started geological mapping, with open eyes
and mind to make notice of precise field observation. The basic geological equipment
are geological hammer, geological compass that possess inclinometer and bearing
measurement functions, topographic base map and the field notebook together with
pencils. Pocket or handheld GPS device (including applications in Smart Phones) help
with the orientation in the field and precise localization of geological documentation.
Geological documentation is a basis for the compilation of geological map; it should
be precise, legible and complete, especially in remote areas where it might be impossible
to return back to. Traditionally, rock outcrops are subjects of geological documentation,
but in poorly exposed areas, documentation of boulders and rock fragments in debris
is alternatively employed. The number of documentation points in the map depends on
the complexity of geological structure and is usually defined by standards of the local
geological authority. Description of the outcrop, starts with a general overview, looking at
the main rock types, boundaries between them and dominant structural phenomena. Then
study and description of rocks and structures in detail including hand-drawn sketches and
photographs are made. Sampling is always conducted in the end. The contents of exposure
description include:
• L
 ocalization.
• D escription of rocks and contacts.
• T ectonics.
• S  amples.
• S  ketches and photographs.

The description of exposure should follow the structure shown in documentation table
in Fig. 10.

6.1 Localization

Localization must be marked (cross is the most common symbol) in the field map and
linked with the description in the notebook by a unique Identification code (numbers and
letters) label.

Point No is a label, which must be unique in the frame of a map sheet or a project. In the
ideal case a combination of letter(s) which can indicate the author’s name and incremental
number (e.g. KV001) should be used.

Coordinates obtained by handheld GPS device can be written in WGS format (decimal
degrees are ideal for GIS processing or in the local coordinate system).
32 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Localization defines the type of outcrop (rock, road cut, river bank, block, debris, stone
pit, shaft, spring, well, etc.), size (length/height/width), position (distance and azimuth)
related to the important geographical point named in a map sheet.

Description summarizes an overview of geological phenomena and relationships between

rocks observed on outcrops.

Using Global Position System (GPS)

Location of documentation points and tracks on a map can be time-consuming, especially
in the general map, forest or rugged terrain. The excellent tool for effective orientation
in the field is represented by the Global Position System (GPS). The usage of hand-held
GPS device has become wide-spread since May 2000 when the directive of President
Bill Clinton and the U.S. Government ended the Selective Availability of GPS that
intentionally degraded civilian accuracy on a global basis. Global Positioning System is
based on receiving radio signals from orbiting satellites. GPS is a constellation of 24 or
more satellites flying 20,350 km above the surface of the Earth. Once a GPS device knows
its distance from at least four satellites, it can use geometry to determine its location on
the Earth in three dimensions.
The modern hand-held devices can receive signal not only from the U.S governed
GPS, but also from the Russian system GLONAS. GPS-enabled smart phones are typically
accurate within 5 m. High-end users boost GPS accuracy with dual-frequency receivers
can enable real-time positioning within a few centimeters, and long-term measurements
at millimeter scale.

The first meters accuracy, availability and pocket size made the GPS an attractive tool
for a mapping geologist in:
• Precise localization of documentation points.
• Recording of geological traverses with remarks on rocks.
• Precise location of boundaries between units.
• Storing of geological data (including map) for using them in the field.

The standard coordinate system of GPS is WGS 84, but the setting of device allows
using many other projection and geographical coordinate systems. Every GPS device
manufacturer provides software for the communication of device with PC. Google Earth
by Google is the easiest way how to see the field GPS data on a map or satellite imagery.
Modern GIS software enables direct communication with GPS data in GPX format and
professional processing of data.
GPS provided Smart Phones can offer greater comfort in using a suitable GPS
application (e.g. Soviet Military Maps, Oruxmaps, Locus), which allow downloading
various topographic and satellite maps and are able to communicate with a geological
database more easily than the standard GPS.
GPS-based electronic devices are tools effectively improving the geological field
work, but it is not worthy to absolutely rely on it. Paper map, notebook and pencil are
still the best recording media in the field.
 G eological field techni q ues 33

6.2 Rock and lithological description

Rocks
Rock is a basic unit of geological mapping, but in many cases, single rocks are not
mappable at a given scale and are grouped into geological (lithostratigraphic) units. In
most cases, only part of a geological unit is represented by just one rocks type at an
outcrop.

Rock name when finally confirmed should conform with the international classification
scheme (Appendix 3) and that name should be used to archive in the relevant database,
while descriptive field names should be kept only in field notebooks (“red spotted massive
rock”).

Grain size description and classification should correspond with the international
standard being used differently according to the origin of the rocks such as in cases of
crystalline: massive, fine-, medium-, coarse-grained and in case of sedimentary rocks:
clay, silt, sand, gravel.

Texture is dependent on mutual relationships (size, arrangement and homogeneity)

of rock forming particles.

Colour is subjective and influenced by hydrothermal and weathering processes.

Nevertheless, colour is characteristic for some rocks and formations.
The composition of rock is described according to the rock-forming minerals visible by
a naked eye or using lens, occurrence of ore minerals and hydrothermal alterations.
In sedimentary rocks, the composition of rock and fossil fragments should be described.

Formation (a geological unit composed of a specific sequence of rocks) and age

(if known) should fit with the regional classification of an area. Working (temporary)
names are common in field notebook which should be formalized as the mapping
progresses. Additional information completes the Description of a rock.

Lithology
Rock descriptions are the essential part of geological mapping. This work combines all
field and laboratory observations. The name of rocks and mineral composition recorded
in the field notebook of documented outcrops can sometimes differ from the laboratory
results, in particular those of mappable rocks (a rock that can be distinguished in the field
by a naked eye).
In all cases, each rock and relationships between recognized rocks must be
systematically described on the outcrop. The description of lithology must proceed from
the oldest to the youngest. Describe the colour of weathered and fresh rocks. Note the
degree of weathering and/or alteration, mineral composition, texture, grain size and
the relationship between grains. Finally, choose an appropriate name for each rock on
the outcrop (Appendix 3). The name of the rock should be descriptive (e.g. porphyritic
medium-grained red muscovite-biotite granite). According to the results of laboratory
works, we can choose the final name of rocks and interpret their origin.
34 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

6.3 Tectonics

Field observation and precise description of structural elements including the insight to
their relationship is a key to drawing a geological map. Generally, small-scale structures
(bedding, foliation, fold, joint, lineation etc.) can be seen at the outcrop, while regional
structures (faults, synclines, anticlines, domes etc.) are depicted mainly by geological
mapping or interpreted based on the remote sensing data. Planar (S type) and linear
(L type) structures are distinguished among the small-scale elements.
There are two dominant ways how to measure the orientation (position towards
geographic North) of tectonic elements (Fig. 11). The easiest method is to measure
dip-direction and dip for planar elements and plunge-direction and plunge for linear
elements (all in degrees) in one-step by the Freiberg type of geological compass.
As many observed planar structures and associated linear fabrics as possible should
be measured from every locality documented in the field. Planar structures commonly
encountered might include bedding, cleavage, foliation, lineation, fold limbs, joints, etc.
and linear fabrics could be any of sedimentary or metamorphic lineation, linear preferred
orientation of magmatic minerals, fold axis, striations on fault planes, etc.
The measurement can be plotted as a tectonic symbol in the field map showing the trend:
strike and direction in case of planar fabric and plunge direction in case of linear fabric and
each labeled with dip amount in degrees. Measurement in the field of any structural record
should be written following the format, dip direction/dip (e.g. 180/45) in field notebook.
Traditional abbreviations are used for the description of various types of structures. S is the
general label for planes, L for lineation, B for fold axis, D for dislocation and J for joints.
It is important to observe relative relationships between structures and to reveal
various generations (e.g. S0, S1, S2) of structural elements.

Field structural measurements and data processing

Brief summary of basic methodological approach to geological structures description is
given in this sub-section including interpretation and the overall assessment of tectonic
pattern of the mapped area. These data are essential for the geological map, cross-section
and lithostratigraphic scheme processing.
Fabrics or structures in rocks are divided into primary and secondary ones. The primary
fabrics are associated with the genesis of the rock predominantly visible in the sedimentary
and igneous rocks (e.g. bedding, magmatic foliation). Secondary fabrics (metamorphic
foliation, cleavage) can be identified mainly in the metamorphic rocks. There is also
a specific group of superimposed fabrics, usually observed in all types of rocks (e.g. cleavage,
shear zones, faults and joints) which are of brittle-ductile and brittle nature. The origin of
superimposed structures is mainly associated with the changes of regional stress field.
Fabrics are also divided as (a) structures of sedimentary units, (b) ductile structures
including the fabrics of metamorphic and igneous rocks, (c) brittle-ductile structures
(e.g. low-temperature shear zones) and (d) brittle structures (faults and joints).

Fabrics and structures in the geological map

Based on the shape parameters, planar and linear structures are distinguished:
• Planar structure is a descriptive (non-genetic) term for any planar structural elements in
the rocks (bedding, foliation, layering, compositional banding, cleavage, fault plane, etc.).
 G eological field techni q ues 35

• L
 inear structure is a descriptive (non-genetic) term for any linear element visible in
the rocks. Several types of lineation in the rocks can be distinguished (e.g. mineral
lineation, elongation lineation, crenulation lineation, etc.).

Classification based on the type (character) of structures:

• S
 edimentary structures are formed during the formation of strata and they reflect either
linear or planar preferred orientation (e.g. sedimentary bedding).
• M
 agmatic structures are formed during the flow of minerals or rock fragments or
crystallization of magma after its emplacement. It marks the preferred spatial orientation
of rock-forming minerals and lithic fragments (linear, planar), which are created by
different processes in the presence of melt. Magmatic structures show the absence of
deformation and recrystallization (e.g. magmatic foliation, magmatic lineation).
• M
 etamorphic structures are formed due to the recrystallization and/or the deformation
under ductile or brittle-to-ductile conditions. The geological map should depict
metamorphic or deformation fabrics such as metamorphic foliation and/or lineation,
cleavage, fold axis, etc.

All the structures described above should be displayed with special oriented symbols at
the corresponding positions to those observed in the map. This point mark carries the
information about the strike, dip-direction and dip angle and the type of structure.
Brittle structures such as faults and fault zones are marked in the map by linear tectonic
marks, which reflect the trend of the structure in the map. The known size of fault dip or
even the orientation of striation is depicted by a point tectonic mark. This point mark carries
the information about the strike, dip-direction and dip angle of the planar structure, and
possibly also the kinematics (sense of movement, such as normal fault, reverse fault, strike-
slip fault) and the accompanying deformational features (e.g. mylonitization).
Faults can either be observed, inferred or obscured. When tectonic boundaries are
precisely identified and documented, mutual displacement of lithological boundaries will
show up. Tectonic boundaries can be observed in the field or verified and documented
by technical or geophysical methods and are drawn on the map with solid lines. Inferred
faults can be drawn even when not sufficiently verified, as long as an apparent justification
can be made from the structural relations. Obscured faults are, on the other hand, drawn
to depict the estimated course of faults below the younger undeformed sedimentary cover
often traced as a broken or a dashed line on the map.
The spatial orientation of structural elements is described in the form of dip-direction
and dip angle. This description is supplemented with references to orientation diagrams in
Lambert equal-area projection on the lower hemisphere, where all characterized tectonic
data should be graphically illustrated.

Field structural data record format

Two conventions how to display the structural data exist (Fig. 11):
• D
 irection of dip (0 to 360°) and angle of dip (0–90°); for example: 269/45.
• Strike-direction given as azimuth (0 to 360°) followed by dip angle (0–90°) and
the direction of dip given as the cardinal direction; for example: 143/76 SW.
Provided that the planar structure is defined by using two angles (dip-direction and dip),
the intersection line of the generally inclined geological structure with the hypothetical
horizontal plane “h” is referred to as the trend (strike) of the geological planar structure
36 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

(Fig. 11). On the other hand, the intersection of the vertical plane “v” perpendicular to
the geological planar structure direction is referred to as the dip direction. If the dip
direction extends the vertical plane and marks its intersection with a horizontal plane,
then the dip direction of geological surface is the azimuth of the intersection line (angle
in the range 0–360°). The dip of geological surface is the angle between the horizontal
plane and geological surface (measured in the vertical plane, ranging between 0–90°).
Linear structure is defined by two angles (plunge-direction and plunge). The hypothetical
vertical plane “v” is parallel to the lineation. Then the plunge-direction is defined as the
azimuth of intersection line between “v” plane and horizontal plane (angle measured in
the 0–360° interval). The plunge is the angle between the intersection line and linear
structure (measured between 0° and 90°).

Figure 11. The principle

of measuring the
orientation of linear and
planar structures and
their presentation on the
geological map.
STRIKE PLUNGE
DIRECTION
DIP DIP
DIRECTION PLUNGE

STRIKE

Planar structure Linear structure

A uniform terminology must be used when describing the structures and fabrics in
accordance with the use of tectonic marks on a geological map. Structures of brittle-
to-ductile and brittle tectonics are described for all units altogether. Exceptions are for
extensional joints in the bodies of igneous rocks, which should be described separately.

Evaluation and presentation of structural data

Field structural data can be evaluated by several software such as for example SPHERISTAT
and STEREONET using the Equal-Area projection (Tab. 2) to the lower hemisphere. Both
are easy-to-use utility for entering structural field measurements (either axial or polar
vector) in a tabular form and can be plotted in a variety of ways: on a stereonet, on a map
using a structural symbol set, or on a circular (rose) diagram. Each plotting method creates
additional advantages to extract more information from the data set.
Usually, one structural element (e.g. metamorphic foliation) is displayed in one
diagram. If the differentiation of partial development stages of one structural element
(e.g. types of metamorphic foliation) is necessary, it can be made graphically (by assigning
particular colours).
All tectonic diagrams should conform to certain logical grouping to clearly show
differences in partial structural domains.
 G eological field techni q ues 37

Table 2. Characteristics of the equal-area projection

Projection How Projected Advantages Drawbacks Uses

Draw arc from Area conserved, Structural geology, for the

Equal Curves are
a point on sphere to moderate statistical analysis of spatial
Area complex
the plane distortion data

http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/structge/labman.htm
Spheristat TM 3.1 http://www.pangaeasci.com
Stereonet 8 http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/faculty/RWA/programs/stereonet.html
SG2PS (Sasvári and Baharev, 2014)
OATools (Kociánová and Melichar, 2016)

Planar fabrics
Two alternatives are used to plot planar fabrics on the lower hemisphere of the equal-area
stereographic projection, mainly depending on the amount of field data. These are either
circles (arcs) or poles. Poles are the projections of orthogonal lines to the planar fabrics
on the lower hemisphere stereographic projection.
Circles (arcs) are traces of the lines of intersection between the planar geological
structural surfaces and the lower hemisphere stereographic projection, which can be
used to plot in cases where only few data measurements are made and to show some
relations between structures such as fault planes and kinematic indicator linear features
appearing as points on the fault planes (striations). Poles to Planes are used alternatively
when a large amount of field structural data are used. Hence, imaginary lines drawn
perpendicular to the measured planar surface form a dot when they intersect the lower
hemisphere stereographic projection after passing through the planar surface at right
angle plotting on the opposite side of the stereogram (Fig. 12). This consistent mechanism
allows plotting several measurements to show in one diagram.

Figure 12. Projection

of N–S striking and 50°
W dipping plane.
(a) – Oblique view;
(b) – Equal-area
projection. Projection
of the pole toplane;
(c) – Oblique view;
(d) – Equal-area
projection (after
Rowland et al. 2013).
38 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Steeply dipping planar structures are hence represented by points (poles) that lie
closer to the edge of the stereographic projection plane (equator), which is opposite to
the sense of the case in the great circle plots. On the other hand, planar features that are
gently dipping or subhorizontal will have the poles to their planes plotted near the center
of the stereographic projection plane (equator).

Linear fabrics
When the structures to be displayed are linear features, these are directly represented as
dots on the stereographic projection (Fig. 13).
Points are dots plotted on the lower hemisphere equal-area stereographic projection
plane (equator) for linear features. It must be distinguished from poles to planes mentioned
previously as those are the projections of imaginary lines orthogonal to the planes being
represented, which are introduced to avoid cumbersome display of arcs representing
planar features (Fig. 13).

Figure 13. Projection

of a line plunging 50° to
the west (after Rowland
et al. 2013).

In this case (linear features represented as dots), however, as the orientations of actual
linear features are presented, they must be seen and/or considered differently. These are
the intersections of actual linear features when viewed directly projected down onto the
lower hemisphere of the stereographic projection forming a dot on the equatorial plane.
Points located near the centre of the circle hence correspond to lineations with steep
inclination or plunge, while those plotted near the edge of the stereographic projection
plane (equator) are lineations having gentle or horizontal plunge.
Rose diagrams are used to summarize and highlight frequent measurements in the
space of the principal directions or azimuth. Examples of these types of data include
dips of joints, bedding planes, etc.

Further reading
Davis H. G., Reynolds J. S (1996): Structural geology of rocks and regions. John Wiley
& Sons, 776 pp.
Haakon F. (2010): Structural geology. Cambridge University Press.
McClay K. R. (2013): The mapping of geological structures. John Wiley & Sons, 168 pp.
Kociánová, L., Melichar, R. (2016). OATools: An ArcMap add-in for the orientation
analysis of geological structures. Computers & Geosciences, 87, 67-75.
Ramsay J. G., Huber M. I. (1987): Modern structural geology. Academic Press, Vol. 2.
Ramsay J. G., Lisle R. J. (2000): The techniques of modern structural geology. Academic
Press, Vol. 3.
 G eological field techni q ues 39

Sasvári, Á., and Baharev A. (2014) „SG2PS (structural geology to postscript converter) –
A graphical solution for brittle structural data evaluation and paleostress calculation.“
Computers & Geosciences 66 (2014): 81-93.
Rowland, S. M., Duebendorfer, E. M., Schiefelbein I. M.. Structural analysis and
synthesis: a laboratory course in structural geology. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
https://www.fault-analysis-group.ucd.ie/
http://structural-geology.org/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_compass

6.4 Sampling

Sampling is an important part of any geological work, including mapping. Firstly, samples
serve for the comparison of similar rocks from different outcrops. Secondly, they are
collected for subsequent laboratory analysis. The size and quality of a sample depends
on the laboratory analysis. Laboratory results help to describe and distinguish rocks and
geological units depicted on the map.
A sample should be labelled by a point number (by a permanent marker on the rock).
Paper label (and a note about the sample in notebook) must be completed by information
about the type of sample (petrography, geochemistry, physical properties, palaeontology,
palaeomagnetism, radiometric dating, etc.), the name of geologist and date of sampling
(Fig. 14 and 15). More samples from one outcrop used for the same purposes should be
labelled by an additional letter (e.g. KV001-A).

6.5 Illustrations and photographs

Good illustration and photographs complete the geological description of an outcrop in

the field, but the most important role of a picture is to display the relationship of rocks,
tectonic features and their relationships, position of samples and photographic details.

Sheet No. Point No.

Type of sample:

Date: Author:

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE MONGOLIAN ALTAI

Figure 14. An example of a sample card used by CGS Figure 15. An example of a sample label used for geochemical
in Mongolia. prospection in the Lesser Caucasus.
40 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

The picture is schematic (Fig. 16) and should contain at least:

• Scale and orientation.
• Situation of rocks distinguished by various hatching.
• Character of boundaries by various lines.
• Position of important structural elements with their orientation.
• Situation of samples.
• Situation of details.
• Text remarks.

Photographs do not replace illustrations, but supply them. An overview picture of the
outcrop and photographs of important textures and structures all should be made; besides,
it is also useful to make a macro photograph of rocks during the map compilation. The
scale is an important part of each picture. Do a remark in notebook with a number of snap
shots for the arrangement of photos, which could be subsequently linked with database.

Figure 16. An example

of outcrop illustration.
7) Compilation of geological map

A geological map is a scaled-down diagram of the Earth`s surface based on available and
surveyed field data record. Generally, the geological map must be as close as possible
to the real world and be comparable and legible. To produce such maps, the geologist
should stick to sets of rules concerned with field observations, field data processing and
final compilation of the map.
Map compilation is a process of interpreting factual data in space and time, and
eventually plotting the results on plain sheet of paper. It means that much of the
information gathered during the mapping is not transferred to the manuscript. The general
rule is to show any features which add to the understanding of the geology and geological
history, and to omit those that do not. The criterion of what to show is mainly a matter of
common sense and experience.
Among the parts of the geological map, geological legend must be compiled at first.

7.1 Legend

Legend is a column in the map, which explains the meanings of all colours, hatches, lines
and symbols used to represent geological features on the geological map, cross-sections
and lithostratigraphic column.
Assembly of the legend to the geological map take the following into consideration:

a) The legend must include all features shown on the geological map, the geological cross-
section and the lithostratigraphic column. If some of these features appear only in the
lithostratigraphic column or in the geological cross-section then this should be indicated
in the text describing the individual items of the legend.

b) The addition (sub-division) of separate groups of units within individual chronological

sequences or in regional geological units is indicated by headings above the appropriate
groups.

c) Individual units are indicated by consecutive numbers that will be the same as those
given to the appropriate paragraphs in the explanatory notes.

d) The units in the legend are arranged in order of age from the youngest to the oldest.
In the case of sedimentary rocks, the name of the formation/member and the affinity
to the appropriate lithostratigraphic unit will be given; the petrographic designation in
plural should follow. The Quaternary rocks are characterized according to their genesis
and lithology. In the case of alluvial terraces, their local affinity (e.g. Leku) or their
geomorphological position (e.g. lower terrace) can also be given. If the relative ages
of magmatic rocks are not known, they should be classified in order from acid to basic
types. Metamorphic rocks are arranged in order from granulites and metamorphosed
42 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

ultrabasic rocks through orthometamorphic rocks, varied interbedded parametamorphic

rocks, migmatites, migmatised rocks and parametamorphic rocks.

e) Each unit is depicted by a combination of colour, hatching, and an index correlated

with the fundamental lithological and petrographic characteristics of the rocks that form
it. The petrographic characteristics of magmatic and metamorphic rocks are given in the
singular in the following order: grain size, texture, mineral composition and the name of
the rock. Attributes such as migmatised, leucocratic, hybrid, etc. are given immediately in
front of the name of the rock. Transitions from one rock to another (e.g., metamorphosed
granite – orthogneiss), and the occurrence of specific minerals up to 5 modal % (e.g., with
garnet), information about intercalations or interbeds that are not possible to map (e.g. with
intercalations of quartzites), are given after the name of the rock. The traditional name of
the rock can also be given in brackets (e.g. Daleti granite, compact gneiss, diabase).

f) The petrographic characteristics of the rock as shown in the legend (up to 105 characters),
should be the same as in the lithostratigraphic column and in the explanatory notes.

g) Geological symbols form an integral part of the legend. They are given after the last
rock unit and are marked by consecutive numbers. There is a specific order as follows:
contacts of geological units, faults and other tectonic features, eluvium, geodynamic
phenomena, important fossiliferous sites, mineral occurrences and mine workings,
waters, important boreholes and numbered geological localities, lines of geological
cross sections.
The legend is organized as the combination of regional and chronostratigraphic
hierarchy from youngest to oldest geological units. Regional and chronostratigraphic
headings separate geological units depicted on a map into logical blocks.

Chronostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks, layered or unlayered, formed during

a specified interval of geological time and have the following hierarchy:
• Erathem
• System
• Series
• Stage

Regional units are units with similar geological evolution and composition and which
are related to a specific region. The hierarchy of regional units follows:
• Regional system
• Region
• Province
• Area

7.2 Elements of Geological map

Geological units
The basic part of the legend is a geological unit – an element which is mappable and
distinct from one another. There is a little bit different comprehension of the geological
unit in sedimentary/volcanosedimentary areas and in magmatic/metamorphic complexes.
 C ompilation of geological map 43

In sedimentary/volcanosedimentary complexes, lithostratigraphic units are defined

as bodies of rocks, bedded or unbedded, that are defined and characterized on the basis
of their lithologic properties and their stratigraphic relations.
The basic subdivision of lithostatigraphic units (http://www.stratigraphy.org/) is:
• G
 roup – two or more formations. 
• F
 ormation – the primary unit of lithostratigraphy. 
• M
 ember – a named lithologic subdivision of a formation. 
• B
 ed – a named distinctive layer in a member or formation. 
• F
 low – the smallest distinctive layer in a volcanic sequence.
A lithodemic unit is a defined body of a predominantly intrusive, highly deformed,
and/or highly metamorphosed rock, distinguished and delimited on the basis of rock
characteristics. In contrast to lithostratigraphic units, a lithodemic unit generally does not
conform to the Law of Superposition. Metamorphic rocks are parts of a larger complex or
suites. Intrusive rocks could be separated according the shape and size into:
• D
 yke – a platy body with sharp boundaries.
• P
 luton – the general term for a body composed of igneous rocks.
• B
 atholith – a variable and large mass of intrusive igneous rocks, usually composed of
plutons and dykes.

Symbols
Symbols are crucial for legibility and appearance of a map. The extent of geological units
is expressed as a coloured area. The faults and boundaries between rocks are represented
by lines. Symbols indicate the position and character of point geological features. All
graphical elements of the legend are numbered by ordinal numbers individually for each
map sheet.
Geological units are represented in the legend by the following elements described
below.
• L  ithological description of unit.
• C  oloured box with hatch.
• I ndex.
• O  rdinal number.

The characterization of a geological unit in the legend has a descriptive (petrographic

character), completed by genetic information for Quaternary sediments and volcanoclastic
rocks.
Expression of geological units differs slightly for lithostratigraphic and for lithodemic
units:
(a) Lithostratigraphic unit: colour, grain size, composition, characteristic attribute, name
of rock(s), supplemental information.
(b) Grain size, texture, mineral composition, name of rock(s), supplemental information.

Colours and hatches

Colours commonly express, the age and hatches the lithology, in a geological map. For
igneous and volcanic rocks, colours are used to contrast with the surrounding units.
Colours and hatches should conform to the international standards and many of them are
a part of the default library of ArcGIS.
44 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

If the geological map has many map units, it is sometimes impossible to maintain the
standard geological age colours. Colours should be chosen so that the map has the closest
credibility with the standard and be legible in the following aspects.
• Showing contrast and clarity of map units and symbols.
• Showing ages or age relationships of map units.
• Matching or approximating colours and patterns used on nearby or adjacent maps
to maintain consistency and continuity of colours and patterns among the maps in
a region.
• Showing structural relationships of map units.
• Using colours that are light enough for easy legibility of the base map.
• Do not forget that the map should be appealing to sight.

Web pages with international standards:

http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
https://engineering.purdue.edu/Stratigraphy/charts/rgb.html
http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2005/11B01/pdf/
https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-patternchart.pdf

Index
The index of a geological unit is used for unique identification of a legend unit in
a map.
Generally, the index is composed of a body which expresses the main stratigraphic
and lithological information and symbols in lower and upper cases, which characterize
supplemental signs. In addition, in volcanic and sedimentary units, numbers are also
assigned according to relative superposition.
The index building slightly differs for sedimentary, volcanic, igneous and
metamorphic rocks and it is composed of a body of index and symbols in upper and
lower cases. The principles of index assemblage are summarized in Tab. 3 and the list of
symbols used in index construction is given in Appendix 1.

Map symbols
Map symbols express aerial, line and point geological phenomena superposed on the
geological units:
• Lithological (unit) boundaries.
• Tectonic lines.
• Structural elements.
• Palaeontological symbols.
• Superposed geological and geodynamic phenomena.
• Occurrence and exploitation of raw materials.
• Hydrogeological elements.
• Documentation symbols.

A summary of the most common map symbols is summarized in Appendix 2. A library

in default symbols of ArcGIS is available. A comprehensive catalogue of symbols was
published by USGS or BGS:
 CO M P I L AT I O N O F G E O LO G I C A L MA P 45

https://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2006/11A02/.
https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd.php
http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/3221/1/RR01001.pdf

table 3. Principles of the creation of a geological index for various kinds of rocks, for symbols see
Appendix 1

Sedimentary rocks

Body of index Symbols in upper and lower cases

S – system te – expressive sign (characteristic texture,
o – series (if known) mineral, colour, admixture, matrix, texture,
1 – lower, 2 – middle/upper, 3 – upper genesis, grain size etc.)
li – dominant lithology
ls – lithostratigraphic or regional unit

Volcanic rocks
Coherent volcanic rocks Pyroclastic rocks

Body of index Symbols in upper and lower cases

r – rock, small letter of Greek alphabet te – texture
S – system mi – characteristic mineral
o – series (if known) ge – genetic type
1 – lower, 2 – middle/upper, ls – lithostratigraphic (regional) unit
3 – upper, (used according
to the stage of knowledge)

Plutonic rocks Metamorphic rocks

Body of index Body of index

r – rock, small letter of Greek alphabet R – rock, large (orthometamorphite)
S – system (if known) or small (metasediment) letter in italic
mi – significant minerals mi – significant minerals

Symbols in upper and lower cases Symbols in upper and lower cases
te – texture or other expressive sign (colour) te – texture or other expressive sign (colour)
gs – grain size gs – grain size
ls – lithostratigraphic or geological unit ls – lithostratigraphic or geological unit

Organization of legend
The first version of the legend should be prepared before the first reconnaissance trips to
the field based on archive data. This graphic hand-made temporary legend is subsequently
improved by the knowledge obtained during the geological mapping and nearly finalized
during the preparation of the fair-copy of a geological map.
46 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

The graphic form of legend is insufficient for GIS processing and information from
it must be transformed to a structured table. Every geological unit depicted in a map is
described in one row with list of headings (Tab. 4).

Table 4. Structure of the legend table for further GIS processing

Chronostratigraphic Regional Lithostratigraphic Technical

     
units units units projection
LEG_ID

ORDER

Unit_DSCR

ERATHEM

SYSTEM

SERIES

STAGE

REGION

PROVINCE

AREA (UNIT)

GROUP

FORMATION

INDEX

COLOR_NO

HATCH_NO

HATCH_CO
7.3 The lithostratigraphic scheme

a) The lithostratigraphic column shows the sequence of sedimentary units observed or

inferred to occur on the map sheet, even if these units do not crop out on the map or in the
geological cross-section. The column can also include metamorphic and effusive rocks
if their observed or inferred chronostratigraphic positions are known. The column also
shows any hiatus in the stratigraphic succession, weathering profiles, soil horizons, facies
variations, occurrences of fossils, etc.

b) The rocks are arranged in a column 2 cm wide with a maximum length of shorter
edge of map. The maximum thicknesses of individual units, formations and members are
indicated by figures marked in the stratigraphic column. The interval in the stratigraphic
column allocated to monotonous units should not be too great, but in the case of thin units,
the thickness should be as such to allow the text describing their characteristics to be
incorporated.

c) The inclusion of all chronostratigraphic information is an integral part of the

lithostratigraphic column.

d) In areas with a complex tectonic structure, it is desirable to compile a separate

lithostratigraphic column for each tectonic unit.

7.4 Fair copy map

Fair copy map (draft map) is a first comprehensive interpretation of archive, observed
field and laboratory data. Fair copy map can be a hand-drawn sketch or it can be drafted
using appropriate software. All factual data and documents should be well-organized.
These data are represented mainly by:
• Topographic base map.
• Remote sensing data.
• 3D model.
• Field map.
• Map of small-scale (regional) tectonic elements (bedding and foliation preferably).
 C ompilation of geological map 47

• F
 ield documentation, preferably in a database.
• L
 aboratory results.
• A rchive documents.

Much of the information gathered during the mapping is not transferred to the
manuscript. The general rule is to show any features which add to the understanding of
the geology and geological history, and to omit those that do not. The criterion of what
to show is mainly a matter of common sense and experience.

Sequence of geological map compilation

• C ompilation of legend.
• C ompilations of lithostratigraphic scheme.
• P reparation of a topographic map with a trace of geological transects and oriented
tectonic symbols.
• I nterpretation of faults from satellite imagery and 3D model.
• C ontouring of the Quaternary cover.
• I nterpretation of platform cover and its boundaries within underlying rocks.
• C ontouring of the intrusive rocks.
• I nterpretation of boundaries in pre-platform units.
• S ituation of subsequent geological symbols.
• C ompilation of geological cross-sections.

Principles
Regardless of the fact that all contacts are not exposed everywhere in reality, all
round contacts should be depicted on the geological map but with different line styles
distinguishing confirmed contacts and extrapolated contacts. The geologist needs to
interpret the map from visible contacts and outcrops. Aerial and satellite imageries can
help to reveal regional structures and geomorphological map, while 3D model can help
with deciphering of faults, linear or dome structures.
The geological map is made from strata and is drawn from younger to older layers
with observance of two basic rules, which are the principles of superposition and
crosscutting and V-rule.

Principle of superposition states that in any undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in

layers, the youngest layer is at the top and the oldest at the bottom, while each layer being
younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it.

Principle of crosscutting relationships says that feature that cuts across another rock
unit is the younger geological feature.

The outcrop patterns of rocks on the surface of the Earth are results of the intersection
of geological plane elements (rock boundaries, bedding, foliation, fault plane etc.),
often dipping and folded, with an irregular, curved land surface. Understanding of the
intersection pattern is fundamental for the visualization of geological structures in a map.
The V-rule helps to predict and understand patterns of the intersection between planar
geological structures and land surface and says that a dipping surface that crops out in
48 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Figure 17. Schematic

expression of the V-rule Horizontal V points Beds dip V points upstream;
beds upstream; upstream blunter than
in block diagrams and parallel to contours
maps. contours

Vertical No V Beds dip V points

beds shape steeply downstream
downstream

a valley or on a ridge gives rise to a V-shape outcrop. The way of the outcrop patterns
depends on the dip of the geological surface related to topography (Fig. 17).

Further reading
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/leveson/core/topics/time/froshlec8.html
https://www.fault-analysis-group.ucd.ie/
http://seoe.sc.edu/segchapter/sites/sc.edu.segchapter/files/attachments/97936453-
Geological-Structures-and-Maps.pdf
http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/geology.html
8) Explanation notes to geological map

The explanatory notes (report) provide and extend information about the important
geological features identified during the geological mapping; these are summarized in
the following notes.
A report enables to understand the significance of geological features that are depicted
on the map and described in the legend.
Structure of the report could vary but a common standard is as follows:
• T  itle.
• L  ist of contents.
• A  bstract.
• I ntroduction.
• M  ain body (Geology).
• C  onclusion and recommendation.
• R  eference.
• A  ppendix.

8.1 Title page, contents and abstract

Title page shows what the report is about, who prepared it and when. The first title page
informs the reader about the name of the report including the name and number of the
map sheet, editor, organization and year of publishing. The second title page extends
this information (e.g. the name of the project, working team, cooperative organization).
Moreover, this page has the name and signature of the project (chief) geologist and of the
advising or reviewing geologist, if any.
List of contents shows the organisation of chapters in the report.
The abstract starts on a separate page following the contents and summarize the
results of the reported work. It must be written at last, following the formulations of ideas
and conclusion of the report. The length should not exceed one page.

8.2 Introduction

The introduction puts the work into the context of time, space, bounding conditions and
objectives. The chapter briefly defines the geographic position of the map sheet and its
position with respect to the administrative divisions of the country. The introduction should
also give a brief review on vegetation, land use, transportation and economy of the region.
A review of techniques and procedures which were used is organized in a sub-chapter
of the introduction. It is completed by numbers of reference points, samples, thin sections,
analysis etc. Topographic base maps and remote sensing data are briefly characterized
here as well.
Units and abbreviation used in the text are explained here.
50 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

8.3 Main body

The main body of the report is composed of few obligatory chapters:

• Review of previous work.
• Regional context of geology and stratigraphy.
• Geological and petrological characteristics of units.
• Tectonics.
• Geological evolution (history).

These chapters could be completed by optional chapters such as:

• Geophysics.
• Geochemistry.
• Mineral resources.

Review of previous work

The summary of previous geological investigations and surveys is given specifically
concerning the area covered by the map sheet. When referring to these earlier studies in
the text, attention should be drawn to the specific contributions made for the understanding
of geology of the map sheet.

Regional geology and stratigraphy

This section provides information about the identity and distribution of the main
geological units depicted on the map sheet in a regional frame.
A brief description of the individual units and their mutual relationships in time and
space should be provided:
• Geological definition.
• Geographical position.
• Geological boundary and relationship with adjacent units.
• Basic lithology.
• Stratigraphy and age.

The section should also contain a synoptic map on which the major regional
geological units are depicted. The scale of the synoptic map can be variable, but it should
be the same for one edition of map sheets. The range of 3 × 3 map sheets with a described
map in the centre is well-tried.

Geological and petrological characteristics of units

This chapter describes individual units depicted in the legend of the geological map.
The structure follows the form of the legend and consists of paragraphs describing
the character and types of rocks composing the geological units and formations found in
the area of the map sheet.
Individual units are described in chronological order, starting with the oldest and
proceeding to the youngest. This is the reverse of the sequence shown in the legend.
Bodies of rock that could not be depicted on the map because of their small
dimensions should be described under the heading of the main unit in which they occur.
 E x planation notes to geological map 51

The descriptions of individual units in the legend should include the following structured
information:
Name – number and full name of the geological unit (rock or group of rocks). This
will be the same as that given in the legend of the geological map.
Geographic extension – distribution of the geological unit on the map sheet with
a reference to the topographic base map.
Representative locality – an outcrop (borehole) characteristic for the given rock type
defined in the legend within the map sheet.
Shape and thickness – geometry of bodies formed by the individual rock units
defined in the legend.
Boundaries – the description of relationships to adjacent rocks, geological formations
or lithostratigraphic units for which the footwall and hanging wall boundaries (if known)
are to be defined.
Lithology – macroscopic and microscopic description of the rocks given in the
legend, taking account of variations in rock facies or lithostratigraphic units that cannot
be depicted on the map sheet because of their small dimensions. The description is usually
accompanied by photos of typical outcrops, specimens and thin sections.
Age of rock or lithostratigraphic unit – include the reference to geochronological
data and/or important biostratigraphic results.
Origin – summary of ideas concerning the origin and development of the rocks,
character of the sedimentary environment, etc.

Tectonics
Structural data are described within a tectonic (lithotectonic) unit, which is defined
based on common structural features, lithological composition, origin and tectonic
development in time. The tectonic unit has clearly determined boundaries with its
surroundings; the boundaries can be transgressive, intrusive, and deformational (ductile
to brittle).
The description of structural features should be done in the successive order, i.e.
from the oldest to the youngest (spatially and/or temporally), in the range of varying scale
from regional to local, from ductile to brittle, from high- to low-temperature structures;
and in size ranging from mesoscopic to microscopic. Moreover, the known or supposed
relationship between structures and fabrics must be characterized with regards to the
character and orientation of tectonic unit boundaries.

To describe all the types of fabrics, the following must be specified:

• C  haracter (planar, linear and linear-to-planar).
• I ntensity.
• S  patial orientation (principal directions).
• G  enesis (regional, local, relict).
• K  inematic pattern (senses of movement such as dextral, sinistral, normal, reverse, etc.).
• M  utual relations between individual fabrics (superimposition).

Descriptions are often organized sequentially for the different modes of structures.
Hence, brittle and ductile deformations are described usually starting with ductile
deformations followed by brittle deformations. The planar fabric (foliation) encompasses
the type of foliation such as compositional banding, schistosity, cleavage or bedding in
52 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

some cases accompanied by the lineation observed on foliations. Faults and joints are
described as brittle structures. All planar and linear structures described are accompanied
by the stereographic plots of the measured data in the field.
The description of regional tectonic features of the mapped area in the report appears
in the introduction part where only regional trends are broadly and generally outlined
without a detailed account. Specific descriptions of each group of structural features are
described based on the direct field observation without any interpretation or implication in
the detailed section of the report such as the geological structures section. The description
must include the extent of observation (such as outcrop scale, hand-specimen scale),
orientation measurements, qualitative description of appearance of the structures, and
distribution of the structures in various rocks on the observed outcrop.
The stereographic plots of measured structural trends, sketches and photographs
should be incorporated along with the descriptions and clearly labeled with scale and
orientation. Photographs and sketches should be labeled with orientation or view direction
and the locality that the illustrations show. Temporal and geometrical relationships
between the structures are also described in this section based on the field observation.
All names of places described in the report are expected to appear in at least one of the
maps in the report or in the main geological map attached. The interpretation of tectonic
development of the mapped area is given in the final part of the chapter.

Geophysics
This chapter provides an assessment of geological units or rock types in terms of their
physical parameters based on geophysical surveys and laboratory measurements. It makes
use of archival as well as new measurements obtained by airborne, ground and laboratory
geophysics. Petrophysical, regional gravimetric measurements, airborne geophysics
(magnetometry and radiometry and/or gamma spectrometry) and detailed ground
measurements (gravimetry, magnetometry, gamma spectrometry, seismic, geoelectric
methods) are all used for the purpose of geological interpretation. It takes account of
geophysical patterns at regional and local scales, reflecting the lithology and structure
of geological units, and the mineralization in the area as well as hydrogeological and
geodynamic phenomena etc.

Geochemistry
In this chapter, an account of the geochemical features of individual types and groups
of rocks occurring on the map sheet will be given. Particular attention should be paid to
the influence of rock geochemistry on the environment. Both existing archived data and
new analyses obtained from the samples collected during the mapping program are used
for this purpose.
Whole rock analyses, including the determination of organic matter, are used for
characterization and classification of rock units depicted on the map. A combination of
analyses of rocks, soils and stream sediments is used to assess the influence of lithology
on the environment. The relationship between the geochemistry of individual rock types
and sequences and surface geochemical anomalies, if any, form the basis for interpretation
of geological data and implication for environmental contamination or use as base
line background data for future consideration in environmental studies is paramount
importance.
 E x planation notes to geological map 53

Mineral resources
In this chapter, a summary of the known mineral occurrences, deposits, inferred mineral
resources and showings located within the mapped area is given. It also contains brief
information concerning the main mining and mineral processing facilities as well as data
on mining operations and production available at the date of compilation. The chapter
also provides a basic geological description of all new discoveries and recently inferred
mineral resources.

This sub-heading is divided into the following sections:

• M etallic minerals.
• F  ossil Fuels.
• H  umolites (peat, humic coal).
• N  on-metallic minerals.
• I ndustrial minerals and rocks.

Each type of mineral raw material should be described separately in this sub-chapter.
Mineral resources consisting of several commodities (e.g., clays, kaolin, bentonite,
limestones), should be described separately, preferably in individual paragraphs. The
following structure of this sub-heading is recommended:
• G
 eological setting and the mode of formation.
• Q
 uantitative parameters of the mineral resource.
• U
 ses and potential uses of the mineral raw material.

Individual mineral deposits are arranged in the text according to their size and economic
importance.

Geological evolution of the area

In this chapter, a simple description of the geological history of the mapped area is given.
The development of different geological units should be described in order starting with
the oldest formations and proceeding to the recent. Some discussion about the origin and
distribution of mineral resources, aquifers, geomorphology and geodynamic phenomena
should be included. The data from earlier studies will be integrated with the results of the
new geological survey.
The chapter is divided into sub-headings or paragraphs, in which the geological
development of the mapped area is progressively reconstructed. Endogenic and exogenic
processes including sedimentation and development of basin fills, tectonic deformation and
metamorphism, and the succession of magmatic events should be described in the chronological
order. The sources of geochronological and palaeontological ages for magmatic, tectono-
metamorphic and sedimentary events must be listed. If the PT conditions for metamorphic
assemblages in the area of the map sheet have been determined, these should be included and,
if appropriate, a PT-t path for the metamorphic history of the mapped area can be constructed.
Attention should be drawn to the gaps in information essential for the reconstruction of certain
stages of geological development of the mapped area and its environs. The discussion of
the wider questions of regional geological evolution is not the purpose of this sub-heading.
If some units occurring on the mapped sheet are not sufficiently characterized, stratigraphically
classified and/or dated outside the mapped area, this should be taken into account.
54 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

8.4 Reference

Reference should contain a list of all published papers and unpublished reports or
manuscripts and maps used in compilation of the map and the accompanying explanatory
notes.
Citation includes the author`s name, year of publication; full title; publication of
series, if appropriate; volume and part numbers; publisher; pagination; and information
that will enable a person to get a copy of the citation if it is “unpublished report”.
Use a consistent format for citation, avoid abbreviations wherever possible. Reference
management software effectively helps. See for comparison: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Comparison_of_reference_management_software.

8.5 Appendix

This part of the explanatory notes contains essential data and information that could not
be included under appropriate chapters or paragraphs. Typical inclusions are laboratory
test data, sedimentological logs, palaeontological reports etc.

Further reading
Berkman A. D. (2001): Field geologists´manual. The Australian institute of mining and
metallurgy, 395 pp.
Lisle J. R. (2004): Geological structures and maps. Elsevier, 106 pp.
Lisle J. R., Brabham P., Barnes J. (2011): Basic Geological Mapping. Willey-Blackwell,
217 pp.
Maltman A. (1990): Geological maps and introduction. VNR, 84 pp.
9) Hydrogeological map

The hydrogeological map displays hydrogeological information of a given area with

respect to the geological structure, hydrogeological, geothermal and hydrological objects.
The map is accompanied by explanatory notes. All features expressed on the map should
be documented (inventoried). The map documentation consists of a description of all
natural and/or man-made features contributing positively or negatively to status of
the natural resources. The numbered documented points are shown on the map using
symbols from the legend. The aim of the hydrogeological map is to provide information
about aquifer – aquiclude / aquitard system, type of permeability of aquifers and their
productivity (qualitative and quantitative hydrogeological character of lithological units)
and existing water points.

Types of hydrogeological maps

Hydrogeological maps can be divided using the scale and specific contents:
• 1  : 2,000,000 and 1 : 1,000,000 – small-scale hydrogeological maps showing the general
location of aquifers / aquitards and a broad picture of the surface drainage.
• 1  : 250,000 – medium-scale regional hydrogeological maps showing considerable
amount of data with inserted maps, which enhance information about the area (rainfall,
physiography, chemistry, etc.).
• 1  : 50,000 – large-scale detailed hydrogeological maps in the areas with large amount
of hydrogeological data and demand for detailed hydrogeological information.
• S pecific hydrogeological maps (well-documented field hydrogeological map, aquifer
vulnerability map, etc.).

9.1 Components of hydrogeological map

A sheet of the hydrogeological map comprises the hydrogeological map itself, which is
supplemented by the obligatory information to be placed on sides of the map. This must
include:
• N
 umber and name of a map sheet.
• H
 ydrogeological scheme (vertical aquifer scheme).
• S
 cheme of the main basins.
• L
 egend to the hydrogeological map.
• M
 ap sheet index.
• S
 ummary of hydrogeological mapping.

Basic parts of the map sheets include a frame with the hydrogeological map itself and a key
to the map outside of the map. They are completed by text information and supplementary
graphic information out of the map frame. According to the requirements, the map can
be supplemented by other optional appendices such as scheme of hydrochemistry, etc.
56 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Hydrogeological units
The basic hydrogeological map expresses the main hydrogeological units based on the
integration of hydrogeological character of the main geological units. In the case of
a hydrogeological map, the permeability of hydrogeological units is the main information
shown on the map. It is compiled based on the combination of two basic types of data and
information: (a) type of permeability – qualitative characteristic (e. g. porous, fissured
aquifers) map, or (b) value of transmissivity (T = m2/d), specific yield of wells (q = l/s.m)
and yield (Q = l/s) for wells and/or springs – a quantitative characteristic. The type of
permeability is expressed by a specific colour and quantitative characteristic are expressed
by the intensity of the colour using principle that the higher the value, the more intensive
the colour (see article legend).
All lithological units that appear on the geological map are shown in plain (area)
colour, whether being aquifers or non-aquifers. The colour and its intensity depict the basic
qualitative and quantitative characteristics of hydrogeological units. The hydrogeological units
are arranged (lined up) from the most potential (porous) aquifer to the most impermeable
aquiclude and aquifers with specific conditions in concordance with the description in the
explanatory notes. The legend for groundwater and rocks is shown in Appendix 4.

Lithology
The lithology of strata in outcrops is represented by a hatch printed in grey colour.
Examples of geological symbols for the hydrogeological map are in Appendix 4.

Hydrogeological symbols and marks

Detailed hydrogeological information is shown by the use of colours, lines and symbols,
printed in various colours. The detailed hydrogeological information is shown by the use
of symbols, and occasionally by lines and symbols printed in various colours. Numerical
figures, in the same colours, may be added for clarification, e.g. to put the values on
contours. The different colours and groups are as follows:
1. Groundwater dynamics and springs (Violet).
2. Groundwater quality and temperature (Orange).
3. Surface water and karst hydrography (Blue).
4. Man-made features and alterations to the natural groundwater regime (Red).
5. Aquifer thickness and limits of certain features (Dark green).
6. Geological, tectonic and stratigraphic information (Grey).

1. Groundwater dynamic and springs (violet)

The groundwater dynamic features mainly consist of the following features:
• Groundwater level contours.
• Groundwater flow direction.
• Main groundwater divide.
• Limit of the area with confined groundwater.
• Cold springs, based on their yield, should have diameter appropriate to the yield > 25,
5–25, 0.5–5, 0.05–0.5, < 0.05 l/s.
• Thermal spring (temperature over 30 °C) – temperature in orange colour is added to
an appropriate spring symbol.
 H ydrogeological map 57

Note: the springs with no information about the yield have a uniform symbol – a circle
of 3 mm in diameter with a cross rotated by 45°.

2. Groundwater quality and temperature (orange)

Groundwater quality (salinity of TDS above 1.5 g/l) and temperature (above 30 °C) is
expressed in orange colour. The thermal areas are shown in the map by orange hatching
(see Annex).

3. Surface water and karst hydrography (blue)

Surface water and karst hydrography are coloured in blue. The most important and
frequent symbols are as follows:
• S
 tream with perennial and intermittent flow.
• M
 ain surface water divide (13 catchments) and secondary (tertiary) water divide.
• S
 ymbol for river gauging station (see Appendix 4).

4. Man-made hydrogeological features (red)

Man-made features show mainly the following symbols:
• P
 onds and dams.
• D
 ug wells and water holes.
• B
 oreholes based on their yield should have diameter appropriate to the yield > 25,
5–25, 0.5–5, 0.05–0.5, < 0.05 l/s. The wells with thermal water (temperature over
30 °C) – T in orange colour is added to an appropriate well symbol.
Note: boreholes with no information about the yield have a uniform borehole symbol
of 3 mm in diameter with a cross rotated by 45° in black colour.

5. Aquifer thickness and limits of certain features (dark green)

These features are specific for each map sheet and consist mainly of contours of aquifer
thickness and limits of certain features which are not shown in other groups.

6. Geological information (grey)

Geological information in the hydrogeological map consists of structural elements that are
printed by lines and various symbols derived from the geological map (faults, anticlines,
volcanic cones and craters).

Legend
The proposal for the legend is mainly based on provisions for the International Legend to
the Hydrogeological Map by International Association of Hydrogeologists (see Further
reading). The legend to the hydrogeological map is standardized for each hydrogeological
unit of the Ethiopian territory.
The items of the legend to the hydrogeological maps include three main groups of
graphical information: colour, hatching (pattern), and symbols (indexes). Each item has
a number, graphical expression and text description.

The graphical expression of the legend is presented in four main sections as follows:
• B
 ackground information (black colour) representing topographical data (names of
villages and towns, roads, state and regional boundaries, latitude grids, etc.).
• G
 roundwater and rocks – aquifers and non-aquifers (various colours).
58 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

• Lithology (grey colour ornaments).

• Representation of detailed data (various colours) such as wells, springs,
hydrological measurements etc.

Scheme of main basins

The position of the sheet within a basic surface water basin system (13 main basins within
the state territory) should be expressed in the scheme. The width and length of the scheme
is 15 × 15 cm (at a scale of approximately 1 : 10,000,000).

Hydrogeology scheme (vertical aquifer scheme)

The hydrogeology scheme (vertical aquifer scheme) shows a sequence of existing
or inferred aquifers and aquicludes /aquitards of the area and the main groundwater
circulation systems. The scheme can be prepared for each important hydrogeological
system shown on the map in the case of complicated hydrogeological settings (several
different multi-layered systems on one sheet of the map). The hydrogeological system
is shown in concordance with the legend of the map. The addition of a hydrogeological
scheme to the hydrogeological cross-section is preferable as it shows the hydrogeological
system and circulation of groundwater in greater detail. The width and length of
the scheme is app. 15 × 15 cm and the scales of axis could be different (it is out of the
scale).

Hydrochemical map
The map of hydrochemistry can be presented as one of the inserted maps or as a separated
main map. The principles for the compilation of both maps are the same and are described
further.

Map sheets index

The position of the map sheet in the State topographic base map (national mosaic). It
helps to locate geographical position of the sheet. The width and length of the scheme is
15 × 15 cm (at a scale of approximately 1 : 10,000,000).

Authors information
It includes the information about the chief compiler and other participants in the
compilation and mapping of the sheet.

Cartographic information
It includes projection type, scale, and other information acquired from the original
topographic map for the compilation of the hydrogeological map.
 H ydrogeological map 59

9.2 Hydrochemical map and scheme

Hydrochemical map shows hydrochemical types of water (groundwater, surface

and rainwater and the most important qualitative parameters such as Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) and chemical components exceeding the standards for drinking water. The
data for the compilation of hydrochemical map results from the laboratory chemical
analysis.
The chemical composition of groundwater is the combination of results of the
composition of water that enters the groundwater reservoir and reactions with minerals
in the rock. Several factors influence the groundwater chemistry in recent years; apart
from the natural processes, which are a controlling factor of the groundwater quality, the
effects of pollution such as nitrates and acid rain also have a significant contribution.

Main unit
The main map shows the hydrochemical types of groundwater in appropriate colours (full
colours and screens), idealized contours of TDS and pie charts of surface and rainwater.

Groundwater chemistry
Groundwater chemistry evaluated from the point of view of groundwater origin within
a hydrological circle is shown on a standard hydrochemical map. These maps are prepared
based on the hydrochemical types of groundwater. The hydrochemical type of groundwater
is defined by its cation and anion composition expressed in Meq%. Hydrochemical types
are further classified based on Meq% representation of individual cations and anions
implementing the scheme as follows:
• Basic hydrochemical type (full colour) – all of the main cations and anions have
a content higher than 50 Meq%.
• Transitional hydrochemical type (horizontal stripes) – the content of the main cation
and anion ranges between 35 and 50 Meq%, or exceeds 50 Meq% for one ion only;
a dominant ion combination is expressed by the relevant coloured stripes (screen) in
the horizontal position, the second ion is expressed by an index (e.g. Mg).
• Mixed hydrochemical type (vertical stripes) – the contents of cations and anions
are not greater than 50 Meq%, and only one ion has a concentration greater than 35 Meq%;
this type is expressed by the relevant coloured stripes (screen) in the vertical position.

Hydrochemical types of groundwater are expressed in full colour and /or using screens.
An area of a hydrochemical type is delineated and expressed on the map by the relevant
colour if three water points of the same type occur close to each other. The colours and
screens used for various hydrochemical types are shown in Annex 3.

Rain and surface water chemistry

Hydrochemistry of waters additional to groundwater (rain and surface water such as
rivers, dams, lakes and ponds) are represented in the hydrochemical map by pie charts.
The diameter of a circle shows the total dissolved solids and colours show different ions
(see Appendix 4).
60 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Hydrochemical symbols and marks

Symbols (springs, wells and dug wells) are printed appropriately in black colour. Other
most important and frequent symbols for the hydrochemical map are shown in Appendix 5.

Legend
The legend is presented in four main sections as follows:
• Background information (identical to the hydrogeological map).
• Groundwater chemistry.
• Rain and surface water chemistry.
• Representation of detailed data.

Scheme of main basins

The position of the sheet within a basic surface water basin system (13 main basins within
the state territory) should be expressed in the scheme. The width and length of the scheme
is 15 × 15 cm (at a scale of approximately 1 : 10,000,000).

Shaded relief
The shaded relief scheme is shown on the map because the groundwater chemistry
(typology) results from water rock interaction as well as the geomorphological position of
aquifers (plateau, escarpment, rift valley floor, etc.). The width and length of the scheme
is 15 × 15 cm (at a scale of approximately 1 : 10,000,000).

Map sheets index

Position of the map sheet in the State topographic base map (national mosaic). It helps
to locate the geographical position of the sheet. The width and length of the scheme is
15 × 15 cm (at a scale of approximately 1 : 10,000,000).

Cartographic information
Projection, scale, and other information from the original topographical map used as
a base for the compilation of the map.

Author information
These include information about the chief compiler and other participants in the
compilation and mapping of the sheet.

9.3 Data for hydrogeological mapping

The data and information needed for the compilation of hydrogeological maps differ
based on the phase of the mapping activity. In general, hydrogeological mapping has three
phases: desk study, filed work and data assessment (post field work).
 H ydrogeological map 61

Desk study (PRE-field work – Phase 1)

Collection and study of:
• T
 opographical maps (Ethiopian Mapping Agency).
• E
 xisting geological and hydrogeological maps at a scale of 1 : 2,000,000,
1 : 1,000,000 1 : 250,000 and 1 : 50,000 and hydrogeological and geophysical studies
(Geo-sciences Mapping and Geo-information Center of the Geological Survey
of Ethiopia, library of the Ministry of Water Resources, Energy and Irrigation).

field work (Phase 2)

The collection of primary and secondary data consists of:
• Filed data inventory (primary data) of boreholes, springs, dug wells and water holes
(Tabs. 5–8).
• Sampling of ground, surface and rain water and field pH, temperature and electrical
conductivity (EC) measurements (other parameters like fluorides, etc.).
• Well drilling reports (secondary data) from water bureaus at federal, regional, zonal
and woreda levels as well as private sources (particularly for the boreholes and dug
wells inventoried during the field work).

Field data recording (field notebook, inventory sheets). These sheets are used for a long
time and data from the inventory sheet are used for the compilation of maps.

Table 5. Borehole inventory

Borehole ID BH, SBH and number

Identification Name of owner, Woreda, Zone, Region

Coordinates UTM: X, Y, Elevation (using GPS)

Drilling company or who ordered drilling (water bureau, NGO drilling report
Drilled by
collection) and year

Topography Plain, depression, valley, slope

Depth of BH Depth in (m)

Static/dynamic water level at the date of visit/ confined (artesian)

SWL/DWL
condition (m)

Q Yield at the date of visit (l/s)

T Transmissivity from pumping test (m2/d) – mainly taken from drilling report

Aquifer Geological unit (visible or from a geological map)

Pump Submersible, hand pump

Development Kind of development (reservoir) and protection (fencing)

Measurements Temperature, pH and EC as a basic field measurement

Odor, taste, turbidity, fluctuation of certain characteristics,

Remark
sampling, etc.

62 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Table 6. Spring inventory

Spring ID CS, HS and number

Identification Name of owner, Woreda, Zone, Region

Coordinates UTM: X, Y, Elevation (using GPS)

Topography Plain, depression, valley, slope (slope break)

Spring type Depression, contact, artesian, fracture, karst

Eye Single, multiple, seepage

Yield at the date of visit (volumetric measurements are required)

Q
(l/s)

Permanence Perennial, intermittent

Aquifer Geological unit (visible or from a geological map)

Development Kind of development and protection (developed – concrete box)

Measurements Temperature, pH and EC as a basic field measurement

Odor, taste, turbidity, fluctuation of certain characteristics,

Remark
sampling, etc.

Table 7. Dug well inventory

Dug well ID DW and number

Identification Name of owner, Woreda, Zone, Region

Coordinates UTM: X, Y, Elevation (using GPS)

Construction company, who ordered the construction (water bureau,

Dug by
NGO digging report collection) and year

Topography Plain, depression, valley, slope

Depth of DW Depth in (m)

SWL/DWL Static/dynamic water level at the date of visit (m)

Q Yield at the date of visit

Diameter (m)

Lining Concrete tubes, masonry, partial at the surface, without

Aquifer Geological unit (visible or from a geological map)

Pump Hand pump, rope and bucket, etc.

Development Kind of development and protection

Measurements Temperature, EC and pH as a basic field measurement

Remark Odor, taste, turbidity, fluctuation of certain characteristics, sampling, etc.

 H ydrogeological map 63

Table 8. Water hole inventory (a typical water point in desert areas in a dry wadi bed)

Dug well ID WH and number

Identification Name of owner, Woreda, Zone, Region
Coordinates UTM: X, Y, Elevation (using GPS)
Depth Depth in (m)
SWL/DWL Static/dynamic water level at the date of visit (seasonal fluctuation)
Renewal Renewed each year in the area (at the same place)
Aquifer Geological formation (visible or from a geological map)
Measurements pH, temperature and EC as a basic field measurement
Odor, taste, turbidity, fluctuation of certain characteristics – groundwater level
Remark
fluctuation, sampling, etc.

The data during the field inventory are filled into “Inventory sheet” and are transferred
into digital table format (MS Excel) files, which can be used for the compilation of map
using ArcGIS. Finally, the data are transferred into text format and published in Appendix
of explanatory notes.

Field equipment and sampling

The basic field equipment and purpose for field use is shown in the following list in Tab. 9.

Table 9. Field equipment

Material / equipment Purpose

Topographic maps at an appropriate scale

Visualization of different topographic and
Landsat ETM imagery geomorphological features and assessment
of access roads
SRTM data
Garmin 12 channel GPS Acquiring position of water points
Provisional geological and hydrogeological maps Reference / base map during the field work
Portable pH and EC meters Field measurement of water samples
Solutions of known pH (4,7,9.2) and concentration
Calibration of measuring devices
of dissolved solids (KCl) of 1N concentration
Washing of electrodes of pH and EC meters to
Distilled water
prevent inappropriate results of measurements
Plastic sample bottles Collection and storage of water samples
Geological hammer Chip rock samples
Camera Taking photographs of various features
Reports and literature Review of existing data from the study area
Stationary material Miscellaneous field and office work
Computer with various software Analysis and presentation of collected data
4WD vehicle Traveling during the field work
64 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Sampling is an important part of any hydrogeological study including mapping.

A sample has to be labeled by a point number. The quality of a sample depends on the
laboratory procedure/standards. The water samples should be delivered into laboratory
as soon as possible.

Some important terms for field inventory

• A spring is a concentrated flow of groundwater appearance at the ground surface. The
type of springs can be defined based on the rock structure, discharge, temperature and
variability.
• Seepage is a non-concentrated flow of groundwater at the ground surface forming
a swamp area, pond with or without an outlet.
• Depression spring occurs where the groundwater table intersects the ground surface.
• Contact spring occurs where a permeable layer is underlain by a less permeable layer.
• Artesian spring occurs where groundwater leaks under pressure through the overlying
confined layer.
• Fracture springs occur where groundwater is discharged directly from fissures and
fractures of hard rocks.
• Karst spring occurs where groundwater is discharged directly from karst openings or
from a cave.
• Perennial spring discharges groundwater throughout the year.
• Intermittent spring discharges groundwater only during some part of the year.
• Hot springs (warm springs) discharge groundwater with a temperature exceeding the
normal temperature of local groundwater.
• Unconfined aquifers – where groundwater level varies based on the configuration of
terrain and/or recharge and discharge areas.
• Confined aquifers (artesian) / where groundwater is under pressure by an overlying
confining (less permeable) layer and after drilling through this confining layer,
the groundwater level rises above the bottom of the confining layer. In some cases
groundwater can overflow the well head.

Data assessment (POST-FIELD work – Phase 3)

The compilation of the map and writing of explanatory notes consist of:
• The compilation of the hydrogeological map consists of a) the main map, b) legend
and c) supplementary (inserted) maps, implementing GIS.
• Written explanatory notes consist of the assessment of hydrology, hydrogeology
(definition of aquifers/aquitard system), hydrochemistry and groundwater resources,
when a part of a complex map set including geological and other maps. In case the
hydrogeological map is compiled as a separate map, full contents of explanatory notes
are given in further.

Some important terms for the data assessment:

• Groundwater contours are connecting the piezometric surface of groundwater levels
in wells, springs and the level of surface water in gaining rivers.
• Gaining river – a river recharged by groundwater.
• Losing river – groundwater recharged by water from a river.
• Bank storage – the volume of groundwater stored in aquifer (mainly alluvial) during
the flood period.
 H ydrogeological map 65

• B
 ase flow – stream flow originating from groundwater discharge into stream channel.
• A
 quifer – a unit capable of transporting and storing groundwater under the normal
hydraulic gradient.
• A
 quitard – less permeable units in the study area (the vertical cross section).
• A
 quiclude – a geological unit incapable of storing and transmitting a significant
quantity of groundwater under the normal hydraulic gradient.

9.4. Explanatory notes to the hydrogeological map

Written explanatory notes to a hydrogeological map describe the hydrology

(hydrometeorology), hydrogeology (the definition of aquifers/aquitard system),
hydrochemistry and groundwater resources of the map sheet additional to basic data as
a geological map.

Hydrology (hydrometeorology)
• R
 ainfall, resulting in adopted rainfall to the map sheet.
• O
 ther climatic characteristics (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine
hours, evapotranspiration (data collected from National Meteorological Centre or FAO
data from www.crop.wat.com).
• R
 ivers and lakes consist of development and flow describing the basin and sub-
basins of the map sheet and result in the adopted specific runoff and specific baseflow
calculated by Kille and separation hydrograph methods (data collected from Hydrology
Department of the Ministry of Water Resources, Energy and Irrigation).

Hydrogeology
This chapter refers to the previous work and the definition of aquifer / aquitard / aquiclude
system of the map sheet. Based on the previous mapping experience from Ethiopian territory,
the following geological units forming different aquifers and aquitards were defined:
• Units with porous permeability, where groundwater is accumulated in and flows
through pores of an unconsolidated or semi-consolidated material. Porous materials
are represented either by alluvial and lacustrine sediments with subordinate colluvial
and eluvial sediments developed in depressions of lakes and/or along valleys of former
and existing rivers or by pumiceous pyroclastic, resedimented pumice and unwelded
tuff materials (a polygenetic infill of depression).
• Units with fissured permeability, where groundwater is accumulating in and flows
through the fractured part of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The porosity of lava
flows may be high, but the permeability is largely a function of secondary structures
(joints and fissures) within the rock. The permeability of lava flows tends to decrease
in geological time. The pyroclastic rocks between lava flows are generally porous, but
usually less permeable due to poor sorting. They can be represented by impermeable
unwelded tuff in some parts of the volcanic sequence. Hence, extensive volcanic ash
beds may form semi-horizontal barriers to water movement (infiltration) resulting in
the lower productivity of basaltic units located at greater depth. Layers of paleosoil of
various thicknesses in between lava flows are also less permeable and usually consist
of clay material on the one hand, whereas layers of fluvial and lake sediments and
66 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

pumiceous pyroclastic materials between various lava flows can considerably enhance
the yield on the other hand.
• Units with karst permeability, where the groundwater is stored in fissures across the
whole thickness of rock units, the permeability can be enhanced by karstification along
some fissures. Solution phenomena and karstification of carbonate rocks are controlled
by the drainage base level, which may be represented by a perennial stream and/or by
an impervious formation inside the limestone (e. g. marlstone, gypsum, shale) and/or
by rocks underlying the carbonate aquifer. The rock is presumably dissolved the most
rapidly in the zone between the highest and lowest positions of the water table.
• Units with mixed fissured and porous permeability – volcanic rocks are often mixed
with sediments accumulated in between two lava flows representing subsequent volcanic
episodes. The porous sedimentary material is represented by river and lake sediments
and/or relatively thick layers of unwelded tuffs, ash flows and pumiceous pyroclastic
material. These intercalated porous materials do not act as independent aquifers, but they
form a mixed fissured and porous multilayered aquifer together with the volcanic rocks
with fissured permeability. The permeable porous sediments in between lava flows form
a body that can accumulate large volumes of groundwater by draining the surrounding
fissured aquifers and contribute to the yields of wells developing groundwater from
this mixed aquifer. Groundwater is under the water table more frequently under semi-
confined conditions.
• Basement rocks represent fissured aquifers of low potential and were defined as
a separate group, because they have a specific hydrogeological character and cover
large areas of the Ethiopian territory. The groundwater in the basement rock is
practically stored completely in the fractured zones and the weathered mantle of the
parent rocks. The depth of fractured aquifer zones is generally no more than 50–70 m
below the surface. The fractures tend to close at depth. The faults and joints in igneous
rocks are nearly vertical, except for narrow fractures, which are more or less parallel
with the rock surface and exfoliation. The greatest permeability is found in the sub-soil
zone within the partly decomposed rock. Wells tapping this zone have yields roughly
an order of magnitude greater than in the fresh rock.
• U nits with limited groundwater resources (aquitard) are lithological units
(additional to basement rocks) with different permeability, where groundwater is
stored and transmitted through specific lithological parts of the unit and/or through
specific (open) fissures, which are not closed by clay of other materials. Groundwater
can be reached by individual wells and most of the springs have intermittent and/or
seepage character.
• Units with essentially no groundwater resources (aquiclude) are lithological units
where groundwater is neither stored nor transmitted through the rock under ordinary
hydraulic gradients. Groundwater development for a limited individual water supply
is very difficult and even impossible in places. These are groundwater resources with
poor or no exploitation potential and may be represented by Mesozoic gypsum and
shale, Tertiary trachyte domes or Quaternary obsidian and pitchstone. The units with
essentially no groundwater resources are expressed on the hydrogeological map in
dark brown.
• Shallow and limited aquifers where groundwater is accumulated in and flows through
pores of an unconsolidated material are represented by a) eluvium (an in situ weathered
material derived from volcanic and basement mother rocks) and by eluvial soils, slope
deposits and landmass of landslide; b) alluvial soils in small accumulation of mixed
 H ydrogeological map 67

alluvial and other sediments in intermountain depressions. These shallow and limited
aquifers with shallow groundwater for local use (private dug wells) provide a variable
amount of water based on thickness variation and proximity to recharging areas.
• Specific confined aquifers; their character can be shown in the map. One of the
examples is an extensive aquifer immediately underlying a thin (more than 5 m)
“impermeable” cover, which can be found in northwestern Ethiopia, where aquifer
developed in the Adigrad sandstone is covered with marlstone, which has a confining
function to the aquifer (Adi Ramets map sheet).

It is recommended to assess the quantitative data of individual aquifers using a simple

statistical analysis such as a histogram showing the yield frequency of springs and wells.
In case of insufficient data for a particular aquifer, it is possible to use an analogy from
the surrounding maps and/or from a map at a different scale.

Hydrochemistry
The chapter describes the hydrochemistry of natural water and presents the water types
and their relationship based on a scheme used for the compilation of a hydrochemical map.

The water quality for various purposes is defined as:

• F or drinking purpose using the Ethiopian standard published in the Negarit Gazeta
No. 12/1990 and The Guidelines of Ministry of Water Resources published in 2002.
• Aagriculture (Sodium Absorption Ratio – SAR, EC values – salinity criteria,
and livestock watering.
• I ndustrial use (requirements for various industrial processes, corrosion and incrustation
hazard).

Groundwater resources assessment

The assessment of water resources of the map sheet is based on the data listed in Tab. 10.

Table 10. Assessment of water resources

Element of water resources Input data

Precipitation Adopted depth of rainfall in (mm)

Total water resources – map Adopted value of specific runoff in (l/s.km2)

Renewable groundwater resources, active aquifers Adopted value of specific baseflow in (l/s.km2)

Considering 5% open spaces and 100 m saturated

Static groundwater resources in fissured aquifers
thickness

Considering 15% porosity with a saturated

Static groundwater resources in porous aquifers
thickness of 20 to 100 m
Remark: the saturated thickness can vary sheet by sheet.

Further reading
Bogena H., Kunkel R., Schöbel T., Schrey H. P., Wendland F., Davis S. N., De Wiest
R. J. M. (2005): Distributed Modeling of Groundwater Recharge at the Macroscale.
68 B asic principles of geological and thematic mapping

Ecological Modelling. Special Issue on Advances in Sustainable River Basin

Management, 187, 15–26. Elsevier.
Davis S. N., De Wiest R. J. M. (1970): Hydrogeology. John Wiley, New York, 463 pp.
Drever J. I. (1988): The Geochemistry of Natural Waters. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 437 pp.
Fetter C. W. (1994): Applied Hydrogeology. Macmillan College Publishing, Inc., New
York, 616 pp.
Freeze R. A., Cherry J. A. (1979): Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 604 pp.
Hem J. D. (1985): Study and Interpretation of Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water.
USGS, Water-Supply Paper 2254.
Piper A. M. (1944): A Graphic Procedure in the Geochemical Interpretation of Water
Analyses. EOS, American Geophysical Union, Volume 25, Issue 6, 1944, p. 914–92,.
Struckmeier W. F., Magrat J. (1995): Hydrogeological Maps a Guide and Standard
Legend. IAH, Volume 17/1995, Verlag, Hannover.
Todd D. K. (1980): Groundwater Hydrology. Jon Wiley and Sons, New York, 525 pp.
Walton W. C. (1970): Groundwater Resource Evaluation. McGraw-Hill, New York,
664 pp.
Weight W. D. (2008): Hydrogeology Field Manual. McGraw-Hill, New York, 751 pp.
10) Geological risks
and geomorphology map

Definition of Geological hazard map

The geological hazard map displays information about geodynamical conditions and
hazardous phenomena in the studied area related to the geological and geomorphologic
setup. It represents a basic source of information for urban or rural planning and
sustainable development, thus securing lives and property against dangerous geological
processes. Moreover, it is also suitable for civil engineering and the environmental
protection. The map is accompanied by explanatory notes. All features expressed on
the map should be documented. The map documentation consists of a description of all
natural and/or manmade features.

Methodology of Geological hazard mapping

Geological hazard mapping has the following phases:
• D
 esktop study of existing data and literature.
• G
 eomorphologic analysis of remote sensing and
topographic data.
• F
 ield work.
• S ynthesis of archived data, remote sensing interpretation,
field data into final geo-hazard map.

10.1 Desktop study

Desktop study includes a collection and evaluation of all relevant geological, structural,
lithological, pedological and geomorphologic data in technical reports, publications, and
archival maps at a relevant scale.

Interpretation of Remote Sensing and Topographic data

The quality and scale of topographic and distance data should match the scale and purpose
of the resulting map. Basic topographic data should be in greater detail or at least at the
same scale as the resulting map (if available). Topographic and remote sensing data
include a wide range of data with different types of information:
• Basic topographic data indicate the slope gradient, terrain configuration and drainage
patterns, infrastructure and settlements.
• Aerial photographs allow the identification of topography, drainage pattern,
geomorphologic feature, land-use and relations to other factors. Careful study of
a given area of terrain with the aid of oblique aerial photographs and vertical stereo
pairs can yield significant information on the type of landforms, including the
indications of superficial processes. A review of recent and past aerial photographs
70 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

of the area should be undertaken whenever possible for the analysis of evolution and
impact of geodynamical processes on the surface.
• DEM (digital elevation model) displays the 3D visualization of terrain. The slope
analysis and hypsometry can be derived from DEM. These data can be used for
geomorphologic interpretation, slope failure analysis, modeling water flow for
hydrology or mass movements and other geological applications. The very accurate
Digital Elevation Model should be applied also in flat terrains. For example, the LIDAR
technology can produce high-resolution terrain maps even where the forest cover gets
in the way of traditional photography and the products are very clear and detailed DEM.
It allows a detailed geomorphologic and geodynamic interpretation in flat areas (flood
plains, alluvial fans) as well as in the zones with dense vegetation cover.

Geomorphologic interpretation of remote sensing and topographic data

Morphometric shapes of the relief can be parametrically derived from the remote sensing
data, by which it is possible to express and quantify the individual geomorphological
landforms occurring in the given territory.
Individual types of relief define different geomorphologic landforms, which can
be considered afterwards for the processes where they occur. The geomorphologic
interpretation of the structural, denudation and accumulation landforms will
be characterized by occurrence, spatial relations and geomorphologic setting.
Terminology of Goudie (2014) is applied for the definition of geomorphologic
landforms. During the interpretation, it is necessary to focus especially on the types
of landforms with a high occurrence of dangerous surface processes such as recent
and fossils landslides, retreating escarpments, erosional landscape with badlands and
gullies, alluvial fans, flood basins as well as morphological expressions of tectonic,
seismic and volcanic activity (fault escarpments, ground fissures, lava flows). It is also
appropriate to include a multi-temporal analysis in the geomorphologic interpretation
for the reconstruction of the evolution of nature systems. The multi-temporal analysis
can be applied for the prediction of the future evolution of nature system as well.
Characteristics of geomorphologic landforms with regards to mutual interactions of
anthropogenic impacts should be obtained by the interpretation and checking of the
field work later.

10.2 Field data collection

The main task of the field work is to verify the results of interpretations of remote-sensing
data and document significant phenomena regarded to the geological hazard.

The subjects of the documentation are:

Geomorphology of a given territory – changes in topography and surface form,
morphometric information, occurrence of gullies in erosion surface, occurrence, type
and geometry of fluvial channels, occurrence of slope failure indications, quantitative
measurements (e.g. slope angle).

Lithological characteristics of bedrocks and superficial cover and character of soils

– lithological type, thickness bedding geometry, strike and dip, character and density of
 G eological risks
and geomorphology map 71

discontinuities, the degree of weathering or alteration types, geotechnical characteristics

(if available).

Character and description of geodynamical features – indications of geodynamical

features of alluvial processes (erosion, accumulation of material, avulsion, flooding),
slope processes (landslides, rock-falls, mass movements) as well as post-volcanic
processes have to be described. The classification of Varnes (1978) is useful for
landslides.

Anthropogenic constructions include open pits, mining and their waste disposal,
important linear engineering structures (roads, pipelines, big embankments, bridges,
retaining walls, power plants, river dams, regulation of river channels etc.)

The character of the vegetation cover

Slope stability is discussed extensively by. The mechanisms of woody vegetation influence
on slope stability can be viewed in two aspects: hydrological and mechanical (Marston
2010). Among the hydrological effects Interception of precipitation by canopy, promoting
evaporation and reducing water available for infiltration all have beneficial effects. Strong
anchorage of top and deeper soil by vegetation roots thereby also increasing the shear
strength of the soil are among the mechanical stabilization mechanisms of vegetation
cover. Neverthless in some cases the added weight of vegetation have adverse effect of
aggravating slope instability depending on the type of plant (for example Enset in the
Ethiopian case) (Temesgen et al 2000).

Land Use
Landslide activity is strongly controlled leading to stagnation of landslide from expanding
(Van Beek and Van Asch 2004). Land use influence perceived hazard levels and zonation
of an area where especially land use changes involving land abandonment strongly
influence vulnerability of an area that is already adversely disposed for instability or
degradation due to other physical factors.

Map sheet Name and number of a map sheet

Location Municipality, Woreda, Zone, Region

Coordinates UTM: X, Y, Elevation (using GPS)

Topography, geomorphological
Plain, depression, valley, slope, type of landform
setting

The origin of a geodynamical feature, classification,

Type of geodynamical feature
geomorphological indication

Visual estimation in the field,

Length of geodynamical features measurement in the field
(if available) from topographic data (m)

Visual estimation, measurement

Width of geodynamical features
in the field (if available), from topographic data (m)

Visual estimation, measurement

Depth geodynamical features
in the field (if available), from topographic data (m)
72 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Activity of feature Active / Non active / Fossil

Human intervention or an inappropriate construction,

Triggering factors precipitation and saturation, other nature processes;
brief interpretation of factors geological unit (visible
or from the geological map)

A brief description and the description of proposal how

Mitigation
to eliminate a negative impact of a hazardous process.

Description of land-use, occurrence of buildings, roads,

Land-use
irrigation infrastructure, type of vegetation

List of objects that could be endangered

Endangered objects
by geodynamic processes (buildings, infrastructure, farmland)

Photos of features and the scheme of situation

Photo documentation
in the endangered area

Date of documentation

10.3 Synthesis and transformation of data to general geo-hazard map

Geological hazard map provides a graphical expression of spatial analyses as the

occurrence of forms indicating the present-day or historical activity of hazardous
geodynamical processes and the spatial assessment of vulnerability as a result of synthesis
of the primary documentation data, the interpretation of remote-sensing data and field-
work observation.
The geological hazard map consists of layout (Fig. 18) with the following items:
• Original of the map.
• Legend to the map.
• Map sheet scheme .
• Author scheme .
• Tectonic scheme (seismic zoning and epicenters, active fault zones).
• Geomorphologic scheme (basic geomorphologic units).
• Supplementary data (e.g. 3D model, satellite imagery).
• Scale.
• Imprints.

10.4 Explanatory note to the geo-hazard map

Written explanatory notes to the geo-hazard map describe geodynamic processes in the
area and their impact to the nature and human activity. The structure of report can attain
the following.

Introduction
• A brief description of the area with regards to nature hazard processes, a basic
description of geological, hydrological and geomorphological conditions of
the area
 G eological risks
and geomorphology map 73

Figure 18. Idealised

Author(s) TITLE Map No & Name layout of Geo-hazard
map.

Geomorph.
Scheme

LEGEND
MAP FRAME

(KEY)
Tectonic
AND
Scheme
GEOHAZARD MAP ITSELF

Supplemen.
Data

Imprint Scale Imprint

Author
Scheme Map Sheet
CROSS SECTION Index

Endogenous hazard
• R
 eview of seismic hazards – earthquakes, seismic swarms and volcanic earthquakes
and their impact. The data are obtained from databases, archived data and previous
studies such as: catalogue of earthquakes from the United States Geological Survey
(USGS), local seismic networks from Institute of Geophysics, Space Science and
Astronomy (IGSSA), Addis Ababa University.
• R
 eview of volcanic hazards – processes and phenomena related to late Pleistocene
to Holocene volcanic activity, which consist of indication and evidence of magmatic
eruption as well as post-volcanic features. The analysis of volcanic hazards is based
on the morphological feature of volcanic landforms, field observations and estimations
of volcanic deposits age and archive data resources – final reports (JICA 2012, UN-
UNDP), the on-line database (Global Significant Volcanic Eruptions, Database Caldera
Collapse) and published data.

Exogenous hazard
• R
 eview of alluvial hazards – a wide range of processes associated with rivers and
surface water streams, vertical and lateral erosion, complex processes on an alluvial fan
and floodplains, based on the archived data (publications, final reports, hydrological
data), previous mapping, geomorphologic features, analysis and field observation with
documentation.
• R
 eview of slope processes hazards – mass movement, landslides and slope failure based
on the archived data (publications, final reports), previous mapping, geomorphologic
features, analysis and field observation with documentation.
74 B asic principles of geological and thematic mapping

Prevention and mitigation measures

• Recommendation and proposals of mitigation and reduction of hazard, steps for the
creation of long-term hazard prevention.

Further reading
Goudie A. (2014): Alphabetical Glossary of Geomorphology. International Association
of Geomorphologists, 1–84.
Varnes D. J. (1978): Slope movement 43. types and processes. In: Schuster R. L., Krizek
R. J. (eds) Landslides–Analysis and control: Transportation Research Board Special
Report 176, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 11–23.
JICA (2012): The Study on Groundwater Resources Assessment in the Rift Valley Lakes
Basin in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA). Kokusai Kogyo Co., Ltd., Ministry of Water and Energy (MoWE), The
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Final Report (Main Report).
Marston, R.A. (2010): Geomorphology and Vegetation on Hillslopes: Interactions,
Dependencies and Feedback Loops. Geomorphology 116: 206-217.
Temesgen, B., Umer, M., Asrat, A., Berakhi, O., Ayele, A., Francesco, D. and Demissie,
M. (1999): Landslide hazard on the slopes of Dabicho Ridge, Wondo Genet area: the
case of June 18, 1996 event. SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. 22(1), 127-140.
UN – UNDP (1971): Ethiopia: Investigation of Geothermal Resources for Power
Development (ETH 26). Geology, Geochemistry and Hydrology of Hot Springs of the
Eastern African Rift System in Ethiopia.
Van Beek, L.P.H., T.W.J. Van Asch (2004): Regional Assessment of the Effects of Land-
Use Change on Landslide Hazard by Means of Physically Based Modelling. Natural
Hazards. 31: 289-304.
11) Soil Map

A soil map shows the geographic distribution of different soils in the landscape using
soil map units. Soil map is a result of a soil survey.
The soil is a topmost part of the Earth’s crust, consisting of mineral components,
decayed organic matter and living organisms. It is more or less distinctly horizontally
zoned, and originates from a regolith and/or unconsolidated mineral and organic sediments.
The soil is a complex product of geological, hydrological, atmospheric and biological
interactions. The understanding of the nature, properties, dynamics and functions of the
soil as a part of landscape and ecosystem is the main objective of pedology.

11.1 Soil survey

Soil survey is a systematic study of the soil of an area, including the classification and
mapping of the properties and the distribution of various soil units. It applies the principles
of soil science, geomorphology, theories of soil formation, and the analysis of vegetation
and land use patterns.
Soil survey is always conducted with a certain purpose, which can be either general
(e.g. soil profiles for the soil characterization) or specific (e.g. sampling to investigate
potentially contaminated land). Soil surveying usually comprises five essential steps
(Deckers et al., 2009):

1. Background study
All the relevant data for the given area are compiled – former studies and existing
maps, aerial photographs, background information concerns the hydrology, geology and
lithology, geomorphology and land use.

2. Describing soils in the field, profile study and soil sampling

The assessment of soil variability can be done in different ways: in hilly areas, the soil
profiles are sampled according to transect walks from hilltops to valleys, on flat terrain,
a systematic grid is recommended. Soil variability is assessed by an auger or soil core
sampler, and representative sites are located for soil profile studies. For chemical soil
analysis, a disturbed sample is taken from each horizon, or from a specific depth. For
physical analysis, undisturbed core samples are needed.

3. Extrapolation and boundary verification.

After the field classification, all observation points are plotted on the base map
(topographic map or an aerial photo) along with the landscape features – a conceptual
model emerges, linking the distribution of soils to landscape features.

4. Laboratory analysis
The type of analysis depends on the purpose of the survey. The routine analysis comprises
76 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

the following for each horizon: the particle-size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity,
organic carbon and nitrogen contents, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable
bases and phosphorus content.

5. Data crunching, map production, interpretation and reporting.

Once the laboratory data are in a file, the field classification of the soil profile pits can be
verified and the soil map can be finalized. The legend of the map is constructed so that it
serves its purpose to a maximum extent.

11.2 Soil description and classification

The availability of reliable information on soil morphology and other characteristics

obtained through examination and description of the soil in the field is essential, and the
use of a common language is of prime importance. The increasing need for internationally
accepted rules and systems of soil description led to the development of „Guidelines for
soil description” (Jahn et al. 2006). Full text free access: http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/
a0541e/a0541e.pdf.
These guidelines provide a complete procedure for the soil description and for collecting
field data. To help beginners, some explanatory notes are included together with keys based
on simple tests and observations. The summary of the guidelines is given below.
Before the completion of any actual soil description, it is necessary to take note of some
relevant information related to the registration and identification of the soil to be described.
General site information: profile number – date of description – author(s) – soil
unit – location – elevation – map sheet number and grid reference – coordinates. The
information is necessary for easy referencing and retrieval of the soil description from
data storage systems.

Soil profile description

A  soil profile is a cross-section (cut, pit or trench) through various more or less
horizontally oriented features formed by pedogenic processes called horizons from the
surface down to the beginning of the material unmodified by pedogenesis.
The soil horizon designation summarizes many observations of the soil description and
gives an impression about the genetic processes that have formed the soil under observation.

Four kinds of symbols are used in various combinations to designate horizons and layers:
Capital letters (H, O, A, E, B, C and R) – master horizons; lowercase letters –
specific characteristics of master horizons; numbers – vertical subdivisions within
a horizon and discontinuities; special symbols – layers formed in human-transported
material or sequences of horizons having otherwise identical designations.
Horizon boundaries are described in terms of depth, distinctness and shape. In
certain cases, they reflect past anthropogenic impacts on the landscape.
A profile can be described additionally with depth intervals of sampling, which do not
necessarily correspond with pedogenetically formed horizons (top- and subsoil).

A soil profile description consists of two parts:

• Description of the environment in which the soil occurs: Topography, landform, position,
 S oil M ap 77

slope, micro-topography, soil-landscape sequential relationships, land use, human

influence, vegetation, parent material (unconsolidated material, rock type), rock outcrops,
surface coarse fragments, erosion, surface sealing, surface cracks and other surface
characteristics, drainage, flooding, groundwater, and/or moisture conditions of the soil.
• Soil horizon description: colour, texture, structure, consistence, rock fragments and
artefacts, carbonates content, content of gypsum, readily soluble salts, andic characteristic
and volcanic glasses, soil-water status, coatings, biological activity, human-made
materials, and/or the degree of decomposition and humification of peat (Tab. 11).
In addition, specific locations, patterns or any other characteristics may be recorded.
The surveyor should attempt to classify the soil in the field on the basis of the soil
morphological features that have been observed and described.
The final classification is made after the analytical data have become available: pH
value, Calcium Carbonate content, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, organic
Carbon content (for an indirect determination of organic matter), total Nitrogen content,
C/N ratio, and/or Mehlich III extractable elements (to assess soil nutrient status).
Soil classification concerns the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties
(chemical, physical and biological) into units that can be geo-referenced and mapped.
Soil science, unlike many other scientific disciplines, does not have a universally
accepted classification system. Many countries have developed systems to classify their
soils, but the results often do not translate well between the taxonomic systems. Attempts
have been made through efforts such as the FAO Legend for the Soil Map of the World,
Soil Taxonomy, and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources.
The World Reference Base (WRB) (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015) is the international
standard for soil classification system endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences.
As far as possible, diagnostic criteria match the main existing systems, so that the correlation
with national and previous international systems is as straightforward as possible.
Full text free access: http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soil-classification/
world-reference-base/en/.

Table 11. The example of the soil profile description – Dystric Nitisol (Profile ID DE164)

Depth
Profile photo Horizon Description
(cm)

dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4), loam,

weak blocky subangular to moderate fine granular,
Ah 0–25 soft fragile consistence, many very fine pores,
many very fine and common medium roots, dry,
non calcareous, clear wavy boundary to

diffuse transitional horizon dark reddish brown

(5YR 3/6), clay loam, moderate blocky subangular,
AB 25–60
broken thin clay cutans, many very fine pores,
non-calcareous, diffuse boundary to

dark reddish brown (5YR 3/6), clay, strong very coarse

subangular blocky, hard consistence, continuous
Bt 60–160
moderately thick clay cutans, many very fine pores,
non-calcareous, abrupt irregular boundary to

R below 160 unwelded ignimbrite, ash-rich matrix

78 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

11.3 Compilation of soil map

Soil map is a result of a soil survey. It delineates areas occupied by different map soil
units, where each unit has a unique set of interrelated properties characteristic for the
material from which it is formed, its environment and its history (Soil Survey Division
Staff, 1993).
The soil map unit is the basic geographic component on the soil map. Each map unit
has a unique symbol (numbers or letters, see Appendix 6) on the soil map – map legend.
Soil maps created at different cartographic scales require different levels of
generalization.

Rules for creating map legends according to WRB soil classification system
1. A map unit consists of
• a dominant soil only or
• a dominant soil plus a codominant soil and/or one or more associated soils or
• two or three codominant soils or
• two or three codominant soils plus one or more associated soils.

Dominant soils represent ≥ 50% of the soil cover, codominant soils ≥ 25 and < 50% of
the soil cover. Associated soils represent ≥ 5 and < 25% of the soil cover or are of high
relevance in the landscape ecology.

2. The number of qualifiers specified below refers to the dominant soil. For codominant
or associated soils, fewer numbers of qualifiers (or even no qualifier) may be appropriate.

3. Depending on scale, different numbers of principal qualifiers are used:

a) For very small map scales (e.g. smaller than 1 : 10,000,000), only the Reference Soil
Group (RSG) is used.
b) For next larger map scales (e.g. from 1 : 5,000,000 to 1 : 10,000,000), the RSG plus the
first applicable principal qualifier are used.
c) For next larger map scales (e.g. from 1 : 1,000,000 to 1 : 5,000,000), the RSG plus the
first two applicable principal qualifiers are used.
d) For next larger map scales (e.g. from 1 : 250,000 to 1 : 1,000,000), the RSG plus the
first three applicable principal qualifiers are used.

4. If there are fewer qualifiers applicable than described above, the lesser number is used.

5. Depending on the purpose of the map or according to national traditions, further

qualifiers may be added optionally at any scale level. These may be additional principal
qualifiers from further down the list and not already used in the soil name, or they
may be supplementary qualifiers. They are placed using the above-mentioned rules for
supplementary qualifiers. If two or more optional qualifiers are used, the following rules
apply:
a) the principal qualifiers are placed first, and from them, the first applicable qualifier is
placed first, and
b) the sequence of any supplementary qualifiers added is decided by the soil scientist who
makes the map (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015).
 S oil M ap 79

Mapping information can be produced in paper form, or increasingly in digital

mapping form by means of a Geographical Information System (GIS), which uses the
computer to store and manipulate the data about soils and other related themes.
The scale at which the soil data is collected is a reflection of the sampling density –
the number of observations taken throughout the survey (Tab. 12).

Table 12. Survey intensity versus scale and sampling density (according to Dent and Young, 1981)

Survey type Scale 1 cm2 on the map Observation density

1 : 5,000 0.25 ha 1/0.5 ha

Very high intensive
1 : 10,000 1.00 ha 1/2.5 ha

1 : 20,000 4.0 ha 1/8 ha

High intensive
1 : 25,000 6.25 ha 1/12.5 ha

Medium intensity 1 : 50,000 25 ha 1/50 ha

Low intensity 1 : 100,000 1 km2 1/km2

The data requirement during the field survey is related to the specific objectives of the
study and types of land use under consideration. The scale and intensity of soil survey are
set in function of the objectives of the evaluation and time/money available. An overview
of the types of soil surveys, scale, purpose and methods used is given in Tab. 13.

Table 13. Type of soil survey versus scale, purpose and methods used (according to Dent and Young, 1981)
Exploratory
Scale: 1 : 500,000 – 1 : 1,000,000
Purpose: to establish major soil regions
Methods: deductions from other maps, geological survey, vegetation records, remote sensing and ground
verification

Reconnaissance
Scale: 1 : 100,000 – 1 : 250,000
Purpose: systematic land resources inventory
Methods: aerial photo interpretation, comprehensive field surveys and land system analysis, profile
description and analyses

Semi-detailed
Scales: 1 : 20,000 – 1 : 50,000
Purpose: project feasibility studies, Land use development
Methods: aerial photo interpretation, intensive field observations, profile descriptions and analysis

Detailed
Scales: 1 : 10,000 and larger
Purpose: farm planning
Methods: very intensive soil augering, laboratory analysis

Traditional soil mapping is conducted with an auger and spade at intervals throughout
the landscape. The intervals between the soil survey sites can be defined according to
a pre-determined grid (grid-survey) or, more often, are based on the judgement of the
surveyor who uses his/her knowledge of the inter-relationship between the soil type and
landscape, geology, vegetation, etc. A field soil map drawn in such a way is later digitized
and printed. Recent advances in digital soil mapping have produced an alternative
means for the soil mapping by correlating the soil properties to ancillary information
80 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

such as derived from digital elevation models and remote sensing imagery, and by using
geostatistics to interpolate the soil between observations at point locations.
Digital soil mapping is the generation of geographically referenced soil databases
based on quantitative relationships between spatially explicit environmental data and the
measurements made in the field and laboratory (McBratney et al., 2003).
• Digital soil mapping is the prediction of soil classes or properties from point data using
a statistical algorithm.
• The digital soil map is a raster composed of 2-dimensional cells (pixels) organized into
a grid, in which each pixel has a specific geographic location and contains soil data.
• Digital soil mapping can be used to create initial soil survey maps, refine or update
existing soil surveys, generate specific soil interpretations, and to assess risks (Carré
et al., 2007).
• It can facilitate the rapid inventory, re-inventory, and project-based management of
lands in a changing environment.

Further development in digital soil mapping depends on the effective use of historical
soil information, and the development of rapid and inexpensive techniques to make new
soil measurements.

Literature and Further reference

Carré F., McBratney A. B, MayrT., Montanarella L.(2007): Digital soil assessments:
Beyond DSM. Geoderma. 142:1–2, 69–79.
Deckers J., Spaargaren O., Dondeyne S: (2009): Soil Survey as a Basis for Land
Evaluation. Land Use, Land Cover and Soil Sciences, Vol. II., 29–58.
Dent D., Young, A. (1981): Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. George Allen & Unwin.,
reprint 1993. [A standard handbook on soil survey and land evaluation].
Fieldes M., Perrott K.W. (1966): The nature of allophane soils: 3. Rapid field and
laboratory test for allophane. N. Z. J. Sci., 9: 623–629.
Jahn R., Blume H. P., Asio V. B., Spaargaren O., Schad P. (2006): Guidelines for soil
description, 4th edition. Rome. FAO, 97 pp.
McBratney A.B, Mendonça Santos M. L, Minasny B. (2003): On digital soil mapping.
Geoderma. 117:3–52.
Soil Science Division Staff. (1993): Soil survey manual. C. Ditzler, K. Scheffe, and H.C.
Monger (eds.). USDA Handbook 18. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
IUSS Working Group WRB. (2015): World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014,
update 2015. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating
legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/en/
APPENDIXes

Appendix 1
Symbols used in build of geological index

Chronostratigraphic symbols

Sytem Series Symbol   System Series Symbol

  Q     C
Quaternary Carboniferous
  Holocene Qh     Pennsylvanian C2
   
Pleistocene Qp   Mississipian C1
  N     D
Neogene Devonian
  Pliocene N2     Upper D. D1
   
Miocene N1   Middle D. D2
 
    Lower D. D3
Paleogene
Oligocene 3     S
 
  Silurian
Eocene 2   Pridoli S4
   
Paleocene 1     Ludlow S3
 
  K     Wenlock S2
Cretaceous
  Upper C. K2   Llandovery S1
 
Lower C K1     O

Ordovician Upper
  J   O1
  Ordovician
Jurassic
Upper J. J3     Middle Ordov. O2
 
 
  Lower
  Middle J J2   O3
Ordovician
Lower J. J1     Є
Cambrian
  T   Furongian Є4
Triassic  
  Upper T. T3     Series 3 Є3
   
Middle T. T2   Series 2 Є2
   
Lower T. T1   Terrenuvian Є1
  P   Erathem    
Permian
  Lopingian P3   Neoproterozoic   NP
  Guadalupian P2   Mezoproterozoic   MP
 
Cisuralian P1   Paleoproterozoic   PP
82 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Sedimentary rocks

Important sedimentary textures Sedimentary

and genetic feature (te) lithology (li)

bd biodetritic a arkose

if ichnofossil b breccias

bi existence of bitumen d dolomite

ca carbonaceous rocks, admixture di diatomite

cb cross bedding e evaporate

dt detritic cy clay, claystone

e eolian sediment, admixture sh shale

f fluvial sediment c conglomerate

fy flysh sediment l loess

fw fossil weathering ld lydite

g glacial sediments s sandstone

ch chaotic texture q quartzite

co coral sediments r siltstone

l limnic sediments ra radiolarite

la lamination ch chert

mv massive texture m marl

my mylonitization sg spongilite

bo biogenic rock g gravel

vc variocoloured co coal

ry rhytmite li limestone

s spotted w greywacke

si silicification

t tuffaceous admixture
 APPENDIX 83

Volcanic rockS

Coherent volcanic Textural and genetic specification

rock (r) of volcanic rocks (te)

α andesite f fluidal

β basalt gt granulate

βα basaltic andesite la lamination

η basanite an amygdaloidal

ζ dacite mv massive

φ foidite my mylonitic

υ phonolite p porphyric

ω picrite, polzenite pl pillow lavas

ρ rhyolite gs glassy

ψ tephrite v vitritophyric

τα trachyandesite vl variolitic

τβ trachybasalt s stratification

τ trachyte e effusive

ep epiclastic
Pyroclastic rocks – genetic
fr phreatomagmatic
types (ge)

b breccias

ig ignimbrite

l lappilistone

la lahar

p pumice

s scoria

t tuff
84 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Plutonic rocks

Igneous (plutonic) Textures and expressive signs

rocks (r) of igneous rocks (te)

ι aplite al alkalic

δ diorite at altered

δq quartz diorite s schistosed

ν gabbro b brecciated

νδ gabbrodiorite en enclave

γ granite l leukocratic

γδ granodiorite la lamination

hσ hornblendite ml melanocratic

aν hyperite mv massive

si quartz vein my mylonitic

χ lamprophyre p porphyric

pν norite
Grain size (gs)
κ pegmatite
m massive
σ peridotite
f fine-grained
γπ porphyric microgranite
m medium-grained
νπ porphyric microgabbro
c coarse-grained
γδπ porphyric microgranodiorite

ξπ porphyric microsyenite

δπ porphyric mikrodiorite

pσ pyroxenite

ξ syenite, monzonite

ξδ syenodiorite

ξν syenogabbro

δ´ diorite dyke

γ´ granite dyke

γδ´ granodiorite dyke

ξ´ syenite dyke
 APPENDIX 85

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic Textures and expressive signs

rocks (r) of metamorphic rocks (te)

A amphibolite a agmatitic

s schist ca carbonatic

E eclogite f phlebitic

e erlan, calc-silicate rock i injected

ph phyllite c cataclastic

νA gabbroamfibolite l leucocratic

Gr granulite M migmatitized

h hornfels ml melanocratic

v crystalline limestone (marble) mv massive

q quartzite my mylonitic
mβ metabasalt n nebulitic

M migmatite o ophtalmitic, augen

G orthogneiss la laminated

g gneiss, paragneiss po porhyroblastic

S serpentinite q quartzitic

sk skarn s stromatitic

m mica schist

B greenschist
86 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Symbols of rock-forming minerals

actinolite ak hedenbergite he oligoclase og

albite ab hyperstene hy olivine ol

hornblende h chalcedona cl omphacite om

analcime ac chlorite c orthoclase ok

andalusite and chloritoide cg plagioclase pg

andesine as jadeite j prehnite pr

anhydrite ah calcite ca pumpellyite pu

anorthite an kaolinite k pyroxene p

augite ag corundum cr serpentinite sr

biotite b quartz q sericite s

cordierite co kyanite ky sillimanite si

diopside dp lepidolite le scapolite sk

dolomite do leucite l sodalite so

aegirine ae limonite lm spinel sp

enstatite en magnetite mt staurolite st

epidote ep magnezite mg topaz to

phlogopite pl talc tk tourmaline t

glaucophane gl melilite me tremolite tr

graphite gf muscovite m wollastonite wo

garnet g nepheline n zeolite z

 APPENDIX 87

APPENDIX 2
Appendix
THE MOST
APPENDIX 2 2COMMON GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS
The most
APPENDIX 2common geological map symbols
THE MOST COMMON GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS
THE MOST COMMON GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS
CONTACTS
Contacts
CONTACTS Approximate contact (not
Observed/exposed boundary of
CONTACTS precisely located within 1/10 of
units and rocks Approximate
Observed/exposed boundary of cm at the scalecontact (not
of a map
Lithological and petrological
units and rocks Approximate contact (not 1/10 of
precisely located within
Observed/exposed boundary of cm at the scalewithin
of a map
transition precisely located 1/10 of
units and rocks
Lithological and petrological cm at the scale of a map
transitionand petrological
Lithological
FAULTS transition
Faults
FAULTS Fault observed Normal fault
FAULTS Fault observed Normal fault
Fault inferred Reverse fault
Fault observed Normal fault
Fault inferred Reverse fault
Fault concealed Thrust fault (nappe)
Fault inferred Reverse fault
Fault concealed Thrust fault (nappe)
Fault showing dip and striation Fault with mylonite zone
Fault concealed Thrust fault (nappe)
Fault showing dip and striation Fault with mylonite zone
Fault showing horizontal movement Fault with breccia zone
Fault showing dip and striation Fault with mylonite zone
Fault showing horizontal movement Fault with breccia zone
Fault showing horizontal movement Fault with breccia zone
TECTONIC SYMBOLS
TECTONIC SYMBOLS
Strike and dip of beds Strike and dip of magmatic foliation
TECTONIC
TectonicSYMBOLS
symbols
Strike and dip of beds Strike and dip of magmatic foliation
Subvertical bedding Subvertical magmatic foliation
Strike and dip of beds Strike and dip of magmatic foliation
Subvertical bedding Subvertical magmatic foliation
Subhorizontal bedding
Subvertical bedding Subvertical magmatic foliation
Subhorizontal bedding
Bedding overturned Lineation with amount of plunge
Subhorizontal bedding
Bedding overturned Lineation with amount of plunge
Strike and dip of cleavage Fold axis with amount of plunge
Bedding overturned Lineation with amount of plunge
Strike and dip of cleavage Fold axis with amount of plunge
Subvertical cleavage Subvertical lineation
Strike and dip of cleavage Fold axis with amount of plunge
Subvertical cleavage Subvertical lineation
Strike and dip of foliation Subhorizontal lineation
Subvertical cleavage Subvertical lineation
Strike and dip of foliation Subhorizontal
Combine symbol lineation
of foliation and
Subvertical foliation
Strike and dip of foliation lineation
Subhorizontal lineation
Combine symbol of foliation and
Subvertical foliation
lineation
Combine symbol of foliation and
Subvertical foliation
lineation

SUPPLEMENTAL SYMBOLS
SUPPLEMENTAL SYMBOLS 80
SUPPLEMENTAL SYMBOLS
80
80
88 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Supplemental symbols
Reference point, natural Stone pit

Reference point, artificial Sand pit

Fossil flora Clay pit

Fossil fauna Mine

Block Mine adit

Laterite Mine shafts

Landslide Borehole

Volcanic center Water well

Mofetta Spring

Hot spring

APPENDIX 3
ROCKS CLASSIFICATION AND LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Appendix 3
Rocks classification and lithological description
Rocks
Rocksareare
classified into into
classified threethree
main main
groupsgroups
(igneous rocks, sedimentary
(igneous rocks and rocks and
rocks, sedimentary
metamorphic rocks); for each type, different classification criteria are used.
metamorphic rocks); for each type, different classification criteria are used.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks
The classification of igneous rocks is based on the mineralogy (plutonic rocks),
The classification of igneous rocks is based on the mineralogy (plutonic rocks), geochemistry
geochemistry
(volcanic (volcanic
rocks) and rocks)
partly also on theand partly
texture also on the
(pyroclastic texture
rocks). During(pyroclastic rocks).
the description During
of rocks in
thethe description
field, of rocks
other factors such asincooling
the field, other factors
conditions, magmaticsuch as cooling
fractionation conditions,
(cumulates), magmatic
type of
eruption (pyroclastic
fractionation rocks) and weathering
(cumulates), effects should
type of eruption always be
(pyroclastic taken and
rocks) into account.
weathering effects
The main always
should criteria that could be
be taken used
into to classify igneous rocks are (a) the modal mineralogical
account.
composition,
The main(b) chemical
criteriacomposition
that couldofberocks,
used(c)torock texture.
classify igneous rocks are (a) the modal
(a) The modal mineralogical composition represents relative proportions of rock-forming minerals
mineralogical composition, (b) chemical composition of rocks, (c) rock texture.
in a sample. The mineralogy strongly depends on the chemical composition of the magma and
(a) the
therefore, The modal
modal mineralogical
composition composition
is a good classification represents
criterion relative proportions of
for coarse-to-medium-grained
rock-forming
plutonic minerals
igneous rocks. in a sample.
Individual The
crystals in themineralogy strongly
rocks can be easily seendepends on theeye
with the naked chemical
or under
microscope.
composition However,
of the volcanic
magma rocks usually contain
and therefore, glass orcomposition
the modal very fine-grained minerals
is a good due to rapid
classification
cooling.
criterionFrequently, we are not able to readily identify
for coarse-to-medium-grained these igneous
plutonic phases with the naked
rocks. eye (onlycrystals
Individual
phenocrysts, texture and colour are usually visible) or under microscope (volcanic glass is mainly a
in the rocks can be easily seen with the naked eye or under microscope. However,
problem).
volcanic rocks usually contain glass or very fine-grained minerals due to rapid cooling.
Frequently,
PLUTONIC we are not able to readily identify these phases with the naked eye (only
ROCKS
phenocrysts, texture and colour are usually visible) or under microscope (volcanic glass
Plutonic
is mainly rocksa problem).
are classified according to their modal composition using the QAPF diagram (Fig. 1);
Streckeisen 1974; Le Maitre et al. 2002). The corners of the double triangle are Q = quartz, A = alkali
feldspar, P = plagioclase and F = feldspathoid. This diagram must be used for the rocks in which the
Plutonic
mafic rocks
mineral content, M, is lower than 90% (pyroxenite, hornblendite). For the classification, we use
Plutonic rocks are classified according to their modal composition using the QAPF
81
diagram (Fig. A1); Streckeisen 1974; Le Maitre et al. 2002). The corners of the double
triangle are Q = quartz, A = alkali feldspar, P = plagioclase and F = feldspathoid. This
 APPENDIX 89

diagram must be used for the rocks in which the mafic mineral content, M, is lower than
90% (pyroxenite, hornblendite). For the classification, we use the modal amounts of Q,
A, P, and F and these minerals must be recalculated to make their sum 100% (Le Maitre
et al. 2002).
Alkali granite contains quartz, alkali feldspar, biotite, alkali amphiboles and/or
pyroxenes (alaskite may be used for a light-coloured (M ≤ 10) alkali feldspar granite).
Granite consists of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, biotite and/or muscovite and often
also garnet, andalusite, tourmaline.
Granodiorite commonly contains quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase (oligoclase, more
rarely andesine), biotite and/or amphibole.
Tonalite and quartz-diorite consist of quartz, plagioclase (K-feldspar minor) biotite
and/or amphibole and sometime also pyroxene (trondhjemite and plagiogranite may be
used for a light-coloured tonalite (M ≤ 10)).
Alkali feldspar syenite and syenite consist of alkali feldspar, biotite, amphibole or
alkali amphibole and/or pyroxene.
Monzonite consists of K-feldspar, plagioclase, biotite and/or amphibole (pyroxene).
Monzodiorite and monzogabbro are separated according to the average composition
of their plagioclase (monzodiorite = An < 50%; monzogabbro = An > 50%), typical dark
minerals are biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine.
Diorite, gabbroic rocks, and anorthosite are separated according to the average
composition of their plagioclase and the colour index (M less than 10% the rock is typical
for anorthosite), typical dark minerals are biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine.
Gabbroic rocks are subdivided according to the relative abundances of their
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, olivine, and amphibole: gabbro = plagioclase +
clinopyroxene, norite = plagioclase + orthopyroxene; troctolite = plagioclase +
olivine; gabbronorite = plagioclase with almost equal amounts of clinopyroxene and
orthopyroxene; orthopyroxene gabbro = plagioclase + clinopyroxene with minor
amounts of orthopyroxene; clinopyroxene norite = plagioclase + orthopyroxene with
minor amounts of clinopyroxene; amphibole (hornblende) gabbro = plagioclase +
amphibole with pyroxene < 5%.
Foid syenite contains foids, alkali feldspar, biotite, alkali amphiboles and/or
pyroxenes (the name depends on the most abundant foid, e.g. nepheline syenite, sodalite
syenite).
Foid monzodiorite and foid monzogabbro are distinguished according to the average
composition of their plagioclase.
Foid diorite and foid gabbro are distinguished according to the average composition
of their plagioclase (foid diorite = An < 50%; foid gabbro An ≥ 50%). Two special terms
may be used; theralite for nepheline gabbro and teschenite for analcime gabbro.
Foidolite (a volcanic equivalent called foidite) has a name according to the most
abundant foid that should be present in the name, e.g. nephelinolite.
For plutonic and subvolcanic dykes, the plutonic root name and prefix with the term
“micro” (microgranite) is commonly used.
The plutonic ultramafic rocks are classified according to their content of mafic
minerals: olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, amphibole, biotite, and various but
usually small amounts of garnet and spinel (Streckeisen 1974, 1976). Peridotites are
distinguished from pyroxenites by containing more than 40% olivine. The peridotites
are subdivided into dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite and wehrlite. The pyroxenites are
subdivided into orthopyroxenite, websterite and clinopyroxenite.
90 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Q Mafic rocks (Opx-Cpx-Pl)

Quartzolite
Cpx Opx
Plagioclase-bearing websterite
90 Clinopyroxenite 10 Ortopyroxenite
10

50
Opx (Ol) Cpx (Ol)
gabbro norite
Quartz-rich

Ga
granitoid

l)
(O
bb
ro

rite
(O

No
90
10

65

l,
Am
ite

p)
ran

Gran

Ton

5
rg

5
odio
pa

alit
Granite
ds

e
rite
fel
ali-

90
Alk

Anorthosite
20
35

Quartz
Alkali-feldspar
Quartz
syenite
Quartz
monzonite monzodiorite/ An
Diorite/gabbro
syenite 5 monzogabbro
Diorite: Pl <An50
Syenite Monzonite Monzodiorite
A Foid-bearing Foid-bearing Foid-bearing P Gabbro: Pl. > An50
10 syenite monzonite monzodiorite
Foid-bearing
Foid-bearing diorite/gabbro
alkali-feldspar Ultramafic rocks (Opx-Cpx-Ol)
50

syenite
M>90%

ro
bb
Ol
Fo

Foid Foid /ga

id

monzosyenite monzodiorite/
rite
sy
en

monzogabbro
dio

Dunite
ite

90
id
Fo

5
Ha
rlite

rzb
h

urg
We

60

ite
Lherzolite

40
Foidolite

Ol-ortopyroxenite
Ol-clinopyroxenite
90 Ol-websterite

10
Urtite Clinopyroxenite
5 Ortopyroxenite
F Cpx
Websterite
Opx

Figure A1. QAPF ternary diagram used to classify the composition of silica saturated (QAP), undersaturated
(FAP) basic (An-Opx-Cpx) and ultrabasic (Ol-Opx-Cpx) igneous rocks (Le Maitre et al. 2002).

Volcanic rocks
The classification by QAPF for volcanic rocks can be used only if a mineral mode can
be determined (Streckeisen 1978, 1979). The numbers of the fields are the same as those
for plutonic rock classification (Fig. A2).
Alkali-feldspar rhyolite, rhyolite and dacite contain quartz, alkali feldspar, biotite,
amphibole and/or pyroxene. Alkali-feldspar rhyolite is a rhyolite with alkali pyroxene
and/or amphibole.
Alkali-feldspar trachyte, trachyte and latite are rocks without foids (but nepheline in
the CIPW norm is present) and contain alkali feldspar, biotite, amphibole and/or pyroxene.
Alkali-feldspar trachyte is a trachyte with alkali pyroxene and/or amphibole.
Basalt and andesite are divided from each other using colour index and plagioclase
composition (andesite = An < 50%; basalt = An > 50%) and contain plagioclase,
amphibole, pyroxene and/or olivine, sometimes biotite.
Phonolite consists of alkali feldspar, feldspathoid and mafic minerals. The predominant
foid should be added to the root name, e.g. leucite phonolite, analcime phonolite.
 APPENDIX 91

60 10 65

e
olit
rhy
ar
Dacite
sp
Rhyolite
feld
ali-
Alk

20 35
Alkali-feldspar
trachyte Qtz Qtz
trachyte latite Basalt P
A5 Trachyte
Latite
Foid-bearing
Andezite
latite 90
10
Alkali-feldspar
foid-bearing
Ph

trachyte Phonolitic
Tephritic
ono

tephrite
phonolite
lite

(basanite)

Tephrite (ol < 10 %)

Bazanite (ol > 10 %)
60

Foidite

F
Figure A2. QAPF ternary diagram used to classify the composition of volcanic rocks (Streckeisen 1978, 1979).

Basanite and tephrite are distinguished based on the amount of olivine in the CIPW
norm (basanite is a rock with a normative olivine content > 10% and a rock with < 10%
olivine is called tephrite).
(b) Chemical composition of rocks reflects the mineral composition of the rocks;
though it is not the same frequently (the mineral composition is also affected by PT
conditions and fluid composition). Frequently, we use normative mineral composition
(calculated from the chemical analysis), which represents hypothetical minerals that could
crystallize from magma with the same chemical composition to the rock (e.g. the CIPW
norm).
The first major geochemical division is based on Na, K and Si, which yield two
groups, the subalkaline and alkaline rocks (Fig. A3a). The subalkaline rocks are subdivided
based mainly on the Fe content (Fe-rich = tholeiitic series and Fe-poor = calc-alkalic).
Several specific diagrams for the classification of igneous rocks on the basis of chemical
composition are published. The common classification is based on the values of Na2O +
K2O and SiO2 (TAS) diagram (Le Bas et al. 1986; Fig. A3a). Alternatively, we can use
a classification based on trace elements (Pearce 1996; Fig. A3b), which is suitable for
partly altered rocks (Fig. A3a).
(c) Rock texture is an important classification criterion for volcanic and volcano-
sedimentary rocks. The first textural division concerns an unconsolidated volcanic deposit
(pyroclastic (tephra) and hyaloclastic rocks) and coherent volcanic rocks.
92 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

15
a
Phonolite

Foidite Tephri-
Trachyte
phonolite
Trachydacite
line
10
Alka
leiitic
Na2O  K2O

Phono-
tephrite Trachy- a li n e/Tho
lk
andesite Suba Rhyolite
Basaltic
Tephrite
trachy-
Basanite andesite
Trachy-
basalt
5

Andesite
andesite
Basaltic

Dacite
Basalt
Picrobasalt
0

40 50 60 70 80

SiO2

b
alkali
0.500

rhyolite
phonolite

rhyolite trachyte
dacite
ite
riph onol
y- teph
trach ite
0.050
Zr Ti

e s
and
site
ande ndesite
ltic a
basa

foidite
0.005

alkali
basalt basalt
0.001

0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Nb Y
Figure A3. Discrimination diagrams for volcanic rocks: a – Total Alkalis vs. Silica (TAS) diagram
(Le Bas et al. 1986); b – Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (modified by Pearce 1996).
 APPENDIX 93

Volcanoclastic rocks are composed primarily of volcanic material. This material

may be pyroclastic (fragments derived from magmatic eruptions) or hyaloclastic
(fragments formed by thermal shock when hot lava gets to a contact with cool water or
as the result of phreatomagmatic eruptions). However, these fragments can be mixed
with epiclasts (clasts produced by weathering, and consequently transport of the
volcanic rock) and/or sedimentary clasts in various proportions (volcano-sedimentary
rocks).
(I) Unconsolidated volcanic deposits (Pyroclastic and hyaloclastic rocks, Fisher and
Schmincke 1984) are commonly formed from fine ash (< 0.063 mm), coarse ash (< 2 mm),
lapilli (< 64 mm) and bombs or blocks (> 64 mm) ejected from the volcano. Typical
pyroclastic deposits include pyroclastic fall (pyroclastic material sorted in the air and
deposited in beds) and pyroclastic flow (pyroclastic material emplaced by lateral flowage
as a mixture with hot gas).
Important terms: Scoria is an accumulation of highly vesiculated basic rocks
(predominately volcanic bombs) and pumice is a highly vesiculated acid glass. Ignimbrite
is pumice and/or ash dominated pyroclastic flow deposit (classification according to the
grain size, mineralogy (pumice-rich, crystal-rich) and texture (e. g. welded vs. unwelded
ignimbrite).
(II) Coherent volcanic rocks are divided into fragmental volcanic rocks (Fig. A4;
tuff, lapilli tuff, lapillistone, tuff breccia, agglomerate) and lava (volcanic rocks and
glass). Lava (e. g. basalt, rhyolite) forms volcanic dikes, volcanic laccoliths, intrusive
volcanic breccia, lava flow (pahoe-hoe, aa, block lava, massive lava, pillow lava) and
lava dome.
Classification of volcanic glass depend on the chemical composition, texture and/
or color (obsidian is acid, non-hydrated glass, generally dark-colored, and has few or no
phenocrysts; perlite is acidic, hydrated glass characterized by spherical fractured texture).
(III) When the volcanic material has been transported and reworked by wind or water,
we use the term volcanoclastic deposits (e. g. epiclastic sandstone or conglomerate). For
rocks, which contain a mixture of pyroclastic, epiclastic and/or sedimentary material,
we generally use the term tuffites (75% to 25% pyroclastic or hyaloclastic fragments).
Tuffites may be divided according to their average grain size.
(IV) For the volcanogenic sedimentary deposits (sediments with addition of
pyroclastic material, below than 25% pyroclastic or hyaloclastic fragments), we used the
adjective tuffitic or tuffaceous (e.g. tuffitic sandstone).
Tuffites, tuffaceous and epiclastic rocks are produced by a volcanic avalanche
(volcanic material possibly mixed with other rocks, emplaced by gravitational collapse
from a volcanic edifice and subsequent rapid flowage) and a volcanic debris flow
(volcanic material redeposited as water-saturated rock debris that flowed rapidly under
the force of gravity = lahars).

Special terms (rocks beyond the presented classification):

Charnockites (e. g. hypersthene granite; Streckeisen 1974, 1976) are characterised
by the presence of hypersthene (or fayalite with quartz).
Carbonatites are plutonic or volcanic rocks containing more than 50% modal
carbonates (Streckeisen 1978 and Streckeisen and Le Maitre 1979). Mineralogically,
they may be distinguished into: Calcite carbonatite (coarse-grained is soviet, and
medium to fine-grained is alvikite); dolomite carbonatite (beforsite); ferrocarbonatite;
natrocarbonatite (composed of sodium, potassium and calcium carbonates).
94 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Blocks and bombs

(>64 mm)

Volcanic blocks and bombs

Volcanic agglomerate
Volcanic breccia

75

Ash-breccia
Tuff-breccia

75

Lapilli-ash
Lapilli-tuff
Lapilli Ash
Lapillistone Tuff

Lapilli 75 75 Ash
(2–64 mm) (<2 mm)

Figure A4. Ternary diagram of grain size terms for the classification of pyroclastic rocks and fragmental
volcanic rocks (modified from Fisher and Schmincke 1984). Top labels = unconsolidated, bottom labels =
consolidated.

The term melilite, kalsilite or leucite -bearing rocks is used for volcanic (subvolcanic)
rocks with >10% modal melilite (kalsilite, leucite).
Kimberlites are ultramafic subvolcanic rocks dominated by primary olivine and
carbonate minerals (often also magnesian ilmenite, pyrope, chromium diopside,
phlogopite, enstatite and chromite).
Lamproites are ultrapotassic mantle-derived volcanic or subvolcanic rocks (e. g.
wyomingite = diopside-leucite-phlogopite lamproite, orendite = diopside-sanidine-
phlogopite lamproite).
Lamprophyres are mesocratic to melanocratic subvolcanic rocks (dikes, lopoliths,
laccoliths, stocks and small intrusions) with a panidiomorphic texture and abundant mafic
phenocrysts of dark mica (minette in groundmass orthoclase, kersantite in groundmass
plagioclase) and/or amphibole (vogesite in groundmass orthoclase, spessartite in
groundmass plagioclase) with or without pyroxene and/or olivine.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks (Fig. A5) can be classified on the basis of their composition
(mineralogy), grainsize or genesis (origin). The source rocks can be disintegrated into
their chemical components (chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks) or can be
broken down into fragments (clastic rocks).
(a) Chemical sedimentary rocks precipitate from solutions without the influence of
organic activity. The most common chemical sedimentary rocks are crystalline ones: inorganic
carbonates such as travertine or dolostones; cherts composed of microcrystalline quartz;
evaporites such as halite, gypsum, and anhydrite; iron oxides such as hematite and limonite.
 APPENDIX 95

Figure A5. Four

Biochemical Chemical Volcanoclastic
Clastic principal categories
biogenical precipitates rocks
rocks of sedimentary rocks.
rocks
conglomerate, limestone, ironstone,
tephra,
sand, dolomite, evaporite
tuff
sandstone, coal,
mudstone, phosphorite,
shale chert

(b) Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed mostly by the remains of organisms
(e. g. shells, corals plant fragments). Most organisms use calcite or aragonite to build
their shells or a part of their skeleton and therefore, limestones are a relatively abundant
type of sedimentary rocks. The dominant carbonate mineral in most limestones is
calcite, but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite and dolomite may be present.
The components of limestone are: (I) orthochems (micrite, sparite); (II) allochems =
non-skeletal grains (ooids, peloids, intraclasts) and skeletal grains (biofossil = whole
fossil, bioclast = particles of fossil); (III) non-carbonate constituents (quartz, chert,
clay, phosphate, glauconite).
Also, silica-rich (diatomite), phosphorus-rich (phosphate rocks) or carbon-rich
(lignite and coal) biochemical sediments are known.
Transition between biochemical and clastic sediments: a typical example is
marl (carbonate-rich mud) or marlstone (carbonate-rich mudstone) containing 25–75%
clay (Fig. A6).

calcite Figure A6. Scheme

100 % 90 50 10 0% of the transition from
mud (or mudstone)
argillaceous calcareous mud/ mud/
limestone limestone/limestone to lime (or limestone).
mudstone mudstone
0% 10 50 90 100 %
marl and clay minerals
25 marlstone 75

(c) Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of solid rock fragments (mainly siliciclastic
or carbonate rocks) and are classified on the basis of grain size (gravel, sand, silt and
clay). The clasts are transported as individual pieces by wind, water, ice or gravity-driven
processes until the deposition. After the deposition, sediments are compacted (porosity
decreases) and cemented by minerals that precipitate from a solution. Grains of sediment,
rock fragments and fossils can be replaced by other minerals during diagenesis. The
matrix or cement are fine-grained materials deposited along the clastic grains (matrix
consists of clay minerals and silt-grade quartz; cement is precipitated around and between
grains during diagenesis; common cementing agents are quartz and calcite). Siliciclastic
rocks are initially subdivided according to the clast size:
(I) Rudite (psephite) is a rock dominated by fragments greater than 2 mm, being
subdivided according to the clast geometry (angular clasts = breccia; subangular,
subrounded or rounded clasts = conglomerates) or the petrological composition of clasts
(several types of rock fragments = polymictic, only a few varieties of rocks = oligomictic,
one type of clasts = monomictic).
96 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

(II) Arenite (psammite, grain-sized 0.006–2 mm) is subdivided according to the

percentage of a fine-grained matrix versus clasts (Fig. A7; wacke contains more than
30% matrix) and by the mineral composition of the clasts (lithic arenite contains more
than 15% clasts of the rock fragments, arcose contains more than 25% feldspar clasts).
(III) Lutite is a rock with a grain size less than 0.06 mm and can be subdivided into
aleurite and pelite. Aleurite (siltstone or mudstone) is composed of silt-sized particles
(0.004-0.06 mm) and a variable content of carbonates (marlstone is defined as a mud-
supported carbonate rock). Pelite or shale (less than 0.004 mm) consists of mix of flakes
of clay minerals and silt-sized fragments of other minerals (e. g. quartz, calcite).

aleuropelite
mudstone
psammite
wackes

arenites
wacke
5 quartz
quartz
nite
quartz arenite 5 sublithare
subarkkose
25 25 75

arkosic
e

wacke
os

lithic wacke
ark

trix
50 ma
g%
arkosic sin
feldspar 15 rea
arenite inc
lithic arenite
50

0
rock fragments

Figure A7. Classification of the sandstone (modified from Pettijohn et al. 1987).

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism is a subsolidus process leading to changes in mineralogy and/or texture
and often in the chemical composition of a rock (Fettes et al. 2007). These changes
occur due to physical and/or chemical conditions that differ from those normally
occurring at the Earth´s surface and in the zones of cementation and diagenesis below
this surface.
Lower limit of metamorphism: The protolith is subjected to temperatures up to 150 °C
and a pressure of 1500 bars. Changes in a deeply buried sedimentary rock may be
continuous from diagenesis into recrystallization forming a metamorphic rock.
Upper limit of metamorphism: The rocks reach high degrees of partial melting and
have igneous composition and texture (approximately from 650° C to more than 1100° C
depending on pressure, bulk composition and the proportion of water in the fluid phase).
Metamorphic rocks may coexist under partial melting (migmatites).
Protolith means the original rock before metamorphism. The protolith may be
a sedimentary rock, an igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks are classified according to their texture, protolith and the type
of metamorphism (e. g. metamorphic facies, Fig. A8).
 APPENDIX 97

Main textural terms

Hornfels is a non-foliated aphanitic rock having a granoblastic fabric affected by contact
metamorphism.
Granofels is a phaneritic rock which has little or no foliation or lineation.
Schist is a phaneritic metamorphic rock that has welldeveloped continuous schistosity.
Mylonite displays a foliation defined by the shapes of deformed mineral grains.

Main protolithe types

Chemical composition of the protolith defines the modal mineralogy of rocks except for
the metasomatic rocks (e. g. skarns, amphibolite, gneiss, eclogite, granulite).
Metabasites (amphibolite, eclogite, mafic granulite) are metamorphosed mafic rocks
that have lost the original texture and mineralogy (e. g. amphibolite consists of > 75%
amphibole and plagioclase and amphibole forms > 30% of the whole rock).
Calc-silicate rocks consist of > 50% calc-silicate (e.g. diopside, plagioclase) and
carbonate; marble consists of > 75% carbonate.
Metapelite (paragneiss) consists of quartz + feldspar + mica + aluminous mineral
(> 70%), and aluminous mineral plus mica content is > 40% (micaschist, phyllite).
Quartzofeldspathic (orthogneiss, felsic granulite) rocks consist of quartz + feldspar
+ mica + aluminous mineral (> 70%), and quartz + feldspar > 60% (gneiss).

Metamorphic facies
(a) Zeolite facies is associated with burial metamorphism and sub-seafloor alteration of
the oceanic crust. It represents the transition between diagenesis and prehnite-pumpellyite
facies and initiates at temperatures of 150–250 °C and pressures of 0.1–0.6 GPa (Fig. 8).
Typical reactions include the transformation of smectite to illite, kaolinite, vermiculite in
pelitic sediments, while zeolites, prehnite and albite are produced in metabasites (zeolites
also frequently occur in the form of filling vesicles as amygdales in metabasites). Typical
rocks: zeolitic metatuff (light-colored; relicts of pumices and lapilles; volcanic glass has
been replaced by zeolites; mineral assemblage: plagioclase + zeolite + K-feldspar + quartz
± chlorite ± volcanic glass ± pyroxene ± amphibole).
(b) Prehnite-pumpellyite facies is associated with burial metamorphism, sub-
seafloor alteration and the upper parts of accretionary wedges at the subduction zones.
Metamorphism occurs at temperatures of 250–350 °C and pressures of 0.2–0.7 GPa. The
presence of prehnite, pumpellyite, chlorite and stilpnomelane is the most characteristic.
Actinolite occurs at higher temperatures and lawsonite at higher pressures. Typical
mineral assemblages: metabasalts: prehnite + pumpellyite ± chlorite ± albite ± epidote;
metapelites: illite/white mica + chlorite + albite ± stilpnomelane, metagranodiorites:
albite + chlorite ± pumpellyite ± prehnite ± stilpnomelane ± white mica ± titanite ±
epidote ± carbonate; marbles and calc-silicate rocks: calcite ± dolomite ± prehnite ±
albite ± chlorite ± quartz.
(c) Greenschist facies is associated with regional metamorphism at temperatures of
approximately 350 to 500 °C and pressures of 0.2–1.2 GPa. The production of abundant
chlorite, muscovite and albite is the most characteristic for metapelites, while chlorite,
actinolite and epidote are common in basic rocks (greenschists or greenstones, chlorite-
rich schists). Biotite and/or garnet occur at higher temperatures in metapelites (phyllites
and schists) and metagranitoids. Typical mineral assemblages: greenschists: albite +
chlorite + actinolite + epidote + titanite ± quartz ± white mica ± calcite ± stilpnomelane;
phyllites: muscovite + chlorite ± albite ± paragonite ± graphite ± rutile ± carbonate ±
98 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

epidote ± K-feldspar ± titanite ± stilpnomelane (low-Al protoliths) ± pyrophyllite (high-

Al protoliths) ± chloritoid (high-Al protoliths) ± biotite ± staurolite; metagranodiorites
and metagreywackes: albite + epidote + muscovite + chlorite ± titanite ± stilpnomelane
± actinolite; marbles and calc-silicate rocks: calcite ± dolomite ± quartz ± muscovite
± albite ± K-feldspar ± chlorite ± zoisite ± talc; serpentinites: antigorite ± actinolite-
tremolite ± talc ± chrysotile.
(d) Amphibolite facies is associated with regional metamorphism at temperatures of
approximately 500–750 °C and pressures of 0.2–1.3 GPa. Changes in mineralogy depend
on the protolith composition (e. g. production of hornblende, intermediate plagioclases
(oligoclase-andesine), epidote or garnet in basic rocks and garnet, sillimanite/kyanite,
biotite, muscovite in metapelites are the most characteristic). Typical mineral assemblages
include: amphibolites: hornblende + oligoclase ± epidote ± almandine garnet ± titanite
± quartz ± chlorite ± biotite; gneisses and mica schists: quartz +biotite ± muscovite ±
oligoclase ± almandine garnet ± cordierite (low-P) ± andalusite (low-P) ± kyanite (high-P)
± sillimanite (moderate-P, and/or high-T) ± staurolite (high -T) ± graphite ± titanite ±
Ilmenite; orthogneisses: oligoclase + alkali feldspar + muscovite + biotite ± hornblende;
marbles and calc-silicate rocks: calcite ± dolomite ± quartz ± diopside ± tremolite ±
forsterite ± grossular ± amphibole ± clinozoisite.
(e) Granulite facies is associated with orogenic regional metamorphism
at temperatures of approximately 700 °C and a pressure range of 0.2–1.5 GPa.
Amphiboles and micas both disappear in granulite facies rocks, hornblende dehydrates
to form pyroxene and plagioclase, biotite dehydrates to form garnet. Kyanite and
sillimanite are often produced from muscovite and biotite. Rocks often undergo partial
melting due to the presence of water resulting from dehydration reactions. Typical
mineral assemblages include: mafic granulites: plagioclase + pyroxene ± hornblende
± garnet ± olivine± quartz; migmatites: microcline ± plagioclase ± garnet ± cordierite
± kyanite ± sillimanite ± graphite ± rutile ± ilmenite ± corundum ± spinel; felsic
granulites: microcline + plagioclase + garnet ± kyanite ± sillimanite ± pyroxene ±
hornblende; calc-silicate rocks: calcite + dolomite + quartz + diopside + scapolite +
forsterite + wollastonite + graphite.
(f) Eclogite facies is associated with orogenic regional metamorphism and subduction
zones and occurs at temperatures of approximately 400–1000 °C and in excess of 1.2 GPa
(45 km in depth). Eclogites are associated with blueschists or kimberlites or granulites
and high-grade amphibolites. Diamond and coesite occur in ultrahigh-pressure eclogites
(UHP rocks appear at depths greater than 150 km). Typical mineral assemblages for rocks
developed from different protoliths include: eclogite: garnet + omphacite ± quartz – no
albite, no lawsonite (epidote or grossular garnet are stable); white schist: talc + kyanite
+ phengite (Si-rich muscovite), no chlorite.
(g) Blueschist facies is associated with subduction zones and occurs at temperatures
of approximately 200–500 °C and in excess of 0.6 GPa (15 km in depth). Mafic and
intermediate rocks are characterised by bluish colour due to the presence of an alkali
amphibole (glaucophane). Transition between blueschist- and greenschist in metabasites
is as follows: clinozoisite + glaucophane + quartz + H2O = tremolite + chlorite + albite.
Typical assemblages: blueschist: glaucophane + lawsonite and/or epidote + albite
+ titanite ± garnet ± quartz; white schist: Fe-Mg-carpholite ± chloritoid ± kyanite +
zoisite ± pargasite or phengite ± albite ± quartz ± talc ± garnet; orthogneisses: kyanite
± paragonite ± chlorite ± albite ± quartz ± pargasite or phengite; marbles: calcite ±
aragonite ± dolomite.
 APPENDIX 99

2.6
UHP 80
2.4 e
coesit

one
quartz
2.2 Eclogite

arth

ting z
70
he e facies
2.0 Continental

mel
geotherm 60
on t

1.8

Wet
1.6 UHT
Not

Ky 50
P GPa

1.4
Sil

km
Blueschist
1.2 facies 40

1.0
30
0.8 Granulite
facies
0.6 Greenschist 20
Prehnite-
pumpellyite facies Amphibolite
0.4 Zeolite facies Ky facies
facies And 10
0.2
Dia-
Hornfels Sil
genesis
0 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

T °C
Figure A8. Pressure–temperature diagram regarding the metamorphic facies, a beginning of the hydrous
haplograite melting.

(h) Hornfels and contact schists are associated with contact metamorphism and
occur at temperatures of 250–1000 °C and pressures of 0.05–0.2 GPa. These rocks are
described from the thermal aureoles around igneous bodies or are present as xenoliths
within igneous rocks (albite epidote, hornblende, pyroxene and sanidine hornfels). Typical
minerals for metapelites are andalusite, cordierite, sillimanite, sanidine, tridymite and
corundum. Skarns are specific rock types, which originate from contact metamorphism
and metasomatism of limestones. They usually contain abundant carbonates and silicates
like andradite, epidote, vesuvianite, diopside and wollastonite.
(i) Mylonites are affected by dynamic metamorphism that is produced along shear
zones. They are usually fine-grained with layers. Cataclasites are fine-grained rocks
(typically less than 0.1 mm) with up to 50% of visible tectonic angular clasts.

References and further reading

Fettes D. J., Desmons J., Árkai P. (2007): Metamorphic rocks: a classification and
glossary of terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences
Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Le Bas M. J. (2000): IUGS Reclassification of the High-Mg and Picritic Volcanic Rocks.
J. Petrol., 41(10), 1467–1470.
Le Maitre R. W., Streckeisen A., Zanettin B., Le Bas M. J., Bonin B., Bateman P., Bellieni
G., Dudek A., Efremova S., Keller J., Lamere J., Sabine P. A., Schmid R., Sorensen
H., Woolley A. R. (2002): Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms.
Cambridge University Press, 1–236.
100 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

Pearce J. A. (1996): A user’s guide to basalt discrimination diagrams. In: Wyman D. A.

(ed.): Trace element geochemistry of volcanic rocks: application for massive sulphide
exploration. Short course notes. Geol. Assoc. Canada.12, 79–113.
Pettijohn F. J., Potter P. E., Siever R. (1987): Sand and Sandstone. New York, Springer-
Verlag, 553 pp.
Streckeisen A. L. (1974): Classification and nomenclature of plutonic rocks:
recommendations of the IUGS subcommission on the systematics of igneous rocks.
Geologische Rundschau, 63, 773–786.
Streckeisen A. L. (1976): Classification of the common igneous rocks by means of
their chemical composition: a provisional attempt. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
Monatshefte, 1976, H. 1, 1–15
Streckeisen A. L. (1978): IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks.
Classification and Nomenclature of Volcanic Rocks, Lamprophyres, Carbonatites and
Melilite Rocks. Recommendations and Suggestions. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
Abhandlungen, Vol. 141, 1–14.
Streckeisen A. L., Le Maitre R. W. (1979): A chemical approximation to the modal QAPF
classification of the igneous rocks. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Abhandlungen,
136, 169–206.
 APPENDIX 101

Appendix
APPENDIX 4 4
APPENDIX
Symbology in
SYMBOLOGY 4
hydrogeological map
APPENDIX
SYMBOLOGY 4 IN HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP
IN HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP
APPENDIX
SYMBOLOGY
Legend 4 IN HYDROGEOLOGICAL
for groundwater and rocks MAP
APPENDIX
LEGEND
APPENDIX
SYMBOLOGYFOR44GROUNDWATER
APPENDIX IN4 AND ROCKS MAP
HYDROGEOLOGICAL
LEGENDAPPENDIX
SYMBOLOGY IN4HYDROGEOLOGICAL
FOR GROUNDWATER AND ROCKS MAP
HYDROGEOLOGICAL
SYMBOLOGY
No. in SYMBOLOGY
LEGEND FOR IN IN
GROUNDWATERHYDROGEOLOGICAL
ColourColour
No. No.
AND
SYMBOLOGY IN HYDROGEOLOGICAL ROCKS
Aquifer
MAP MAP MAP
Aquifer and (definition)
and non-aquifer characteristics non-aquifer characteristics
No. in
LEGEND Specification
FOR GROUNDWATER
library Specification Colour
R-G- R-G-B No. AND AquiferROCKS
H-S-V and non-aquifer characteristics (definition) (definition)
library
No. in
LEGEND FOR GROUNDWATER H-S-V AND ROCKS
LEGEND Specification
FOR GROUNDWATER B
R-G-
Colour No. ANDAquiferROCKS and non-aquifer characteristics (definition)
library LEGEND FOR
No. in LEGEND FOR GROUNDWATER GROUNDWATERH-S-V AND
AND ROCKS
ROCKS
Specification
Dark blue BColour No.
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local
l/s.m, Q or discontinuous
=joints
0.051 highly but
for(Thighly
B4 255- 74- Extensive
and volcanic
regularly
productive (larger
rocks
aquifers
wells and/or system100
which km
springs) the ) and
fissures
flow
or low
localis and productive
mainly
or of- sedimentary
through
discontinuous 0.5 l/s
aquifers a but highly
B4Brown-red
B4 176 255-
240
255- productive
74- aquifers
productive
2 a regularly
in which
aquifers developed
the
in0,012 flow
which is system
mainly
theQproductive
flow of fissures
through
is mainly a and
through joints
a of sedimentary
Brown-red 255-
176 10-
240
176 wells
=
and0.11
240 and/or
Extensive -
volcanic
regularly 1 m springs)
/d,
(larger
rocksq =
than
developedaquifers
productive or
0.0011 100
system offissured
km- of ) aquifers
and
fissures
in fissures l/s.m,
which the low in
andflow = which
0.051
joints the
- 0.5 flow
aquifers
of sedimentary
is mainly l/s
sedimentary
through ais
for (T
176 regularly developed system and in=joints
and of
volcanic rocks
B5 Brown-red 196-
255- 74-
10- =240
mainly
wells
and0.11
Extensive
volcanic
regularly
-developed
and/or1m 2
regularlysprings)
/d,
(larger
rocks
developed
q than=in0.0011
developed an irregular
or100fissured
km- system
0,012 aquifers
system ) andsystemof
l/s.m,
oflow fissures
Qof fissures
which
0.051
productive
fissures
and
andthe -joints
and
0.5flow
aquifers
joints l/sof
offorissedimentary
(T
sedimentary
B5 176
196- 240
74- and
mainlyvolcanic
weathered and
developed 2rocks
volcanic
mantle of
in0.0011 rocks
aan crystalline
irregular 2 rock
system (intrusive
of fissures and and
Brown-red 255- 10- wells
= 0.11 and/or
Extensive - 1
and m springs)
/d, q
volcanic
(larger =
than or
rocks
100fissured
km-
Extensive 0,01
2 ) aquifers
andl/s.m,low
(larger Q in = which
0.051
productive
than
2 productive 100 the
- 0.5 flow
aquifers
km 2 )l/s and is(T
for low productive
Extensive (larger
Extensive than (larger 100 km
than ) and
100 kmlow ) and low aquifers
productive (T
B5 176
196-
255- 240
74-
10- metamorphic
weathered
mainly
wells developed
0.11and/or 2 rocks)
mantle
2springs) of
in with local
aancrystalline
irregular
2or fissured
and limited
rock
system
aquifers in=groundwater
2(intrusive
of fissures
which and theand flow isaquifers (T
aquifers
Brown-red
Brown-red == 0.11
resources-- 1Extensive
metamorphic
1m
=
m
0.11
/d, qq ==
/d, -
rocks)1 m
0.0011
(larger
0.0011
2a/d,
with q
than
=
local-- 0.0011
aquifers 0,01
0,01 100
and (Tl/s.m,
km=0,01
l/s.m,
-
limited
)Q
0.11 Qand 0.051
1low
–0.051
=l/s.m, mQ
groundwater --=0.5
0.5
2productive
/d, q0.051 l/s
=l/s for
0.0011
for
- 0.5 –l/s0,01 (T
for l/s.m,
B5 Brown-red 176
196-
255- 240
74-
10- weathered
mainly
wells = mantle
developed
and/or 0.11springs)
- 1 of
in
m an
orcrystalline
/d, irregular
fissured
q = 0.0011 rock
system
aquifers
- 0,01(intrusive
of
in fissures
which
l/s.m, and
Q the
=and flow
0.051 -is0.5 l/s for
Light brown
Brown-red 255- 10-
255- wells
10- and/or
resources
Minor wells springs)
and/or Q with =or 0.051 and–or
fissured
springs) 0.5 l/s
aquifers
fissured for in wellswhich
aquifers and/or
inthewhich springs)
flow is flow
the or fissured
is aquifers
B5
B5 176
196-
255-196-176 240
74-
255- 10- aquifers
metamorphic
weathered
mainly
10-74-240 mantle
developed
wells with
rocks)
and/or in local
of aan local
crystalline
irregular
springs) limited
or and limited
rock
system
fissured groundwater groundwater
(intrusive
of fissures
aquifers inresources
and which the(Tflow is
and
B5 B5
Light brown 196-
255- 74-
196-
30-
mainly
=74- -developed
mainly
0.01 aquifers
Minor
resources
metamorphic 0.1m /d,
with
rocks) qin
2 developed in an
=local
withwhich
0.0001 inthe
irregular
and
local -an flow
0.001 system
irregular
limited
and isgroundwater
l/s.m,
limited mainly
ofsystem
Q = developed
fissures
groundwater
and
ofresources
0.005 – 0.055
fissures in andan irregular system of
l/s)
(T
B5 176 196-
240 74-
weathered mainlymantle developed
of a in
crystalline an irregular
rock system
(intrusive of
and fissures and
B6 Light brown
176
220-
255- 240
176
134-240
176
30-
weathered
=240
0.01 aquifers
Minor
resources
metamorphic
240 0.1m mantle
- weathered
weathered
2
/d,
with
rocks) qfissures
ofmantlea0.0001
=local
with
mantle and
of aweathered
crystalline
of -alimited
and
local 0.001 rockl/s.m,
crystalline
and limited
limited
crystalline mantle
(intrusive
rock
groundwaterQ of resources
and
= (intrusive
0.005
groundwater
rock (intrusivea crystalline
– 0.055 and l/s)rock (intrusive and
and (T
B6 112
220-
255- metamorphic metamorphicrocks) with rocks) local with and local and groundwater
limited groundwater
Light brown 134-240
30- = 0.01 aquifers
Minor
resources - metamorphic
0.1m /d, 2
withmetamorphic
q =local 0.0001
rocks) and-with rocks)
0.001
limited local with
l/s.m,
groundwater
and local
Qlimited
= 0.005and – 0.055groundwater
limited
resources
groundwater l/s)
(T resources
B6 112
220-
255- resourcesresources
Light brown
Dark Light brown 134-240
30- = 0.01
Minor
Formation - 0.1m
resources
aquifers
2
/d,
with
withaquifersq =
essentially 0.0001
local and -
nolocal 0.001
limited
groundwater l/s.m,
groundwaterQ = 0.005
resources –
resources 0.055 l/s)
(T
B6 Light
Light brown
brown 112
220-
255- Minor aquifers
Minor 2 with Minor localwith andaquifers limited andwithgroundwater
limited
local resources
groundwater
and limited (T
resources
groundwater (Tresources
––= 0.055
208 134-240
B6
Light brown
Dark brown 255-
112
220-
30-
255-
30-
255- == 0.01 -- 0.1m
Formation
0.01
30-
0.1m
Minor
= 0.01with2 /d,
qq == 0.0001
aquifers
-essentially
/d, 0.1m
0.0001
2 with
2/d, q (T
no -local
0.001 and
groundwater
=- 0.0001
0.001 l/s.m,
l/s.m, limited
-–0.001
Qresources
Q 2=
=groundwater
0.005
0.005
l/s.m, Q0.0001
0.055
0.005–l/s)
l/s)
resources
–0.001
(T
0.055l/s.m,
l/s)
B6
B7
B6 B6Dark brown 255-220-112
156-
208
220- 134-240
220-
240-195
30-134-240
30-
Formation
30- 134-240 = 0.01
with - 0.1m
essentially /d, q no = =
0.0001 0.01
groundwater - 0.1m
0.001 /d,
l/s.m,
resources q = Q = 0.005 – 0.055 l/s)
B7 B6 112
0
156-
208 134-240
220- Q = 0.005 – 0.055 l/s)
Dark brown 112 112
240-195
30- 134-240
Formation with essentially no groundwater resources
B7 0
156-
208 112
Dark brown
Aquifer colour 240-195
30- Formation with essentially
essentially no groundwater
groundwater resources
B7 Dark
Dark brownDark with
brown brown brown
0
156-
208
stripes Extensive
Formation aquifers
with
Formation immediately
with essentially no underlying
no groundwater a thin (more
resources resources than 5
Dark brown
Aquifer colour with208 brown
0
240-195
30-
stripes
208
30- m) “impermeable”
Extensive Formation
aquifers cover;
with essentially
immediately the appropriate no groundwater
underlying aquifer
a thin colour
(more resources should
than 5
B7
B7
B8 156-
208-156-0208 30-
30-240-195 Formation with essentially no groundwater resources
B7 B7
Aquifer colour with 156- 240-195
156-
brown240-195 m)
be “impermeable”
30-used
stripes Extensive crossed
aquifers cover;
by immediately
(vertical) thebrown appropriate stripesaquifer
underlying (1 mmcolour
a thin wide and
(more should
than 35
B8 B7 0 156- 240-195
0
Aquifer colour with brown stripes 0
0 m) “impermeable”
mm
be
240-195 separation)
used
Extensive crossed by cover; the appropriate
aquifers immediately(vertical) brown stripes
underlyingaquifer (1 mm
a thin colour wide
(more than and
should 3 5
B8 m)
mm
be “impermeable”
separation)
used crossed cover;
by immediately
(vertical) thebrown appropriate stripes (1
aquifer mmcolour widethe and
should 35
Aquifer colour
Combination
Aquifer colour with
of with
two brown stripes
aquifer
brown stripes
colours Extensive
Mixed
Extensive aquifers aquifers
aquifers with fissured
immediately and underlying
porous
underlying aa thin
thin
permeability; (more
(more than
than 5 than 5a thin
B8 Aquifer colour with brown stripes Extensive aquifers Extensive
immediately aquifers underlying immediately a thin underlying
(more
Aquifer
Aquifer colour
colour with brown
withcolours m)
mm
be
brownstripes
stripes
m)
Mixed“impermeable”
separation)
used crossed
Extensive
“impermeable”
appropriate
aquifers aquiferwith cover;
by aquifers
(vertical)
cover;
colours
fissured the brown
appropriate
immediately
should
and bestripes
porous used (1 horizontal
aquifer
underlying
in mmcolour
permeability; wide a thin and
the5should 3 than 5
(more
mm
B9
B8 Combination of two aquifer m) “impermeable” (more the than cover;
appropriate
5 m)the aquifer
appropriate
“impermeable” colour
aquifer
cover; shouldcolour
the should aquifer
appropriate
B8
B8 B8 mm
be used
stripes
appropriate
Mixed
of two aquifer colours be used crossed m)
separation)
crossed
aquifers “impermeable”
aquiferby
with (vertical)
colours
fissured cover;
brown
should
and the
bestripes
porous appropriate
used (1
in mm wide
aquifer
horizontal
permeability; and
the5 mm 33 and
colour should
B9 Combination
B8 be usedby crossed (vertical)
colour brown
should stripes
by (vertical) bebrown used(1stripes mm wide
crossed (1bymm and wide
(vertical) brown3 stripes
mm separation)
stripes
appropriate
Mixed
mm be
aquifers
separation) used
aquifer crossed
withcolours by
fissuredshould (vertical)
and porous brown
be used stripes
in horizontalthe
permeability; (1 mm 5 mm wide and 3
B9 Combination of two aquifer colours mm separation) (1 mm wide and 3 mm separation)
stripes
appropriate
Mixed mm
aquifers separation)
aquiferwith colours
fissured should
and be
porous used in horizontal
permeability; the5 mm
B9 Combination of of two
two aquifer
aquifer colours
colours Mixed aquifers with fissured with and porous andpermeability; the
Combination
Combination stripes Mixed
of two aquifer colours aquifers
Mixed
fissured
aquifers with
porous permeability;
infissured and
the
B9 Combination
Combinationofoftwo twoaquifer appropriate
aquifercolours
colours
appropriate Mixed aquifer
aquifer
appropriate
aquifers colours
colours
aquifer
with should
shouldfissured
colours
be used
be used
and
should
porous
in
be
horizontal
permeability;
horizontal
used in 55porous
mm the
mm
horizontal permeability;
5 mm
B9 stripes appropriate aquifer colours should
B9 B9
B9 stripes stripes the appropriate aquiferbe used inshould
colours horizontal be used 5 mm in horizontal
stripes
5 mm stripes
94
Aquifer with
Aquifer
Aquifer
with shallow groundwater
shallow groundwater
with shallow 94 Limited
groundwater aquifers
Limited aquifers
Limited in unconsolidated
in unconsolidated
aquifers material
material (eluvial
in unconsolidated
character(eluvial ch
material (eluvi
B10a
B10b
10a 10b 94
strips) with
– yellow
(regolith) – yellow B10a, alluvial character – B10b, blue oblique
(regolith)
(regolith)
shallow – B10a,
yellow
groundwater
alluvial
B10a,
for local
character
alluvial
use providing
- B10b,
character
variable
blu
- B10b
B10aB10a 94
94 strips) with
amountstrips) shallow
with based
of groundwater groundwater
shallow groundwater
on thickness for local use
forvalues
and recharging providin
local use pro
B10bB10b 94 94
amount
94 of groundwater based on
amount of groundwater based on thickness thickness and recharg
and re
10a 10a 10b 10bvalues values
 B10a
B10a
B10a (regolith)
strips)
strips) –
with
(regolith) yellow
yellow B10a,
– shallow
with shallow alluvial
groundwater
groundwater
B10a, character
alluvial for
for local
local
character -- B10b,
use
use blue
blue o
providing
providing
B10b, ov
v
B10a
B10b
B10b
B10a strips)
strips) with
with shallow
shallow groundwater
groundwater for
for local
local use
use providing
providing v
v
B10b amount
amount
strips) of
of
withgroundwater
groundwater
shallow based
based on
on
groundwater thickness
thickness
for local and
and
use rechargin
rechargin
providing v
B10b
B10b amount
amount
values of
of groundwater
groundwater based
based on
on thickness
thickness and
and rechargin
rechargin
10a 10b amount
values
values of groundwater based on thickness and rechargin
10a
10a 10b
10b values
10a
10a 10b
10b values
102 B a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o lo g i c a l a n d t h e mat i c ma p p i n g

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES OF
EXAMPLES OF GEOLOGICAL
OF GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS FOR
SYMBOLS FOR THE
FOR THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL
THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL M
HYDROGEOLOGICAL M
M
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES OF
OF GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS FOR THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL
Examples
EXAMPLES OF GEOLOGICAL
OF geological
GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
symbols FOR
FOR THE
M THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL
for THE hydrogeological
SYMBOLS M map
HYDROGEOLOGICAL
G-symbol No.
G-symbol No.
Hatch
Hatch G-symbol
G-symbol No.
No. Lithology
Lithology
Hatch
Hatch
Hatch in
in library
G-symbol No.
library
G-symbol in library
No. Lithology
Lithology
Lithology
Hatch in
in library
library Lithology
in library
Q
Q
QQ22
22
22
22
Clayey
Clayey sand
sand
Clayey
Clayey sand
with
with
sand with
with gravel –
gravel
gravel
gravel –
–
alluvial
alluvial
– alluvial
alluvial
sediments
sediments
sediments
sediments
in
in
in
general
general
in general
general
Q
Q 22
22 Clayey with gravel –
Clayey sand with gravel – alluvial sediments in general
sand alluvial sediments in general

QQ32
Q 32
32 Clayey soil
Clayey soil Clayey soil
Q
Q 32 Clayey soil
Q 32
32 Clayey
Clayey soil
soil

QQ33
Q 33
33 Clay
Clay Clay
Q
Q 33 Clay
Q 33
33 Clay
Clay
M
M 12 Phyllite
MM12
12
12 Phyllite
Phyllite Phyllite
M
M 12
12 Phyllite
Phyllite

M 19
M 19 Mica schist
Mica schist (schist
(schist in
in general)
general)
M
MM19
19 Mica schist (schist
Micain general)
schist (schist in general)
M 19
19 Mica
Mica schist
schist (schist
(schist in
in general)
general)

M 20
M 20 Paragneiss (gneiss
Paragneiss (gneiss in
in general)
general)
M
MM20
20 Paragneiss (gneiss in general)
Paragneiss (gneiss in general)
M 20
20 Paragneiss
Paragneiss (gneiss
(gneiss in
in general)
general)

M 28
M 28 Migmatite
Migmatite
M
M 28 Migmatite
MM28
28
28 Migmatite
Migmatite Migmatite

S
S 12
12 Sandstone
Sandstone
S
S 12 Sandstone
SS12
12
12 Sandstone
Sandstone Sandstone

S
S 25
25 Limestone
Limestone
S
S 25 Limestone
SS25
25
25 Limestone
Limestone Limestone

S
S 37
37 Tuff
Tuff without
without distinction
S
S 37 Tuff without distinction
distinction
Tuff without distinction
SS37
37
37 Tuff
Tuff without
without distinction
distinction

S 46
S 46 Gypsum
Gypsum
S
S S46
46 Gypsum Gypsum
S 46
46 Gypsum
Gypsum

Vh 13
Vh 13 Granite
Granite
Vh
Vh13
Vh 13 Granite Granite
Vh 13
13 Granite
Granite

Vh
Vh15
Vh 15
15 Diorite
Diorite Diorite
Vh
Vh 15 Diorite
Vh 15
15 Diorite
Diorite

Vh
Vh25
Vh 25
25 Granodiorite
Granodiorite Granodiorite
Vh
Vh 25 Granodiorite
Vh 25
25 Granodiorite
Granodiorite

VV17
17 Basalt Basalt

95
95
95
95
95
V 19 Phonolite

V 44 Ignimbrite
 V 17 Basalt
V 17 Basalt
V 17 Basalt
VV17
1717 Basalt
Basalt APPENDIX 103
V
VV 1717
19 Basalt
Basalt
Phonolite
V 17 Basalt
Basalt
VV1719 Basalt
Phonolite
VV1719 Phonolite
Basalt
VV1919 Phonolite
Phonolite
VV
V V19
1919
19
44 Phonolite
Phonolite
Ignimbrite
Phonolite Phonolite
VV1944 Phonolite
Ignimbrite
VV1944 Phonolite
Ignimbrite
VVV44
44
44
Ignimbrite
Ignimbrite Ignimbrite
VV
V 44
44 44
45 Ignimbrite
Ignimbrite
Rhyolite
Ignimbrite
VV4445 Ignimbrite
Rhyolite
VV4445 Ignimbrite
Rhyolite
VV
V 45
V45
45
45
Rhyolite
Rhyolite
Rhyolite Rhyolite
VV
V 45
45 46
45 Rhyolite
Trachyte
Rhyolite
Rhyolite
VV4546 Rhyolite
Trachyte
VV4546 Trachyte
Rhyolite
VVV46
V
46
46
49
Trachyte
Trachyte
Scoria (cinder, cinerites) Trachyte
V
VVV46
4646 Trachyte
Trachyte
Trachyte
VV4649 Scoria (cinder, cinerites)
Trachyte
V 4649 Scoria (cinder, cinerites)
Trachyte
V V4949 Scoria
Scoria (cinder,
(cinder,
Lithological cinerites)
cinerites)
boundary
V
VVV49
49
49 Scoria
Scoria (cinder,
(cinder, cinerites)
Scoria (cinder, cinerites)
cinerites)
V 49 49 Scoria
Scoria (cinder,
(cinder,
Lithological cinerites)
cinerites)
V 49 Scoria (cinder,boundary
Lithological cinerites)
boundary
V 49 Scoria
Area (cinder, cinerites) of thermal water (water with a temperature
with anboundary
Lithological occurrence
Lithological boundary
above
Area 30°
Lithological
with
Lithological
Lithological
Lithological C)
boundary
an occurrence
boundary
boundary
boundary Lithological
of boundary
thermal water (water with a temperature
Area
abovewith
30° anC) occurrence of thermal water (water with a temperature
Lithological boundary
50 above
Areawith
Flow
Area 30°an
with
gauging
Lithological
Area with anC)
an occurrence
station (mean
occurrence
boundary
occurrence
ofthermal
of
of
thermal
annualwater
thermal runoff
water in m3with
water(water
(water
(water – the
/swith aa atemperature
temperature
upper value
3with temperature
10
50 above
Area
above
Area
Flow
Area
and 30°
with
30°
with an
C)
gauging
with an
catchmentC)
anoccurrence
occurrence
station
occurrence
area in of
of
(mean
of
1000 thermal2
thermal
annual
thermal
km – water
water
runoff
water
the (water
(water
in
(water
lower m with
/s
with
value) –
with a temperature
the
a atemperature
temperature
upper value
50 above
above
Flow 30°
30° C)
C)
gauging station (mean annual runoff 3
/s – the
m3with
invalue) upper value
50
10 above
Area
above
and with
30°30°an
C) C)
Area
catchment occurrence
with
area of thermal
an occurrence
in 1000 km – water
of 2thermal
the (water
water
lower a temperature
50
50
10
50
10 above
Area
Flow
and
Flow 30°
with C)
an
gauging
catchment
gauging occurrence
(waterstation
area
with ain
station of thermal
(mean
1000 km
temperature
(mean annual2 – water
2
annual
above runoff
the
30° (water
ininm
lower
runoff C) m 3
mvalue)
33 –
/s– –the
3/swith
3 a temperature
the uppervalue
upper value
Flow gauging station (mean annual runoff in 3 /s the
– the upper value
5010
1050
10
50 above
Flow
Flow
and
Flow
and 30°
gaugingC) station
gauging
catchment
gauging
catchment station
station (mean
areain(mean
area in (mean
1000annual
1000 kmkm 2 2 – runoff
annual
2 – the
annual runoff
the
runoff inin
lower
lowerin mmvalue)
m/s
value)/s/s
– –the
the upper
upper
upper value
value
value
1010 and catchment area in 1000 km 2 2– the
–annual lower /s – the upper value
value)
2 3
50
10 Flow
and gauging
catchment station
area (mean
inin1000 annual
km – runoff
the lower invalue)
mvalue)
value)
50
10
and
and catchment
catchmentFlowareaarea
gauging
in 10001000
station km km
(mean – thethe lower
runoff
lower m /s – the upper value
3
10
Flow gauging station
and catchment
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B1
B1 B1 R-G-B Basic
Basic Basic
B1
B1 B1
B2 Ca-HCO3 176-255-255
R-G-B Basic
Basic
Basic
Transitional
B1 R-G-B
R-G-B
176-255-255 Basic
B2 Ca-HCO3 R-G-B
R-G-B R-G-B
R-G-B
H-S-V
176-255-255 Transitional
B1B2 Ca-HCO33 176-255-255 Basic
Transitional
R-G-B
176-255-255
176-255-255
H-S-V
176-255-255
B2B2
B2 Ca-HCO
Ca-HCO3 3
Ca-HCO 176-255-255
120-74-240
R-G-B Transitional
Transitional
Transitional
B2
B2 Ca-HCO
Ca-HCO 3
3 H-S-V H-S-V
176-255-255 Transitional
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B2 B2
B3 Ca-HCO
Ca-HCO 3
3 3
120-74-240
H-S-V
176-255-255
120-74-240
Transitional
Transitional
Mixed
B2 Ca-HCO3 120-74-240
H-S-V Transitional
B3 H-S-V
H-S-V
H-S-V
120-74-240 Mixed
B2B3 Ca-HCO3 120-74-240 Transitional
B3 120-74-240
H-S-V
120-74-240
120-74-240 Mixed Mixed
B3B3 120-74-240
H-S-V Mixed
Mixed
B3
B3 120-74-240 Mixed
Mixed
B3 B3
B4 120-74-240 Mixed
Mixed
Basic
B3B4 Mixed
Basic
B3 B4
B4 R-G-B BasicMixed
Basic
B4 R-G-B
232-208-255 Basic
B4 R-G-B R-G-B Basic
B4
B4 B4
B5 Mg-HCO3 232-208-255
R-G-B Basic
Basic
Basic
Transitional
B4 B5 Mg-HCO3
R-G-B
232-208-255
232-208-255
R-G-B Basic
Transitional
B5 Mg-HCO R-G-B
H-S-V R-G-B
R-G-B
H-S-V
232-208-255 Transitional
B4B5 Mg-HCO33
3
232-208-255
232-208-255 Basic
Transitional
R-G-B
232-208-255
180-44-240
H-S-V
232-208-255
B5B5 Mg-HCO
Mg-HCO 232-208-255
180-44-240
R-G-B
H-S-V Transitional
Transitional
33 232-208-255
B5
B5B5
B6 Mg-HCO
Mg-HCO
Mg-HCO
3
3 180-44-240
H-S-V Transitional
Transitional
MixedTransitional
Mixed
B6 3 3 232-208-255
H-S-V
180-44-240
H-S-V
B5B6 Mg-HCO3 H-S-V
H-S-V Transitional
Mixed
B5B6 Mg-HCO3 H-S-V
180-44-240
180-44-240 Transitional
Mixed
180-44-240
H-S-V
180-44-240
B6 180-44-240
180-44-240
H-S-V Mixed
B6 180-44-240 Mixed
B6
B6 B6 Mixed
Mixed
Mixed
180-44-240
B6 Mixed
B6 96 Mixed
96
96
 B7
B7 Basic
Basic
B7 R-G-B
R-G-B Basic
B7 R-G-B Basic
160-192-255
160-192-255
B7
B7 R-G-B Basic
Basic
B8 Na-HCO3 160-192-255 Transitional
104 B7
B a B8
s i c p r i n Na-HCO
c i p l e s3o f g e o l o g i c a l a n d t h e160-192-255
m R-G-B
a t
R-G-Bi c m a p p i n g Basic
Transitional
B8
B7 Na-HCO3 H-S-V
R-G-B
H-S-V Transitional
Basic
B7
B8 Na-HCO33 160-192-255
160-192-255 Basic
Transitional
B7 H-S-V
146-89-240
R-G-B
160-192-255
146-89-240 Basic
B8
B7
B8 Na-HCO
Na-HCO33 R-G-B
H-S-V Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B9
B8
B9 Na-HCO3 146-89-240
R-G-B
160-192-255 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B7 160-192-255
H-S-V
146-89-240
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
B7
B9
B8
B7 Na-HCO 160-192-255 Basic Basic
Mixed
Transitional
B8 Na-HCO33 H-S-V
R-G-B
146-89-240 Transitional
B9
B8 160-192-255
146-89-240 Mixed
Transitional
Na-HCO33 H-S-V
R-G-B
146-89-240
R-G-B H-S-V
B9
B8
B9 Na-HCO3 160-192-255 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B10
B9
B10 146-89-240
H-S-V
160-192-255
160-192-255
146-89-240 Basic
Mixed
Basic
B8
B8 Na-HCO
Na-HCO3 3
H-S-VH-S-V Transitional
Transitional
B10
B9
B8 Na-HCO3 146-89-240
R-G-B
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Transitional
B9
B10 H-S-V
146-89-240
146-89-240 Mixed
Basic
B9 R-G-B
H-S-V
255-236-176
255-236-176 Mixed
B10
B9
B10 146-89-240
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Basic
B9
B11 Ca-SO 255-236-176
146-89-240 Mixed Transitional
B10
B11
B9 Ca-SO44 R-G-B Basic
Transitional
Mixed
B11 Ca-SO4 255-236-176
R-G-B Transitional
B10
B9
B10 H-S-V
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
Mixed
Basic
B11 Ca-SO44 255-236-176
255-236-176 Transitional
B10 H-S-V
30-74-240
R-G-B
255-236-176
30-74-240 Basic
B11
B10
B10
B11 Ca-SO
Ca-SO44 R-G-B
H-S-V Basic Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B12
B11
B12 Ca-SO4 30-74-240
255-236-176
R-G-B Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B10 255-236-176
H-S-V
30-74-240
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
B12
B11
B10 Ca-SO R-G-B
255-236-176 Mixed
Transitional
Basic
B11 Ca-SO44 H-S-V
R-G-B
30-74-240
255-236-176 Transitional
B12
B11 Ca-SO44 255-236-176
30-74-240 Mixed
Transitional
B11 Ca-SO H-S-V
R-G-B
30-74-240
H-S-VH-S-V Transitional
B12
B11
B12 Ca-SO4
4 255-236-176 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B13
B12
B13 30-74-240
H-S-V
255-236-176
30-74-240
30-74-240 Basic
Mixed
Basic
B11 Ca-SO4 H-S-V Transitional
B13
B12
B11 Ca-SO4 R-G-B
30-74-240
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Transitional
B12
B12
B13 H-S-V
30-74-240 Mixed Mixed
Basic
B12 R-G-B
30-240-195
H-S-V
30-240-195 Mixed
B13
B12
B13 30-74-240
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Basic
B14
B13
B14 Mg-SO
Mg-SO44 30-240-195
30-74-240 Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B12 R-G-B
30-240-195
R-G-B Mixed
B14
B13
B13
B12 Mg-SO4 H-S-V
R-G-B
H-S-V
Basic Transitional
Basic
Mixed
B13
B14 Mg-SO44 30-240-195
30-240-195 Basic
Transitional
B13 H-S-V
208-156-0
R-G-B
30-240-195
208-156-0 Basic
B14
B13
B14 Mg-SO
Mg-SO44
R-G-B R-G-B
H-S-V Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B15
B14
B15 Mg-SO 208-156-0
30-240-195
30-240-195
R-G-B Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B13
B14 Mg-SO4 4 30-240-195
H-S-V
208-156-0
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
Transitional
B15
B14
B13 Mg-SO H-S-V Mixed
Transitional
Basic
B14 Mg-SO 4 30-240-195
H-S-V
R-G-B
208-156-0
208-156-0 Transitional
B15 4 30-240-195
208-156-0 Mixed
B14 Mg-SO44 H-S-V
R-G-B
208-156-0
H-S-V Transitional
B15
B14
B15 Mg-SO4 30-240-195 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B15
B16 208-156-0
30-240-195
H-S-V Mixed Basic
B15
B16
B14 Mg-SO4 208-156-0
H-S-V Mixed
Basic
Transitional
B16
B15
B14 Mg-SO4 208-156-0
R-G-B
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Transitional
B15
B16 H-S-V
208-156-0 Mixed
Basic
B15 R-G-B
H-S-V
255-208-255
255-208-255 Mixed
B16
B16
B15
B16 208-156-0
R-G-B Basic Basic
Mixed
Basic
B17
B16
B17 Na-SO
Na-SO44 255-208-255
208-156-0 Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B15 R-G-B
255-208-255
R-G-B Mixed
B17
B16
B15 Na-SO4 R-G-BH-S-V Transitional
Basic
Mixed
B16
B17 R-G-B
H-S-V
255-208-255
255-208-255 Basic
Transitional
B17 Na-SO
Na-SO444 255-208-255
H-S-V
200-44-240 Transitional
B16 R-G-B
255-208-255
200-44-240
H-S-VR-G-B Basic
B17
B16
B17 Na-SO
Na-SO 4 H-S-V Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B18
B17
B18 Na-SO4
4 200-44-240
R-G-B
255-208-255
200-44-240 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B16 255-208-255
H-S-V
200-44-240
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
B18
B17
B16 Na-SO 255-208-255
H-S-V Mixed
Transitional
Basic
B17
B18
B18 Na-SO44 R-G-B
200-44-240
255-208-255
200-44-240 Mixed Transitional
Mixed
B17 Na-SO44 H-S-V
R-G-B
200-44-240
H-S-V Transitional
B18
B17
B18 Na-SO4 255-208-255 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B19
B18
B19 200-44-240
H-S-V
255-208-255
200-44-240 Basic
Mixed
Basic
B17 Na-SO4 H-S-V Transitional
B19
B18
B19
B17 Na-SO4 200-44-240
R-G-B
R-G-B
Basic Basic
Mixed
Transitional
B18
B19 H-S-V
200-44-240 Mixed
Basic
B18 R-G-B
192-192-0
H-S-V
192-192-0 Mixed
B19
B18
B19 200-44-240
R-G-B
R-G-B Basic
Mixed
Basic
B20
B19
B20 Na-Cl
Na-Cl 192-192-0
200-44-240
192-192-0 Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B18
B20 Na-Cl R-G-B
192-192-0
R-G-B Mixed
Transitional
B20
B19
B18 Na-Cl H-S-VH-S-V Transitional
Basic
Mixed
B19
B20 R-G-B
H-S-V
192-192-0
40-239-180 Basic
Transitional
B19 Na-Cl 192-192-0
H-S-V
40-239-180 Basic
R-G-B
192-192-0
40-239-180
R-G-B
B20
B19
B20 Na-Cl
Na-Cl H-S-V Transitional
Basic
Transitional
B21
B21
B20
B21 Na-Cl 40-239-180
192-192-0
R-G-B Mixed Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B19 192-192-0
H-S-V
40-239-180
R-G-B
H-S-V Basic
B21
B20
B19 Na-Cl 192-192-0
H-S-V Mixed
Transitional
Basic
B20
B21 Na-Cl R-G-B
40-239-180
192-192-0
40-239-180 Transitional
Mixed
B20 Na-Cl H-S-V
R-G-B
40-239-180
H-S-V Transitional
B21
B20
B21 Na-Cl 192-192-0 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
B21 H-S-V
40-239-180
192-192-0
40-239-180 Mixed
B20 Na-Cl H-S-V Transitional
B21
B20
B21 Na-Cl 40-239-180 Mixed
Transitional
Mixed
H-S-V
40-239-180
B21 H-S-V Mixed
B21 40-239-180 Mixed
40-239-180
B21 Mixed
B21 Mixed
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
 APPENDIx 105
PIE CHART FOR THE PRESENTATION OF HYDROCHEMISTRY OF WATERS
ADDITIONAL TO GROUNDWATER
PIE CHART FOR THE PRESENTATION OF HYDROCHEMISTRY
PIE
PIE CHART
OF CHART
FOR FOR THE PRESENTATION
THE ADDITIONAL
WATERS PRESENTATION
TO OF OF HYDROCHEMISTRY
HYDROCHEMISTRY
GROUNDWATER OF WATERS
OF WATERS
ADDITIONAL
ADDITIONAL TO GROUNDWATER
TO GROUNDWATER

PIE CHART FOR THE PRESENTATION OF HYDROCHEMISTRY OF WATERS

ADDITIONAL
PIE TO GROUNDWATER
CHART FOR THE PRESENTATION OF HYDROCHEMISTRY OF WATERS
ADDITIONAL TO GROUNDWATER

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES OF REPRESENTATION
OF REPRESENTATION OF DETAILED
OF DETAILED DATA DATA
EXAMPLES OF
EXAMPLES OF REPRESENTATION
REPRESENTATION OF DETAILED
OF DETAILED DATA DATA
No. in No. in
Specification Specification
library Description Description
library
No. in in
No.
Specifi cation Description
library Specification
EXAMPLES OF REPRESENTATION OF DETAILED DATA Description
D1
library
D1 2 2 Isosalinity in mg/l (contours
2Isosalinity in mg/l (contours of TDS) of TDS)
12EXAMPLES1 OF REPRESENTATION OF DETAILED DATA
No. in
Specification Description
library
D1 D1No. in 122 Isosalinity in mg/l (contours of TDS)
Isosalinity in mg/l (contours of TDS)
library
D1 FSpecification
Area
1 2 2
F Area of
Isosalinity groundwater
in mg/l with
(contours of
Description
a high
TDS)
of groundwater with a high content of fluorides contentinof fluorides in
D9 D9
D1 12 2
orange colour orange
(above colour
Isosalinitythe
in (above
national
mg/l the national
standards)
(contours of TDS) standards)

D9 D9
F F AreaArea of groundwater
of groundwater
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with a high
of groundwater a highofcontent
fluoridesofinfluorides in
with a high content of fluorides in
D9 F orange
orange
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with a high national
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of fluorides in
D10 D10 D9 Dug
Dug well withorange
a high orange
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with
content
colour
aofhigh
nitrates
the (above
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the
standards) national
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(abovestandards)
the national standards)

D10 Dug well with a high content of nitrates (above the national standards)
D10 D10 DugDug
wellwell
with with
a highacontent
high content of (above
of nitrates nitratesthe(above
nationalthe national standards)
standards)

D10 Dug well with a high content of nitrates (above the national standards)

98
98

98 98
 APPENDIX 5
APPENDIX
SYMBOLOGY
APPENDIX 5
5
106
APPENDIX
B SYMBOLOGY
5 IN
a s i c p r i n c i p l e s IN
GEOHAZARD MAP
o f GEOHAZARD
g e o l o g i c a l a n dMAP
t h e mat i c ma p p i n g
The items of legend to theGEOHAZARD
SYMBOLOGY geological hazard maps include three main groups of graphical in
SYMBOLOGY IN
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APPENDIX
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1 SYMBOLOGY
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Potential occurrence of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
2 librar Dark blue Potential
and suffusion suffusion
occurrence of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
2 y1y2y Symbology
Dark blue Seismic
andhazard
Potential suffusion
occurrence
andhazard
suffusion
of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
1 Dark blue Seismic
Potential occurrence
and suffusion of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
2 Dark blue Potential occurrence
and suffusion of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
12 Dark blue Seismic hazard
of groundObserved
333 121 and suffusion
Potential occurrence
Observed
Seismic hazard ground ground fissures
fissures, subsidence
fissures of terrain
3 3123
and Observed
suffusion
Seismic
Potential hazard
occurrence
Observed
Observed
Seismic ground
hazard
ground
of ground fissures
ground fissures
fissures fissures, subsidence of terrain
3 23 and Observed
suffusion
Observed
Potential ground
of groundfissures
ground fissures
occurrence
Observed ground fissures
fissures, subsidence of terrain
and suffusion
Potential occurrence of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
4 32 Observed
Potential
ground fissures
occurrence Pyroclastic
of ground fissures, subsidencefallsof terrain
44 42324 and
and
suffusion
Pyroclastic
Potential
Observed
falls
Pyroclastic
occurrence
ground
Pyroclastic
suffusion
Pyroclastic
Potential falls
occurrence
offalls
fissuresground fissures, subsidence of terrain
falls
of ground fissures, subsidence of terrain
4 243 and Pyroclastic
suffusion
Pyroclastic
Observed falls
falls fissures
ground
4 43 Pyroclastic
and suffusion
Pyroclastic falls
Observed ground fissures
falls
5 534 Limit of the
Observed
Pyroclastic possible
ground
falls Limit
extent of
fissures the possible
of lava flows extent of lava flows
35 Observed
Limit of theground fissures
possible extent of lava flows
55 45345 Pyroclastic
Limit of
Observed
LimitLimit
the
Limit falls
possible
groundof
of
of thefalls
the
the
possible
extent
fissures of
possible
possible
extent
lava flows
extent
of lavaextent
flows of
oflava
lavaflows
flows
5 64 Pyroclastic
Limit of the possible extent of lava flows
6
5 546 Area
Limit
prone
Pyroclastic
Limit to
of thefalls
Pyroclastic
Area prone
surface
falls
of
topossible
erosion
the erosion
possible
surfaceextent of lava
Area
extent of lavaerosion
flowsto surface
prone
flows
456 Pyroclastic
Area of thefalls
Limitprone topossible
surfaceextent
erosionof lava flows
6 Area prone
of thetopossible
surfaceextent
erosion
66 5567 Limit
Limit
Area
Area
Landslide
Area prone
of thetoprone
prone surfaceto
possible extent
erosion
of lava flows
tosurface
surface erosion
erosion
of lava flows
6
76 5
57
67
Area
of the prone
Landslide
Limit possible to surface
extent erosion
of lava flows
Area
LimitArea
of thetoprone
Landslide
prone surfaceto
possible surface
erosion
extent erosion
Landslide
of lava flows
678 Landslide
Area proneescarpment
Landslide to surface erosion
687 Area proneescarpment
Landslide to surface erosion
7877 68678 Area
Area
proneescarpment
Landslide
prone
Landslide
Landslide
Landslide
to surface erosion
Landslide
Landslideto surface erosion
escarpment Landslide escarpment
7 79789 Rockfall
Landslide
Landslide
Rockfall escarpment
Landslide
Landslide
97 Rockfall
Landslide
879 Landslide
Trajectoryescarpment
Landslide
Rockfall of earth flows and debris flows
8988 10 8 Landslide
Landslide
Landslide
Trajectory escarpment escarpment
escarpment
of earth flows
Landslide and debris flows
escarpment Rockfall
89
8 10
Rockfall
Trajectory
Landslide of earth flows
escarpment and debris flows
10 89 Landslide
Landslide
proneescarpment
Trajectory
Rockfall
Area of
toearth escarpment
rapidflows and debris
accumulation andflows
aggradation of sediment
10 8 Landslide
Area
escarpment
prone to rapid accumulation and aggradation of sediment
11 9 Rockfall
Trajectory
Area proneof toearth
rapidflows and debris
accumulation andflows
aggradation of sediment
11
10 9 Rockfall
999 11
10 10 9 Area Rockfall
Rockfall
Trajectory
prone
Rockfall
Rockfall
Inundation
of
toearth
zone
rapidflows and debris
accumulation
Trajectory and
of
flows
aggradation of sediment
earth flows and debris flows
9 1011 9 Rockfall
Area Rockfall
Trajectory
proneof toearth
rapidflows and debris
accumulation andflows
aggradation of sediment
12 Inundation
Trajectory zone
of earth flows and debris flows
11 Inundation
Area proneof zone
toearth
rapidflows
accumulation and aggradation of sediment
10
12 Trajectory and debris flows
12
10
11 Trajectory
Trajectory
Inundation
Trajectory zone
of
Trajectory earth of
ofearth
flows
of earth flows
flows
and debris
earth flows and
flows
andanddebris
debris flows
flows
10
10 10 Area
Vent prone
of the toto rapid
laterapid accumulation
Pleistocene and
to Holocene silicicdebris
aggradation flows
of sediment
volcano
11 12
10 11 Area Trajectory
prone
Inundation
Vent of Area
the zone
late prone oftoearth
rapid
accumulation
Pleistocene to flows and
accumulation
and aggradation
Holocene silicicdebris
and
volcano flows of sediment
ofaggradation
sediment
10 13 11
12
11
13
Area
Vent prone
Inundation
Area prone
to
laterapid
of the zone
to rapid
accumulation
Pleistocene
accumulation
and aggradation
to Holocene of sediment
silicic volcano
and aggradation of sediment
VentArea
of the zone
late Pleistocene
prone to to Holocene
rapid silicic volcano
accumulation and
12
13
11 Area
Inundation
Area
Inundation
prone
prone to rapid
to rapid accumulation
accumulation andaggradation
and aggradation
aggradation of sediment
ofof sediment
sediment
11 13
12 of the zone
Fumarole
VentArea late Pleistocene
prone to to Holocene
rapid silicic volcano
accumulation and aggradation of sediment
11
11
12 12 14 Inundation
Fumarole
Vent
zone
of the zone
Inundation Inundation
late Pleistocene to Holocene silicic volcanozone
11 13 14
12
14
12
13
Fumarole
Vent of the late Pleistocene to Holocene silicic volcano
Fumarole
14
13 VentInundation
of the late Pleistocene
zone 99to Holocene silicic volcano
Inundation
VentInundation
Fumarole
of zone
zone
the late Pleistocene 99to Holocene silicic volcano
13 13
12 14 Vent of the late
Inundation Pleistocene
Fumarole Vent of the 99 zone to Holocene
late Pleistocene silicic volcano silicic volcano
to Holocene
12
12 13
12 14 13
14
Fumarole
Fumarole
99
99
14 Fumarole
Vent of the late
14 14
14 Fumarole
Ventof
Vent ofthe
thelatelate99Pleistocene
Pleistoceneto
Pleistocene
Fumarole totoHolocene
Holocenesilicic
Holocene silicicvolcano
silicic volcano
volcano
13 Vent of the late99Pleistocene to Holocene silicic volcano
13
13 99
13 99
99
Fumarole
Fumarole
14 Fumarole
Fumarole
14
14
14
99
99
 APPENDIX 107

Appendix 6
Recommended codes for the Reference Soil Groups

Overview of Key to Reference Soil Groups

Acrisol AC Cryosol CR Leptosol LP Regosol RG

Alisol AL Durisol DU Lixisol LX Solonchak SC

Andosol AN Ferralsol FR Luvisol LV Solonetz SN

Anthrosol AT Fluvisol FL Nitisol NT Stagnosol ST

Arenosol AR Gleysol GL Phaeozem PH Technosol TC

Calcisol CL Gypsisol GY Planosol PL Umbrisol UM

Cambisol CM Histosol HS Plinthosol PT Vertisol VR

Chernozem CH Kastanozem KS Podzol PZ