his article is about the law related to electricity.
For other uses, see Ohm's acoustic law.
V, I, and R, the parameters of Ohm's law.
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the potential difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to
the resistance between them.[1]
The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:[2]
where I is the current through the resistance in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the resistance in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant,
independent of the current.[3]
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in
1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits
containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one
above (see History section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is
the modern form of Ohm's law.
In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law
originally formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this is:
where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric
field at that location, and σ is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity. This
reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Microscopic origins of Ohm's law
2 Hydraulic analogy
3 Circuit analysis
o 3.1 Resistive circuits
o 3.2 Reactive circuits with time-
varying signals
o 3.3 Linear approximations
4 Temperature effects
5 Relation to heat conductions
6 Other versions of Ohm's law
o 6.1 Magnetic effects
7 History
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit]Microscopic origins of Ohm's law
Drude Model electrons (shown here in blue) constantly bounce between heavier, stationary crystal
ions (shown in red).
Main articles: Drude model and Classical and quantum conductivity
The dependence of the current density on the applied electric field is essentially quantum
mechanicalin nature; (see Classical and quantum conductivity.) A qualitative description
leading to Ohm's law can be based upon classical mechanics using the Drude
model developed by Paul Drude in 1900.[5][6]
The Drude model treats electrons (or other charge carriers) like pinballs bouncing
between the ionsthat make up the structure of the material. Electrons will be accelerated
in the opposite direction to the electric field by the average electric field at their location.
With each collision, though, the electron is deflected in a random direction with a velocity
that is much larger than the velocity gained by the electric field. The net result is that
electrons take a tortuous path due to the collisions, but generally drift in a direction
opposing the electric field.
The drift velocity then determines the electric current density and its relationship to E and
is independent of the collisions. Drude calculated the average drift velocity
from p = −eEτ where p is the average momentum, −e is the charge of the electron and τ is
the average time between the collisions. Since both the momentum and the current
density are proportional to the drift velocity, the current density becomes proportional to
the applied electric field; this leads to Ohm's law.
[edit]Hydraulic analogy
A hydraulic analogy is sometimes used to describe Ohm's Law. Water pressure,
measured by pascals (or PSI), is the analog of voltage because establishing a water
pressure difference between two points along a (horizontal) pipe causes water to flow.
Water flow rate, as inliters per second, is the analog of current, as in coulombs per
second. Finally, flow restrictors — such as apertures placed in pipes between points
where the water pressure is measured — are the analog of resistors. We say that the rate
of water flow through an aperture restrictor is proportional to the difference in water
pressure across the restrictor. Similarly, the rate of flow of electrical charge, that is, the
electric current, through an electrical resistor is proportional to the difference in voltage
measured across the resistor.
Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in fluid flow network with the use of the
hydraulic ohm analogy.[7][8] The method can be applied to both steady and transient flow
situations. In the linear laminar flow region, Poiseuille's law describes the hydraulic
resistance of a pipe, but in the turbulent flow region the pressure–flow relations become
nonlinear.
[edit]Circuit analysis
Ohm's law triangle
In circuit analysis, three equivalent expressions of Ohm's law are used interchangeably:
Indeed, each is quoted by some sources as the defining relationship of Ohm's law, [2]
[9][10]
or all three are quoted,[11] or derived from a proportional form,[12] or even just the
two that do not correspond to Ohm's original statement may sometimes be given. [13]
[14]
The interchangeability of the equation may be represented by a triangle, where V
(voltage) is placed on the top section, the I (current) is placed to the left section, and
the R (resistance) is placed to the right. The line that divides the left and right
sections indicate multiplication, and the divider between the top and bottom sections
indicates division (hence the division bar).
[edit]Resistive circuits
Resistors are circuit elements that impede the passage of electric charge in
agreement with Ohm's law, and are designed to have a specific resistance value R.
In a schematic diagram the resistor is shown as a zig-zag symbol. An element
(resistor or conductor) that behaves according to Ohm's law over some operating
range is referred to as an ohmic device (or an ohmic resistor) because Ohm's law
and a single value for the resistance suffice to describe the behavior of the device
over that range.
Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or
inductances) for all forms of driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the
driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time-varying such as AC. At any instant
of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits.
Resistors which are in series or in parallel may be grouped together into a single
"equivalent resistance" in order to apply Ohm's law in analyzing the circuit. This
application of Ohm's law is illustrated with examples in "How To Analyze Resistive
Circuits Using Ohm's Law" onwikiHow.
[edit]Reactive circuits with time-varying signals
When reactive elements such as capacitors, inductors, or transmission lines are
involved in a circuit to which AC or time-varying voltage or current is applied, the
relationship between voltage and current becomes the solution to a differential
equation, so Ohm's law (as defined above) does not directly apply since that form
contains only resistances having value R, not complex impedances which may
contain capacitance ("C") or inductance ("L").
Equations for time-invariant AC circuits take the same form as Ohm's law, however,
the variables are generalized to complex numbers and the current and voltage
waveforms are complex exponentials.[15]
In this approach, a voltage or current waveform takes the form Aest, where t is
time, s is a complex parameter, and A is a complex scalar. In any linear time-
invariant system, all of the currents and voltages can be expressed with the
same s parameter as the input to the system, allowing the time-varying complex
exponential term to be canceled out and the system described algebraically in terms
of the complex scalars in the current and voltage waveforms.
The complex generalization of resistance is impedance, usually denoted Z; it can be
shown that for an inductor,
and for a capacitor,
We can now write,
where V and I are the complex scalars in the voltage and current
respectively and Z is the complex impedance.
This form of Ohm's law, with Z taking the place of R, generalizes the
simpler form. When Z is complex, only the real part is responsible for
dissipating heat.
In the general AC circuit, Z varies strongly with the frequency
parameter s, and so also will the relationship between voltage and
current.
For the common case of a steady sinusoid, the s parameter is taken
to be jω, corresponding to a complex sinusoid Aejωt. The real parts of
such complex current and voltage waveforms describe the actual
sinusoidal currents and voltages in a circuit, which can be in different
phases due to the different complex scalars.
[edit]Linear approximations
See also: Small-signal modeling and Network analysis (electrical
circuits)#Small signal equivalent circuit
Ohm's law is one of the basic equations used in the analysis of
electrical circuits. It applies to both metal conductors and circuit
components (resistors) specifically made for this behaviour. Both are
ubiquitous in electrical engineering. Materials and components that
obey Ohm's law are described as "ohmic" [16] which means they
produce the same value for resistance (R = V/I) regardless of the
value of V or I which is applied and whether the applied voltage or
current is DC (direct current) of either positive or negative polarity or
AC (alternating current).
In a true ohmic device, the same value of resistance will be
calculated from R = V/I regardless of the value of the applied voltage
V. That is, the ratio of V/I is constant, and when current is plotted as a
function of voltage the curve is linear (a straight line). If voltage is
forced to some value V, then that voltage V divided by measured
current I will equal R. Or if the current is forced to some value I, then
the measured voltage V divided by that current I is also R. Since the
plot of I versus V is a straight line, then it is also true that for any set
of two different voltages V1 and V2 applied across a given device of
resistance R, producing currents I1 = V1/R and I2 = V2/R, that the ratio
(V1-V2)/(I1-I2) is also a constant equal to R. The operator "delta" (Δ) is
used to represent a difference in a quantity, so we can write ΔV = V1-
V2 and ΔI = I1-I2. Summarizing, for any truly ohmic device having
resistance R, V/I = ΔV/ΔI = R for any applied voltage or current or for
the difference between any set of applied voltages or currents.
Plot of I–V curve of an ideal p-n junction diode at 1μA reverse leakage
current. Failure of the device to follow Ohm's law is clearly shown since the
curve is not a straight line.
There are, however, components of electrical circuits which do not
obey Ohm's law; that is, their relationship between current and
voltage (their I–V curve) is nonlinear. An example is thep-n junction
diode (curve at right). As seen in the figure, the current does not
increase linearly with applied voltage for a diode. One can determine
a value of current (I) for a given value of applied voltage (V) from the
curve, but not from Ohm's law, since the value of "resistance" is not
constant as a function of applied voltage. Further, the current only
increases significantly if the applied voltage is positive, not negative.
The ratio V/I for some point along the nonlinear curve is sometimes
called the static, or chordal, or DC, resistance[17][18], but as seen in the
figure the value of total V over total I varies depending on the
particular point along the nonlinear curve which is chosen. This
means the "DC resistance" V/I at some point on the curve is not the
same as what would be determined by applying an AC signal having
peak amplitude ΔV volts or ΔI amps centered at that same point
along the curve and measuring ΔV/ΔI. However, in some diode
applications, the AC signal applied to the device is small and it is
possible to analyze the circuit in terms of the dynamic, small-signal,
or incremental resistance, defined as the one over the slope of the V–
I curve at the average value (DC operating point) of the voltage (that
is, one over the derivative of current with respect to voltage). For
sufficiently small signals, the dynamic resistance allows the Ohm's
law small signal resistance to be calculated as approximately one
over the slope of a line drawn tangentially to the V-I curve at the DC
operating point.[19]
[edit]Temperature effects
Ohm's law has sometimes been stated as, "for a conductor in a given
state, the electromotive force is proportional to the current produced."
That is, that the resistance, the ratio of the applied electromotive
force (or voltage) to the current, "does not vary with the current
strength ." The qualifier "in a given state" is usually interpreted as
meaning "at a constant temperature," since the resistivity of materials
is usually temperature dependent. Because the conduction of current
is related to Joule heating of the conducting body, according
to Joule's first law, the temperature of a conducting body may change
when it carries a current. The dependence of resistance on
temperature therefore makes resistance depend upon the current in a
typical experimental setup, making the law in this form difficult to
directly verify. Maxwell and others worked out several methods to test
the law experimentally in 1876, controlling for heating effects.[20]
[edit]Relation to heat conductions
See also: Conduction (heat)
Ohm's principle predicts the flow of electrical charge (i.e. current) in
electrical conductors when subjected to the influence of voltage
differences; Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier's principle predicts the flow
of heat in heat conductors when subjected to the influence of
temperature differences.
The same equation describes both phenomena, the equation's
variables taking on different meanings in the two cases. Specifically,
solving a heat conduction (Fourier) problem with temperature (the
driving "force") and flux of heat (the rate of flow of the driven
"quantity", i.e. heat energy) variables also solves an
analogous electrical conduction (Ohm) problem having electric
potential (the driving "force") and electric current (the rate of flow of
the driven "quantity", i.e. charge) variables.
The basis of Fourier's work was his clear conception and definition
of thermal conductivity. He assumed that, all else being the same, the
flux of heat is strictly proportional to the gradient of temperature.
Although undoubtedly true for small temperature gradients, strictly
proportional behavior will be lost when real materials (e.g. ones
having a thermal conductivity that is a function of temperature) are
subjected to large temperature gradients.
A similar assumption is made in the statement of Ohm's law: other
things being alike, the strength of the current at each point is
proportional to the gradient of electric potential. The accuracy of the
assumption that flow is proportional to the gradient is more readily
tested, using modern measurement methods, for the electrical case
than for the heat case.
[edit]Other versions of Ohm's law
Ohm's law, in the form above, is an extremely useful equation in the
field of electrical/electronic engineering because it describes how
voltage, current and resistance are interrelated on a "macroscopic"
level, that is, commonly, as circuit elements in an electrical circuit.
Physicists who study the electrical properties of matter at the
microscopic level use a closely related and more
general vector equation, sometimes also referred to as Ohm's law,
having variables that are closely related to the V, I, and
R scalar variables of Ohm's law, but are each functions of position
within the conductor. Physicists often use this continuum form of
Ohm's Law:[21]
where "E" is the electric field vector with units of volts per meter
(analogous to "V" of Ohm's law which has units of volts), "J" is
the current density vector with units of amperes per unit area
(analogous to "I" of Ohm's law which has units of amperes), and
"ρ" (Greek "rho") is theresistivity with units of ohm·meters
(analogous to "R" of Ohm's law which has units of ohms). The
above equation is sometimes written[22] asJ = σE where "σ" is
the conductivity which is the reciprocal of ρ.
Current flowing through a uniform cylindrical conductor (such as a
round wire) with a uniform field applied.
The potential difference between two points is defined as:[23]
with the element of path along the integration of electric
field vector E. If the applied E field is uniform and oriented
along the length of the conductor as shown in the figure,
then defining the voltage V in the usual convention of being
opposite in direction to the field (see figure), and with the
understanding that the voltage V is measured differentially
across the length of the conductor allowing us to drop the
Δ symbol, the above vector equation reduces to the scalar
equation:
Since the E field is uniform in the direction of wire
length, for a conductor having uniformly consistent
resistivity ρ, the current density J will also be uniform
in any cross-sectional area and oriented in the
direction of wire length, so we may write:[24]
Substituting the above 2 results
(for E and J respectively) into the continuum
form shown at the beginning of this section:
The electrical resistance of a uniform
conductor is given in terms of resistivity by:
[24]
where l is the length of the conductor
in SI units of meters, a is the cross-
sectional area (for a round
wire a = πr2 if r is radius) in units of
meters squared, and ρ is the resistivity
in units of ohm·meters.
After substitution of R from the above
equation into the equation preceding
it, the continuum form of Ohm's law for
a uniform field (and uniform current
density) oriented along the length of
the conductor reduces to the more
familiar form:
A perfect crystal lattice, with low
enough thermal motion and no
deviations from periodic
structure, would have
no resistivity,[25] but a real metal
has crystallographic defects,
impurities, multiple isotopes, and
thermal motion of the atoms.
Electrons scatter from all of
these, resulting in resistance to
their flow.
The more complex generalized
forms of Ohm's law are important
to condensed matter physics,
which studies the properties
of matter and, in particular,
its electronic structure. In broad
terms, they fall under the topic
of constitutive equations and the
theory of transport coefficients.
[edit]Magnetic effects
The continuum form of the
equation is only valid in
the reference frame of the
conducting material. If the
material is moving at
velocity vrelative to a magnetic
field B, a term must be added as
follows:
See Lorentz force for more
on this and Hall effect for
some other implications of a
magnetic field. This
equation is not a
modification to Ohm's law.
Rather, it is analogous in
circuit analysis terms to
taking into account
inductance as well as
resistance.
[edit]History
In January 1781,
before Georg Ohm's
work, Henry
Cavendish experimented
with Leyden jars and glass
tubes of varying diameter
and length filled with salt
solution. He measured the
current by noting how
strong a shock he felt as he
completed the circuit with
his body. Cavendish wrote
that the "velocity" (current)
varied directly as the
"degree of electrification"
(voltage). He did not
communicate his results to
other scientists at the time,
[26]
and his results were
unknown
until Maxwell published
them in 1879.[27]
Ohm did his work on
resistance in the years 1825
and 1826, and published his
results in 1827 as the
book Die galvanische Kette,
mathematisch
bearbeitet (The galvanic
Circuit investigated
mathematically).[28] He drew
considerable inspiration
from Fourier's work on heat
conduction in the theoretical
explanation of his work. For
experiments, he initially
used voltaic piles, but later
used a thermocouple as this
provided a more stable
voltage source in terms of
internal resistance and
constant potential
difference. He used a
galvanometer to measure
current, and knew that the
voltage between the
thermocouple terminals was
proportional to the junction
temperature. He then added
test wires of varying length,
diameter, and material to
complete the circuit. He
found that his data could be
modeled through the
equation
where x was the
reading from the
galvanometer, l was
the length of the test
conductor, a depended
only on the
thermocouple junction
temperature,
and b was a constant
of the entire setup.
From this, Ohm
determined his law of
proportionality and
published his results.
Ohm's law was
probably the most
important of the early
quantitative
descriptions of the
physics of electricity.
We consider it almost
obvious today. When
Ohm first published his
work, this was not the
case; critics reacted to
his treatment of the
subject with hostility.
They called his work a
"web of naked
fancies"[29] and the
German Minister of
Education proclaimed
that "a professor who
preached such
heresies was unworthy
to teach
science."[30] The
prevailing scientific
philosophy in Germany
at the time asserted
that experiments need
not be performed to
develop an
understanding of
nature because nature
is so well ordered, and
that scientific truths
may be deduced
through reasoning
alone. Also, Ohm's
brother Martin, a
mathematician, was
battling the German
educational system.
These factors hindered
the acceptance of
Ohm's work, and his
work did not become
widely accepted until
the 1840s. Fortunately,
Ohm received
recognition for his
contributions to
science well before he
died.
In the 1850s, Ohm's
law was known as
such, and was widely
considered proved,
and alternatives such
as "Barlow's law"
discredited, in terms of
real applications to
telegraph system
design, as discussed
by Samuel F. B.
Morse in 1855.[31]
While the old term for
electrical conductance,
the mho (the inverse of
the resistance unit
ohm), is still used, a
new name,
the siemens, was
adopted in 1971,
honoring Ernst Werner
von Siemens. The
siemens is preferred in
formal papers.
In the 1920s, it was
discovered that the
current through an
ideal resistor actually
has statistical
fluctuations, which
depend on
temperature, even
when voltage and
resistance are exactly
constant; this
fluctuation, now known
as Johnson–Nyquist
noise, is due to the
discrete nature of
charge. This thermal
effect implies that
measurements of
current and voltage
that are taken over
sufficiently short
periods of time will
yield ratios of V/I that
fluctuate from the
value of R implied by
the time average
or ensemble
average of the
measured current;
Ohm's law remains
correct for the average
current, in the case of
ordinary resistive
materials.
Ohm's work long
preceded Maxwell's
equations and any
understanding of
frequency-dependent
effects in AC circuits.
Modern developments
in electromagnetic
theory and circuit
theory do not
contradict Ohm's law
when they are
evaluated within the
appropriate limits.
Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge
arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely
used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is
wired internally.
Index
Rectifie
rs
Add RC filter Add LC filter Current flow in the bridge
Go Back
HyperPhysics*****Electricity and R Nave
magnetism*****Electronics
Bridge Rectifier, RC Filter
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge
arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely
used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is
wired internally.
Index
Rectifie
rs
Remove filter Use LC filter
Analyze ripple voltage
HyperPhysics*****Electricity and Go Back
R Nave
magnetism*****Electronics
Bridge Rectifier, LC Filter
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge
arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely
used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is
wired internally.
Index
Rectifie
rs
Remove filter Use RC filter
HyperPhysics*****Electricity and Go Back
R Nave
magnetism*****Electronics
Current Flow in the Bridge Rectifier
For both positive
and negative
swings of the
transformer, there
is a forward path
through the diode
bridge. Both
conduction paths
cause current to
flow in the same
direction through
the load resistor,
accomplishing full-
wave rectification.
While one set of
diodes isforward
biased, the other
set is reverse
biased and
effectively
eliminated from the
circuit.
Bridge rectifier discussion
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge configuration that provides
the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for
conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in
lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformerwith a center-
tapped secondary winding.[1]
n alternating current (AC, also ac) the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction.
In direct current (DC), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction.
AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences. The
usualwaveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms
are used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are
also examples of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery of
information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.
