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Endocrine gland
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Endocrine glands are glands of the
endocrine system that secrete their Endocrine glands
products, hormones, directly into
the blood rather than through a duct.
The major glands of the endocrine
system include the pineal gland,
pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries,
testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid
gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal
tract and adrenal glands. The
hypothalamus and pituitary gland are
neuroendocrine organs. Local
chemical messengers, not generally
considered part of the endocrine
system, include autocrines, which act
on the cells that secrete them, and
paracrines, which act on a different
cell type nearby.
The ability of a target cell to respond
to a hormone depends on the
presence of receptors, within the cell The major endocrine glands:
or on its plasma membrane, to which
the hormone can bind. 1 Pineal gland 2 Pituitary gland 3 Thyroid gland 4 Thymus 5 Adrenal gland 6 Pancreas
7 Ovary (female)
Hormone receptors are dynamic 8 Testis (male)
structures. Changes in number and
Latin glandulae endocrinae
sensitivity of hormone receptors may
occur in response to high or low Code TH H2.00.02.0.03072
levels of stimulating hormones. (http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/ViewTH/THh200.html)
Anatomical terminology
Blood levels of hormones reflect a
balance between secretion and
degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products
are excreted in urine and feces.
Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone.
Contents
1 Interaction of hormones at target cells
2 Control of hormone release
3 Major endocrine organs
3.1 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
3.2 Thyroid gland
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3.3 Parathyroid glands
3.4 Pancreas
3.5 Gonads
3.6 Pineal gland
4 Other hormone-producing structures
5 Developmental aspects of the endocrine systems
6 References
Interaction of hormones at target cells
Permissiveness is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another
hormone.
Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are
amplified.
Antagonism occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone.
Control of hormone release
Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli. Negative
feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.
The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal
effects.
Major endocrine organs
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the
brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It
consists of a hormone-producing glandular
portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural portion
(posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the
hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and
synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the
posterior pituitary for storage and later release.
Four of the six adenohypophyseal hormones are
tropic hormones that regulate the function of Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their
other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones
hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release,
which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus.
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Somatotropic hormone or Growth hormone (GH) is an anabolic hormone that stimulates growth of all body
tissues but especially skeletal muscle and bone. It may act directly, or indirectly via insulin-like growth factors
(IGFs). GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is
regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH), or
somatostatin. Hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults; hyposecretion in children
causes pituitary dwarfism.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes normal development and activity of the thyroid gland.
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates its release; negative feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids. ACTH release
is triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and inhibited by rising glucocorticoid levels.
The gonadotropins—follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) regulate the functions of
the gonads in both sexes. FSH stimulates sex cell production; LH stimulates gonadal hormone production.
Gonadotropin levels rise in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Negative feedback of
gonadal hormones inhibits gonadotropin release.
Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk production in humans females. Its secretion is prompted by prolactin-releasing
hormone (PRH) and inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH).
The neurohypophysis stores and releases two hypothalamic hormones:
Oxytocin stimulates powerful uterine contractions, which trigger labor and delivery of an infant, and milk
ejection in nursing women. Its release is mediated reflexively by the hypothalamus and represents a
positive feedback mechanism.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb and conserve water, resulting in
small volumes of highly concentrated urine and decreased plasma osmolarity. ADH is released in
response to high solute concentrations in the blood and inhibited by low solute concentrations in the
blood. Hyposecretion results in diabetes insipidus.
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located in the anterior throat. Thyroid follicles store colloid containing thyroglobulin, a
glycoprotein from which thyroid hormone is derived.
Thyroid hormone (TH) includes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which increase the rate of cellular
metabolism. Consequently, oxygen use and heat production rise.
Secretion of thyroid hormone, prompted by TSH, requires reuptake of the stored colloid by the follicle cells and
splitting of the hormones from the colloid for release. Rising levels of thyroid hormone feed back to inhibit the
pituitary and hypothalamus.
Most T4 is converted to T3 (the more active form) in the target tissues. These hormones act by turning on gene
and protein synthesis.
Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism; hyposecretion causes cretinism in infants and
myxoedema in adults.
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Calcitonin, produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in response to rising blood calcium levels,
depresses blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone matrix resorption and enhancing calcium deposit in bone.
Parathyroid glands
The parathyroid glands, located on the dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH),[1] which causes an increase in blood calcium levels by targeting bone, the intestine, and the kidneys.
PTH is the antagonist of calcitonin. PTH release is triggered by falling blood calcium levels and is inhibited by
rising blood calcium levels.
Hyperparathyroidism results in hypercalcaemia and all its effects and in extreme bone wasting.
Hypoparathyroidism leads to hypocalcaemia, evidenced by tetany and respiratory paralysis.
Pancreas
The pancreas, located in the abdomen close to the stomach, is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. The
endocrine portion (islets of langerhans) releases insulin and glucagon and smaller amounts of other hormones to
the blood.
Glucagon, released by alpha (α) cells when glucose level in blood are low, stimulates the liver to release glucose
to the blood.
Insulin is released by beta (β) cells when blood levels of glucose (and amino acids) are rising. It increases the
rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by most body cells. Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus;
cardinal signs are polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia.
Gonads
The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two main hormones. Secretion of estrogens by the
ovarian follicles begins at puberty under the influence of FSH. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the female
reproductive system and development of the secondary sexual characteristics. Progesterone is released in
response to high blood levels of LH. It works with estrogens in establishing the menstrual cycle.
The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty in response to LH. Testosterone promotes
maturation of the male reproductive organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and production of
sperm by the testes.
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is located in the diencephalon. Its primary hormone is melatonin, which influences daily rhythms
and may have an antigonadotropic effect in humans.
Other hormone-producing structures
Many body organs not normally considered endocrine organs contain isolated cell clusters that secrete
hormones. Examples include the heart (atrial natriuretic peptide); gastrointestinal tract organs (gastrin, secretin,
and others); the placenta (hormones of pregnancy—estrogen, progesterone, and others); the kidneys
(erythropoietin and renin); the thymus; skin (cholecalciferol); and adipose tissue (leptin and resistin). B
Developmental aspects of the endocrine systems
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Endocrine glands derive from all three germ layers. Those derived from mesoderm produce steroidal hormones;
the others produce the amino acid–based hormones.
The natural decrease in function of the female’s ovaries during late middle age results in menopause. The
efficiency of all endocrine glands seems to decrease gradually as aging occurs. This leads to a generalized
increase in the incidence of diabetes mellitus and a lower metabolic rate.
References
1. ^ Endocrinology: Tissue Histology. (http://www.unomaha.edu/hpa/endocrinehistology.html) University of
Nebraska at Omaha.
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Categories: Endocrine system
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