Waste and Biomass Valorization

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0295-9

ORIGINAL PAPER

Main Characteristics of Underexploited Amazonian Palm Fibers

for Using as Potential Reinforcing Materials
A. S. Fonseca1 · J. Raabe1,2 · L. M. Dias1 · A. E. R. Baliza1 · T. G. Costa1 · L. E. Silva1 · R. P. Vasconcelos3 ·
J. M. Marconcini4 · H. Savastano Jr.5 · L. M. Mendes1 · A. Yu6 · W. J. Orts6 · G. H. D. Tonoli1,6

Received: 1 December 2017 / Accepted: 2 April 2018

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
This study aimed to present the morphological, chemical, structural, thermal, and tensile properties of three Amazonian palm
fibers (Leopoldinia piassaba—PIASSAVA, Desmoncus polyacanthos—JACITARA, and Astrocaryum sp.—TUCUM) and
their inner (INN) and outer (OUT) portions, in order to provide support for possible use of these fibers as reinforcement in
composites. TUCUM and TUCUM OUT presented the narrower fibers and lower lumen diameters, while JACITARA INN
and OUT presented the wider fibers and higher lumen diameters. PIASSAVA and TUCUM INN were the shorter fibers,
while JACITARA INN and OUT were the longer. TUCUM fibers presented the higher aspect ratio, wall fraction (WF), and
coefficient of rigidity (CR). PIASSAVA fibers contain relatively higher lignin and extractive contents, which led to lower
crystallinity index (CI), lower tensile strength (TS), lower modulus of elasticity (E), and higher elongation at break (EB)
than others. JACITARA OUT fibers presented higher CI, thermal stability, and mechanical properties than JACITARA INN.
TUCUM fibers presented the higher content of cellulose, and the higher values of TS and E, as also corroborated by their
higher CI and thermal stability in relation to their counterparts. TUCUM INN exhibited more interesting characteristics (such
as higher CI, thermal stability, and mechanical properties) than TUCUM OUT. The experimental results in the present work
contribute to the widespread use of the different portions of these underexploited Amazonian palm fibers as a source of raw
materials that may be used to engineer composites and new materials for a wide range of applications.

Keywords  Piassava · Tucum · Jacitara · Vegetable fibers · Lignocellulosic fibers

Introduction
* A. S. Fonseca
[email protected]
The growing demand for environmentally sustainable mate-
1
Department of Forest Science, Universidade Federal de rials as replacement for fossil-derived resources has stimu-
Lavras, C.P. 3037, Lavras, MG 37200‑000, Brazil lated research in several areas of engineering, mainly in the
2
Department of Forest Engineering, Faculdade de Tecnologia, development of cement, ceramic, metallic, and polymeric
Universidade de Brasília - UnB, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, Asa composites. The inclusion of plant fibers in these applica-
Norte, C. P. 04357, Brasilia, DF CEP ‑ 70910‑900, Brazil
tions, replacing the commonly used reinforcements (asbes-
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Technology Faculty, tos, steel, and fiberglass, for example) has been driven both
Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Av. Gal. Rodrigo
Octávio Jordão Ramos, 3000, Setor Norte, Coroado I, by the need to use raw materials from renewable sources and
Manaus, AM 69077‑000, Brazil by the advantages that the use of plant fibers can offer [1, 2].
4
National Nanotechnology Laboratory for Agrobusiness, Plant fibers, mainly composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses,
Embrapa Instrumentação,Rua Quinze de Novembro, 1452, and lignin, also known as lignocellulosic fiber include wood,
Centro, C.P. 741, São Carlos, SP 13560‑970, Brazil agricultural and forestry residues, aquatic plants, grasses,
5
Department of Bio‑systems Engineering, Faculdade de and other plant tissues [3]. Although plant fibers have rela-
Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade de tively low mechanical performance compared to synthetic
São Paulo (USP), Avenida Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, counterparts [4], other advantages such as low cost, low den-
Pirassununga, SP 13635‑900, Brazil
sity, high availability, and lower energy consumption com-
6
Bioproducts Research Unit, WRRC, ARS-USDA, Albany, pared with other non-renewable sources justify the potential
CA 94710, USA

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 Waste and Biomass Valorization

of these materials to replace synthetic fibers in composites. For example, curauá fibers have been utilized in commercial
Additionally, the plant fibers are not abrasive or toxic, they composites [47] thus stimulating environmental, social, and
are originated from renewable sources [5], and are resultant economic advances in Amazon [48]. Arumã fiber (Ischno-
from the absorption of C ­ O2 (carbon dioxide) that is the main siphon arouma (Aubl) Korn), ubuçu (Manicaria saccifera),
gas responsible for the intensification of greenhouse effect buriti (Mauritia flexuosa), açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.),
on the planet. In addition, rural and traditional community and tucum (Astrocaryum chambira) are other species native
can benefit from the use of these materials. to the Amazon region, widely used by traditional popula-
Several types of plant fibers have been investigated as tions for making handcrafted artifacts (e.g., carpets and
reinforcement in composites, such as ramie [6], bamboo [7], bows). Although guidance on the management of tropical
coir fiber [8], cotton [8], jute [9, 10], sisal [11], sugarcane forest for woody species was developed in the last century
bagasse [12], curauá [13, 14], palm leaf [15], and pineapple [49], the guidance for non-woody products is very recent
[17–18]. Also, the use of cellulose nanofibers from several [47, 50, 51], and there is still a lack of information on the
plant sources [19–25] has generated new opportunities for management and technological characteristics of the differ-
research into a myriad of polymer applications. Other poten- ent sources of non-woody forest products, in particular for
tial sources have been also studied for composites purpose, those Amazonian fibers.
especially those from agro-industrial residues [26–28], and Therefore, the present study aimed to determine mor-
forest wastes [19–21, 29–32]. It is particularly important to phological, chemical, structural, thermal, and mechanical
explore fibers from these native forests, as those from the properties of three different underexploited Amazonian palm
Amazon, taking advantage of the huge biodiversity of the fibers in order to provide support information for potential
forests. uses of these fibers as reinforcement in composites for a
The use of lignocellulosic fibers into industrial applica- wide range of applications.
tions is increasing worldwide. According to Al-Oqla and
Sapuan [33], date palm fibers (DPF) present interesting char-
acteristics to be used as reinforcement in polymer compos- Experimental
ites for automotive industry. Other fibers presented similar
results [9, 34, 35]. The oil and gas industry also became Raw Materials
increasingly interested in using pipes and risers made of
fiber-reinforced composites [36]. Moreover, advanced and The fiber species studied in the present work (Table 1) are
functional fabric specimens with antimicrobial activities (for used by traditional Amazonian communities for production
example) were made by biopolymeric products for textile of handicraft utensils and instruments widely commercial-
purposes [37]. ized in South America, and also play an important cultural
With the advent of nanotechnology, different types of cel- role for local communities. They were collected from a
lulosic products for reinforcement applications have been native forest in cooperation with the local management in
developed. They can range from primary and less manufac- the district of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas state,
tured one (i.e., natural macrofibers) to highly processed one Brazil.
(e.g., cellulose nanofibers), presenting different shapes and From the Amazonian palm fibers listed in Table 1, the fol-
sizes. The morphology of the nanofibers depends on the pro- lowing parts were separated and evaluated: (i) piassava fiber
cess of deconstruction of the lignocellulosic fiber, which can (PIASSAVA); (ii) external jacitara fiber (JACITARA OUT)
be physical [9], chemical, and/or mechanical [38–41]. Their that is the main commercial part of this lignocellulosic
performance in polymeric matrix can be improved by chemi- plant; (iii) internal jacitara fiber (JACITARA INN) that is
cal and physical treatments that allow improved interface of normally a residual part of the JACITARA OUT extraction;
the reinforcement with the matrix and increased mechanical (iv) fiber of tucum (TUCUM) that is the main commercial
properties [39, 42–46]. part of this palm leaf; (v) tucum inner epidermis (TUCUM
The Amazon forest is known worldwide for its rich tropi- INN) normally a residue of TUCUM exploitation; and (vi)
cal biodiversity, presenting several non-woody and woody tucum external epidermis (TUCUM OUT), also a residue.
species of great potential for sustainable management, but All those plant fiber parts are shown in Fig. 1 and were indi-
there is a full range of applications that are still not utilized vidually evaluated regarding anatomical, structural (X-ray
and so these resources are often poorly managed. The extrac- diffraction), chemical (ATR-FTIR), thermal, and mechanical
tion of several specific woody species is the main focus of properties.
activity in the Amazon forest, but the increasing demand for
lignocellulosic sources to meet the needs of emerging and
global “green economy” has stimulated research about non-
wood forest fibers, which are abundant and fast growing.

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Waste and Biomass Valorization

Table 1  List of plant fiber species under evaluation in the present study

Name Plant family and main uses
Common Scientific

Piassava Leopoldinia piassaba Arecaceae family (Palms). This fiber is used for making simple products such as brushes, brooms,
and ropes in South America
Jacitara Desmoncus polyacanthos Mart. Arecaceae family (Palms). Used primarily in the manufacture of handcraft products for domestic
utensils and agricultural implements such as ­paneirosa, ­tipitisb, ­abanosc, aturásd, among others
Tucum Astrocaryum sp. Arecaceae family (Palms). The leaves and trunks are used for making handcrafts, while seeds and
fruits are used for feeding of humans and animals
a,b,c,d
 Local names with no translation to English

Fig. 1  Fibrous raw materials of the different Amazonian palm spe- fiber—TUCUM; e inner tucum epidermis—TUCUM INN; and f
cies: a piassava fiber—PIASSAVA; b external jacitara fiber—JACI- external tucum epidermis—TUCUM OUT. Scale bar is 5 mm
TARA OUT; c internal jacitara fiber—JACITARA INN; d tucum

Morphological Analysis until the complete individualization of the anatomical ele-

ments was reached. Histological semi-permanent slides
Plant fiber morphologies were observed in a LEO Evo40 were prepared with the macerated material for measuring
XVP scanning electron microscope (SEM), operating at an the following properties: overall fiber diameter (fd), lumen
accelerating voltage of 20 kV, using secondary electron (SE) diameter (ld), and fiber length (L). Due to the absence of
imaging modes and the user interface software (version LEO specific standards for monocots, the anatomical classifi-
3.2). Fracture surfaces in the cross section of the samples cation of the fibers was performed according to Coradin
were performed using liquid nitrogen [52], and they were and Muñiz [54] and International Association of Wood
gold coated before SEM analyses. Anatomists [55]. Measurements of the dimensions of the
fibers, as anatomical elements, were performed in a light
Fiber Morphology microscope Ken-A-Vision Model TT 1010 with image
analysis software (WinCeLL Pro, Regent Instruments
Separation of the anatomical elements (maceration) was Inc.). Approximately 30 measurements of fiber length,
performed using methodology adapted from Franklin [53]. diameter, and fiber lumen diameter were taken from rep-
The macerated material was placed in an oven at 60 °C resentative samples.

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 Waste and Biomass Valorization

Statistical analysis was carried out applying a com- Chemical Composition

pletely randomized experimental design, with six raw
materials (PIASSAVA, JACITARA OUT and INN, ASTM D1107 [60], ASTM D1110 [61], and ASTM D1106
TUCUM, TUCUM OUT and INN), and 30 replicates for [62] standards were used for determining the total amount
each one. Comparison of means was performed using the of ethanol–toluene–water-soluble extractives and acid-
Tukey test at 5% significance level, via the statistical soft- insoluble lignin, respectively. Holocellulose and cellu-
ware R2.11.0 [56]. lose contents were determined following the procedures
described by Browning [63] and Kennedy, Phillips and
Williams [64]. Hemicelluloses content was obtained using
Anatomical Parameters Eq. 7:
Hemicelluloses (%) = holocellulose(%) − cellulose(%).
From the values of overall fiber diameter (fd) and lumen
(7)
diameter (ld) of the individualized fibers, the following
anatomical parameters were calculated: wall thickness Representative compound samples of jacitara were pre-
(WT), wall fraction (WF), coefficient of rigidity (CR), pared with the mixture of the internal (JACITARA INN) and
Runkel index (RI), and aspect ratio (AR). The WT repre- external (JACITARAOUT) jacitara fibers. Tucum external
sents the average fiber cell wall thickness (Eq. 1) while epidermis (TUCUM OUT), inner epidermis (TUCUM INN),
WF (Eq. 2) indicates the volume occupied by the fiber and tucum fiber (TUCUM) were utilized for tucum mixtures.
wall in relation to the total fiber volume [57]. The classes
for fiber wall thickness (CWT Eq. 3) are based on the
ratio between the lumen and the wall thickness [55]. WF Crystallinity of the Fibers
(Eq. 2), CR (Eq. 4), and RI (Eq. 5) are widely used in the
evaluation of tensile strength and paper breaking, since X-ray diffraction (XRD) powder patterns were measured
such parameters indicate the potential for fiber bonding. with an X-ray diffractometer (Philips DY971), using CuKα
The ratio between fiber length and fiber diameter, defined radiation at 45  kV and 40  mA. Scattered radiation was
here as aspect ratio (Eq. 6), is proportional to the tear detected in the range of 2θ = 5°–40°, at a scan rate of 2°/
strength of the paper [58]. For the composite industry, min. The crystalline fraction (CF) was determined in order
the aspect ratio reflects the performance of the fibers in to verify the amount of cellulose crystallinity of the fibers.
the distribution of the stresses and cracks. The higher the CF was defined as reported by French [65] and Correia et al.
aspect ratio, the higher the fiber adherence to the matrix, [66] (Eq. 8).
and the smaller the crack diameter [59]. Ae − Aa
CF = , (8)
f −l Ae
WT (μm) = d d , (1)
2 where CF is the crystalline fraction and Ae and Aa are the
areas under the experimental powder pattern and the amor-
(2 × WT) phous theoretical curve, respectively. Therefore, to deter-
WF (%) = × 100, (2)
fd mine the CF, Mercury 3.7 program [65, 67] was used to
produce theoretical diffraction curves, varying peak width
ld at half maximum (pwhm) of cellulose Iβ, and for amorphous
CWT = , (3)
2 × WT halo cellulose II with pwhm = 9 and a correction factor to
fit under the experimental curves were used. Since cellulose
ld Iβ is the most abundant cellulose polymorph occurring in
CR (%) = × 100, (4) nature for higher plants [68] its powder pattern was used in
fd
the simulation. After the fitting process, all measurements
2 × WT for crystallite size and the number of cellulose chains were
RI =
ld
, (5) carried out on the theoretical curves. The crystallographic
information file (CIF) were obtained from complementary
L data in French [65] and edited for each different fiber on CIF
AR =
fd
, (6) files to fit the theoretical curve into the experimental one, as
reported in Correia et al. [66] and French [65]. All intensities
where fd is the overall fiber diameter (µm), ld is the lumen were normalized from 0 to 1. For comparison, the Segal’s
diameter (µm), and L is fiber length (µm). crystalline index was calculated according to Segal, Creely,
Martin, and Conrad [69]. Crystallite size was determined

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Waste and Biomass Valorization

by Scherrer equation (Eq. 9) as described by Langford and Tensile Test

Wilson [70].
For mechanical tests, at least ten specimens of each source of
k𝜆
D= , (9) fiber bundles with length of ~ 5 cm length and 1 mm diam-
𝛽 cos 𝜃
eter were extracted from the Amazonian palm leaves (pias-
where D is perpendicular size to the lattice plane, repre- sava and tucum) and trunk (jacitara). The tensile strength
sented by the peak (200), k is a correction factor (0.9), λ (TS), elongation at break (EB), and modulus of elasticity
is the wavelength of the X-ray radiation (1.54056 Å), β is (E) of the fiber bundle specimens were obtained from the
the pwhm of the diffraction peak, in radians, and θ is the tensile test parallel to the macrofiber axis. Samples for the
diffraction angle of the peak (22.7°). In order to find the tensile test were subjected to oven drying at 80 °C for 24 h.
number of cellulose chains (n) perpendicular to (200), D After preparation, the cross section area of the fiber bundle
is divided by 4 Å, which are the width of cellulose chains specimens was measured assuming an idealized cylindrical
[71]. However, to determine the number of cellulose chains shape. The tensile test of the fiber specimens was performed
in the whole crystallite the Eq. 10 proposed by Ballesteros using an Instron (Canton, MA) 5500R universal testing sys-
et al. [72] is needed. tem equipped with a 1 kN load cell, 20 mm distance between
( )) )2 jaws, and operated at a crosshead speed of 5 mm/min.
n
( (
N = round down 1 + ,0 . (10)
2
Number of cellulose chains in the whole crystallite (N)
is related to the equation above, which is the square of the Results and Discussion
value rounded down to integer of half of number of cel-
lulose chains (n) perpendicular to the plane (200) plus one. Morphological Analysis

In the present work, the studied fibers were not individual

Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform macrofibers but a group of different macrofiber bundles,
Infrared (ATR‑FTIR) Spectroscopy strongly bonded, and organized according to their different
macrostructures. The industrial application of vegetable fib-
Samples were subjected to FTIR spectroscopy using a ers usually requires more homogeneous distribution of their
Thermo Scientific spectrometer equipped with the Smart dimensions, mainly when the mechanical properties of the
iTX accessory, with a monolithic diamond ATR crys- products are the bottleneck [74].
tal attachment. Scanning was conducted from 4000 to In the case of piassava fibers (PIASSAVA, Fig. 2) fibrous
600 cm−1 with 16 scans averaged for each spectrum. Res- elements form a “ring” in their peripheral region (arrow 1
olution was 4 cm−1. Prior to measurement, samples were in Fig. 2a) comprised internally by conducting vessels and
oven-dried at 80 °C for 24 h. A commercial microcrystal- parenchyma cells indicated by the arrows 2 in Fig. 2a, b.
line cellulose sample was used as a crystalline standard Their role is not confirmed but they are exemplified by the
(CI ~90%). A control sample was mechanically ground in existence of gaps in the fiber internal tissue, observed in
a ball mill for around 3 h in order to obtain an amorphous Fig. 2a, b. The piassava macrofiber presents a thick second-
cellulose powder pattern. ary cell wall as shown in Fig. 2c, with the detachment of part
of the cell wall of the fibrous elements in the cross section
(arrow 3). This fact may be related to the low carbohydrate
Thermogravimetry concentration and relatively high lignin content in this lig-
nocellulosic species [57], which lead to the lower tensile
Dried fibers were subjected to thermogravimetric analysis strength for this plant fiber.
(TGA) in a PerkinElmer Pyris 1 TGA instrument. Samples The images for jacitara macrofiber (JACITARA INN and
(~ 6 mg dry basis) were heated in a Pt crucible from 25 to OUT) showed vascular bundles with fibrous anatomical ele-
500 °C in air flowing at 60 mL/min with a heating rate of ments in the external (outside) vascular bundles, forming
10 °C/min. Critical weight loss temperature (Tonset) was a semi-elliptical geometry (“half-moon”) as indicated by
obtained for each run from the onset points of the TGA arrow 1 in the Fig. 3a, b. The fibro vascular bundles are sur-
curves, and this was represented by the intersection of the rounded by parenchymatic tissue, that is the major propor-
extrapolated line extended with the same slope from the tion of anatomical elements constituent of this plant species
beginning of the thermal event, with the tangent of the (Fig. 3b, arrow 2). The peripheral region showed a layer
curve in the thermal event [73]. of fibrous elements densely concentrated (Fig. 3c, arrow 3)
under the epidermis (Fig. 3c, arrow 4).

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 Waste and Biomass Valorization

The tucum fiber (TUCUM) had its microstructure altered arranged in rows separated by parenchymatic tissues, there
from its original appearance after the sample preparation are fibrous anatomical elements.
procedure, assuming a curved array, possibly arranged by
the shrinkage of cellular elements in the inner region of the Fiber Dimensions and Anatomical Parameters
spiral (Fig. 4a, arrows 1 and 2) during drying. The fibrous
elements appear internally (arrows 1 and 4, Fig. 4) and lower The average and standard deviation values of the anatomical
proportion in the fibro vascular bundle (arrow 3 in Fig. 4). dimensions of the fibers are summarized in Table 2. All indi-
Among these vascular bundles (arrows 2 and 3, Fig.  4) vidual fibers presented length values higher than reported in

Fig. 2  Typical scanning electron

microscopy (SEM) images of
the cross section of the piassava
fiber (PIASSAVA) whole PIAS-
SAVA macrofiber (a); gaps and
spaces inside the fiber (b); and
detail of the detachment of the
secondary cell wall of the fibers
(c). Arrows indicate fibrous
region surrounding the fiber
(1), gaps (2), and detachment of
the secondary cell wall of the
fibers (3)

Fig. 3  Typical scanning
electron microscopy (SEM)
images of the cross section of
the jacitara fiber (JACITARA
INN and OUT). Distribution
of the cellular structures (a);
fibro vascular bundles (b); thick
fibers together forming compact
regions below the epidermis (c).
Arrows indicate fibrous region
of the fibro vascular bundle (1)
or JACITARA INN, paren-
chyma cell (2), compact fibrous
region (3), or JACITARA OUT
and epidermis layer (4)

Fig. 4  Typical scanning electron

microscopy (SEM) images of
the cross section of the tucum
fiber (TUCUM). Fiber (a and
b) and fibro vascular bundle (c).
Arrows indicated fibrous region
(1 and 4) and fibro vascular
bundles (2 and 3)

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Waste and Biomass Valorization

Table 2  Average and standard Raw materials Fiber length (mm) Fiber diameter (µm) Wall thickness (µm) Lumen diameter (µm)
deviations values of the length,
diameter, wall thickness, PIASSAVA 0.9 ± 0.3 d 16.2 ± 3.0 d 2.1 ± 0.4 c 12.0 ± 2.7 c
and lumen diameter of the
JACITARA INN 1.7 ± 0.4 a 23.7 ± 4.5 b 3.9 ± 1.0 b 15.8 ± 4.4 b
Amazonian palm fibers
JACITARA OUT 1.6 ± 0.4 ab 26.9 ± 6.1 a 4.4 ± 1.4 a 18.1 ± 5.3 a
TUCUM 1.4 ± 0.3 b 9.9 ± 1.8 e 1.9 ± 0.4 c 6.1 ± 1.3 d
TUCUM INN 0.9 ± 0.3 d 19.8 ± 4.3 c 3.9 ± 0.9 b 11.9 ± 3.7 c
TUCUM OUT 1.0 ± 0.4 c 11.0 ± 2.0 e 2.3 ± 0.5 c 6.5 ± 1.5 d

Means followed by the same letter in the same column do not differ by Tukey test at p < 0.05

Table 3  Fiber characteristics and anatomical parameters calculated for some plant fibers found in literature
Fibers L (mm) fd (µm) ld (µm) WT (µm) AR WF (%) RI CR (%)

Bamboo [78] 2.3 13.9 3.8 5.1 173 72 3.2 28.1

Tucum [75] 0.7 10.6 2.6 4.0 67 75 3.2 25.1
Sisal [79] 1.5–4.0 10.0–30.0 – 6.0–9.0 150–133a 60–120 – –
Jute [76] 0.7–0.8 21.5–23.5 12.8–15.8 3.7–4.7 33–35a 34–40a 0.6a 59.4–66.6a
Sugar cane bagasse [80] 1.1–1.3 19.6–21.3 10.0–11.6 4.6–5.0 55–63 46–50 0.8–1.0 50.0–54.4

Fiber length (L); fiber diameter (FB); lumen diameter (ld); wall thickness (WT); aspect ratio (AR); wall fraction (WF); Runkel index (RI); and
coefficient of rigidity (CR)
a
 Values calculated from dimensions of fibers obtained from literature

literature for tucum (0.7 mm) [75] and for the woody part Table 4  Average and standard deviation values for the calculated ana-
of the jute plant (0.7–0.8 mm) [76]. The values were lower tomical parameters of the Amazonian palm fibers
than bamboo (2.3 mm) as summarized in Table 3. Fibers Raw materials WF (%) CR (%) RI AR CWT​
can be classified based on their length as very short, short,
and long [54]. Internal and external jacitara fibers (JACI- PIASSAVA 26 ± 6 c 74 ± 6 a 0.4 ± 0.1 c 57 ± 21 e 3.0×
TARA INN and OUT) presented average fiber length val- JACITARA 34 ± 9 b 66 ± 9 b 0.5 ± 0.3 b 74 ± 20 c 2.1×
INN
ues in the same range as the sisal species (1.5–4.0 mm).
JACITARA 33 ± 9 b 67 ± 9 b 0.5 ± 0.2 b 60 ± 20 d 2.2×
According to Coradin and Muñiz [54], both of them have OUT
medium length (1.7 and 1.6 mm, respectively). The fibrous TUCUM 39 ± 6 ab 62 ± 6 bc 0.6 ± 0.2 ab 140 ± 34 a 1.7×
anatomical elements from tucum fiber (TUCUM) differed TUCUM INN 41 ± 7 a 60 ± 7 c 0.7 ± 0.2 a 50 ± 19 f 1.6×
in length (1.4 ± 0.3 mm, so classified as short fibers) from TUCUM OUT 42 ± 6 a 59 ± 6 c 0.7 ± 0.2 a 90 ± 35 b 1.5×
those of the tucum inner epidermis (0.9 ± 0.3 mm, there-
fore classified as very short fibers) and external epidermis WF wall fraction, CR coefficient of rigidity, RI Runkel index, AR
aspect ratio, CWT​ratio between lumen diameter and wall thickness
(1.0 ± 0.4 mm, short fibers). The piassava fiber (PIASSAVA)
Means followed by the same letter in the same column do not differ
showed fibrous anatomical elements classified as very short by Tukey test at p < 0.05
(0.9 ± 0.3 mm). The fiber length is an important feature
because it generally allows higher stress transference from
the matrix to the fiber, thus taking advantage of the high they are used to predict its modulus of elasticity [81, 82]. For
tensile strength of lignocellulosic fibers [77]. reinforced composites, the maximum stress transference for
The external portion of the jacitara trunk (JACITARA the lignocellulosic fiber is reached when its length is greater
OUT) presented fibers with thick cell walls (4.4 ± 1.4 µm), than or equal to its critical length [77].
followed by the internal portion (JACITARA INN) of the Anatomical parameters of the fibers, determined from the
jacitara trunk (3.9 ± 1.0 µm) and TUCUM (inner epidermis measurement of their dimensions, can be used as impor-
with 3.9 ± 0.9 µm). The ratio between lumen diameter and tant tools for evaluating the potential of plant fibers as
wall thickness for the fibers (Table 4) ranged from thin- to reinforcement in composites. Fonseca et al. [83] applied
thick-walled according to IAWA committee [55]. Fiber indirect anatomical parameters used in the pulp and paper
length, fiber orientation in the matrix of the composites, and industry, chemical composition analysis, and physical and
the tensile strength of the lignocellulosic fibers influence the mechanical tests to evaluate the potential of using jacitara
properties of the composite material and because of this, as reinforcement material in composites. Sena Neto et al.

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 Waste and Biomass Valorization

[17] confirmed that for an adequate use of vegetable fibers chemical components in the cell wall. Whereas there are
as reinforcement, the relationships between technological small variations in density of the cell wall of the different
properties and chemical, structural, and morphological char- lignocellulosic fibers, the greater wall thickness the greater
acteristics of the fibers must be fully understood. Thus, by the content of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin in the
knowing morphological characteristics such as fiber length, fiber wall [57]. As presented above, TUCUM, TUCUM
fiber diameter, and lumen diameter, it is possible to calculate OUT, and TUCUM INN presented higher wall fraction,
the anatomical parameters such as the wall fraction (WF), while the lowest wall fraction (WF) was obtained for PIAS-
coefficient of rigidity (CR), Runkel index (RI), and aspect SAVA fibers. According to IAWA committee [55], the ratio
ratio (AR or length/width ratio). Those anatomical proper- between the diameter of the lumen and the wall thickness is
ties are helpful to select plant fiber and to suggest proper classified as: fine when the lumen is three-fold higher than
final uses, and their capacity for a later industrial scale-up. twice the cell wall thickness; thin to thick, when the lumen is
Table 4 presents the average and standard deviation values less than three-fold higher than twice the cell wall thickness;
of the calculated anatomical parameters for the lignocellu- and thicker when the lumen is completely closed. Therefore,
losic fibers studied here. Values of WF obtained here were as noted in Table 4, the fibers have thin to thick walls, with
lower than for most of fibers reported in literature (cited the exception of PIASSAVA fibers having thin walls (cell
in Table 3), with the exception of the values for jute fiber lumen 3 times greater than twice the thickness of the cell
(34.3–39.6%) that were similar to values for all jacitara and wall). Thin to thick cell walls are thus good indicators of
tucum fibers studied here. physical and mechanical properties for the fiber-reinforced
The Runkel index (RI) for most of the fibers studied composite, because the amount of solid material present in
here (Table 4) are lower than values reported in literature each fiber will be higher than the amount of voids in the
(Table 3), with the exception of Tucum (TUCUM, TUCUM cross-sectional area of the individual fibers.
INN, and TUCUM OUT) fibers. RI is used to classify the Considering what has been discussed up to now, it can be
fibers into distinct groups, according to their stiffness in the stated that the WF and CR parameters seems to be the most
paper manufacture, wherein the higher the RI value, the suitable to predict the possible mechanical characteristics
higher the stiffness and, consequently, the higher the strength of these fibers.
of the fiber. The coefficient of rigidity (CR) of the individu-
alized fibers evaluated here were higher than most of the fib- Chemical and Structural Composition
ers reported in literature (Table 3), except for TUCUM OUT.
Therefore, theoretically, fibers studied here present lower Lignocellulosic fibers have three primary chemical con-
resistance to compressive forces or collapse when compared stituents, namely cellulose (α-cellulose), hemicelluloses,
to the fibers listed in Table 3. Lower values of CR indicate and lignin. In addition, lignocellulosic fibers also contain
more resistance to flattening during paper formation [84, 85] some amount of pectin, waxes, and water-soluble substances
because of large cell wall thickness. The aspect ratio (AR) [87]. Lignocellulosic fiber compositions and structures vary
is often used as a parameter to select fibers for composite greatly, depending on plant species, age, climate, and soil
reinforcement because the stress is more efficiently trans- conditions. Information on the chemical composition of
ferred to the fibers into the composite when using fibers lignocellulosic fibers is important because it may define
with high aspect ratio, increasing the tensile strength and their properties and their applications [88]. Table 5 depicts
modulus of elasticity of the composite [86]. All the present the chemical composition of the Amazonian palm fibers.
fibers showed lower AR values than those of bamboo [78] As expected, the studied plant fibers present important dif-
and higher than those of jute [76]. TUCUM and TUCUM ferences in their chemical composition. For application as
OUT fibers presented the higher values of AR, which are reinforcement in composite materials, great amount of cel-
also higher than those reported by Pereira et al. [75] for lulose is desired for improved mechanical performance, as
tucum fibers. Fibers from PIASSAVA, JACITARA OUT, demonstrated by several researches, for example, using jute
and TUCUM INN presented the lower AR values, which and curauá to produce reinforced composites for industrial
are in the same range as sugarcane bagasse fibers [80]. In applications [9, 10, 33, 35, 48, 89, 90]. In the present study,
general, for most of the parameters analyzed, fibers studied the jacitara and tucum fibers showed higher percentage of
here showed lower values than those reported in literature, cellulose (~ 65% and 76 wt%, respectively) compared to the
with the exception of the higher values found for CR. average percentage of softwood (30–60 wt%) and hardwood
The strength of lignocellulosic materials is directly (31–64%) reported by Tsoumis [91] and similar values as
related to the cellulose content present in the cell wall of found for jute and curauá [89]. Moreover, high cellulose con-
these materials, whereby it is assumed that fibers with larger tent and low microfibril angle are desirable properties for the
wall thickness exhibit higher mechanical strength. Wall frac- fibers to be used as reinforcement in polymer matrixes, since
tion (WF) is the parameter that best predicts the content of they provide high tensile and flexural strength to the fiber

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Waste and Biomass Valorization

Table 5  Average chemical Chemical composition PIASSAVA JACITARA​a TUCUMb Jutec Curauác

composition of the Amazonian
palm fibers and literature Cellulose (wt%) 28.0 65.0 75.5 60 70–73
Hemicelluloses (wt%) 9.3 12.9 11.3 22 21
Insoluble lignin (wt%) 50.7 16.5 3.8 16 7–11
Extractives (wt%) 12.1 5.0 4.9 – 2.5–2.8
a,b
 Chemical composition presented for these plant fibers refers to the whole lignocellulosic plant, i.e., the
different portions (INN and OUT) were not separated here
c
 Compiled values by Satyanarayana et al. [89]

and can govern the mechanical properties of the subsequent

fiber-reinforced composite [10].
Previous studies found that the presence of lignin and
hemicelluloses influence the final mechanical properties of
the individual fibers [92–95]. Lignin provides plant tissue
and individual fibers with improved compressive strength
and stiffens the cell wall of the fibers, to protect the carbo-
hydrates from chemical and physical damage [96]. On the
other hand, species with low lignin content requires smaller
amounts of chemicals for cellulose isolation, thus facilitating
and reducing costs of cellulose pulping. The piassava fibers
present high lignin content with potential for use as a renew-
able energy source, as well as for obtaining natural phenolic
compounds and adhesives, and presents lower content of
cellulose compared to their counterparts.
Hemicelluloses are the major chemical structures respon-
sible for moisture absorption capability of lignocellulosic
fibers [97] followed by hydrophilic regions of cellulose
chains and lignin [98]. At the nanoscale view, the pres-
ence of hemicelluloses inhibits the coalescence of cellulose
microfibrils during drying, which may facilitate delamina-
tion of the cell wall [99, 100] and can participate on the
enhancement of mechanical properties in composites. High
cellulose contents provide higher modulus of elasticity to
the cellulose nanofibril films because of its natural stiff-
ness [101]. However, hemicelluloses can deform more than Fig. 5  i Schematic unit cell along the cellulose chains; ii three-dimen-
crystalline cellulose, and play an important role in adhesion sional representation of cellulose unit cell axis and angle between a
between cellulose nanofibrils, which contribute to mechani- and b axes, i.e., gamma (γ); iii typical experimental XRD powder pat-
terns of the different Amazonian palm fibers (scattered curves), crys-
cal strength of the whole fiber [95]. The presence of lignin talline (black continuous line), and amorphous (red continuous line)
may significantly increase toughness, tensile index, and theoretical curves of cellulose
elastic modulus of the films [92]. However, normally high
content of lignin means less fibrillated fibers.
The reinforcing efficiency of lignocellulosic fibers is crystallites along the fiber axis [65]. The absence of peak at
related to the nature of cellulose and its crystallinity [10]. 2θ = 20.5° [(012) and (102) planes] as well as smoothed out
The cellulose chains agglomerate to 3–5-nm-thick nanofi- peaks at 2θ = 35.0° corresponding to (004) plane, indicates
brils formed by crystalline and non-crystalline regions [102, orientation along the fiber axis [65]. All fibers studied here
103]. X-ray diffractions (XRD) of the different Amazonian exhibited a sharp peak at 2θ = 22.6°, which is assigned to the
plant fibers are shown in Fig. 5. The XRD powder patterns (200) lattice plane of cellulose I. Cellulose I is a structure
of the fibers had an amorphous broad hump and crystal- that comprised repeating β-(1 → 4)-d-glucopyranose units
line peaks that are typical of semicrystalline materials. with building blocks of parallel glucan chains [104]. The
As expected, the XRD of the fibers (Fig. 5) show similar peaks can shift in the diffraction powder pattern due to dif-
structures to cellulose Iβ with preferred orientation of the ference in unit cell dimensions, which demands editing of

13
 Waste and Biomass Valorization

the crystallographic information file (CIF) before making The number of cellulose chains cannot be a linear in rela-
the theoretical curves [65, 66]. Usually when the peak at tion to crystallite size because it has only one plane taken
2θ = 22.6° is shifted to lower values of 2θ, it is due to the into consideration; it has an exponential relation due to the
slight increase in a axis in the unit cell. Increasing the value variety of planes in the crystallite [72]. Even though the
of the a axis can also shift the two less intense peaks at theoretical curves, when not edited, only differ among them-
2θ = 14.8° and 16.3° positions and decrease their intensity. selves regarding aspects of cellulose, such as crystallite size
Changing the gamma angle can, mainly, interfere in the dis- [65], experimental powder patterns are the result of several
tance between these two peaks. A unit cell schematic of components such as lignin and hemicelluloses that account
cellulose is depicted in Fig. 5a and b. more to the amorphous fraction. So, it is possible that lower
The peak of the (200) plane in the TUCUM fibers is crystallinity of the whole fiber occurs, even presenting larger
sharper than for the other fibers, which is indicative of crystallites.
greater crystallinity, at least regarding the (200) plane [105]. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy clearly showed that different
The two overlapping weaker diffraction peaks at 2θ = 14.8° absorption bands can be used to characterize the crystal
and 2θ = 16.3° are assigned to the (1–10) and (110) lattice and amorphous structures of the different cellulose samples
planes of cellulose I [106, 107]. The overlapping of these (Fig. 6), and corroborates to the XRD results. A commer-
two peaks happens due to the amorphous contribution in cial microcrystalline cellulose sample was used as a crys-
the diffraction powder pattern, which occurs as well in the talline standard, since it presents Segal’s crystallinity index
theoretical curves with the increase of the pwhm [68]. of ~90%, and amorphous cellulose obtained by ball mill-
In summary, the fibers evaluated here seem to present the ing treatment was used as an amorphous cellulose powder
same crystal structure, although with some variations in size pattern. A decrease in the crystalline organization (and/or
of the crystals. PIASSAVA fibers exhibited lower crystalline content) leads to a significant simplification of the spectra
fraction (CI = 29%) than the other fibers (Table 6), which is through the reduction of intensity or even disappearance
due to the relatively higher content of lignin and extractives of the characteristic bands of the crystalline domains. The
in these fibers (Table 5). Lignin, extractives, and hemicel- broad band at the 3100–3600 cm−1 range is due to the O–H
luloses are amorphous, and therefore do not contribute to stretching vibration, which gives considerable information
crystallinity index. TUCUM fibers exhibited higher CI than concerning the hydrogen bonds in the fibers. Normally the
the others due to the higher content of cellulose crystalline characteristic peaks of these hydrogen bonds from the spec-
domains. Correia et al. [66] found values of 60 and 70% tra of amorphous cellulose became smoother, with lower
of crystalline fractions to unbleached (cellulose content of intensity, compared to other peaks from more crystalline
75 wt%) and bleached (higher than 90 wt% of cellulose con- sample, which can be correlated with lower content of intra-
tent) fibers. Nam et al. [68] reached values as high as 90% and intermolecular hydrogen bonds in the cellulose domains.
crystalline fraction for cotton fibers, which is almost pure Additionally, this peak corresponding to the amorphous state
cellulose, and for mercerized cotton, crystalline fraction was (which is the case for PIASSAVA) shifted to higher wave-
65%. For most fibers, both methodologies showed similar number values, as reported by Ciolacu, Ciolacu, and Popa
values (Table 6). Even though Segal’s crystallinity index [108]. According to those authors, the presence of amor-
showed similar values to crystalline fraction from Mercury, phous fraction can be further confirmed by the decrease in
changes in morphology of the peaks other than that related the intensity of the band at 2900 cm−1, as also observed in
to plane (200) is not accounted for crystallinity. Therefore, the present work, which corresponds to the C–H stretching
CF determined here seems to be more suitable for compari- vibration [109]. The band at 1640 cm−1 corresponds to the
son of the different fibers. vibrational mode of the water in cellulose [28, 110]. The
TUCUM, TUCUM INN, and TUCUM OUT presented C=C bond vibration can be observed at 1600 cm−1 and the
larger crystals and more cellulose chains per crystallite. intensity of these bands (1600 and 1640 cm−1) varies among

Table 6  Crystalline parameters Raw materials Crystalline frac- Segal’s crystallinity Crystallite size Cellulose chains
of the Amazonian palm trees tion—CF (%) index (%) (Å) per crystallite

PIASSAVA 29.0 22.3 50.3 49

JACITARA INN 42.9 32.1 62.7 81
JACITARA OUT 43.4 42.0 66.7 81
TUCUM 55.7 68.8 100.6 196
TUCUM INN 46.8 46.4 70.9 100
TUCUM OUT 38.6 52.4 77.6 121

13
Waste and Biomass Valorization

Fig. 6  ATR-FTIR spectra of
the Amazonian palm fibers. A
commercial microcrystalline
cellulose sample was used as a
crystalline standard (CI ~ 90%),
and amorphous cellulose
obtained by ball milling and
used as an amorphous cellulose
pattern

the studied fibers in detriment to the variation of lignin and

cellulose contents (Table 5). The peak at 1735 cm−1 repre-
sents vibrations of acetyl and uronic ester groups of hemicel-
luloses or ester linkage of carboxylic groups of the ferulic
and p-coumaric acids of lignin [111–113].
Finally, the bands at 1430 and 1370  cm −1, assigned
to a symmetric C ­ H2 bending vibration of the crystalline
domains, are expected to be lower for samples with lower
crystallinity index. The peaks at around 1150 cm−1 (referred
to C–O vibration), 1105 cm−1 (related to ring asymmetric
valence), and 1000 cm−1 [related to C–O valence vibration
at C (6)] are very low for the amorphous samples and more
pronounced for those with higher crystallinity.

Thermogravimetry

Thermal analysis (TGA) of the samples showed two ther-

mal degradation stages (Fig. 7). The first stage occurred at
temperatures of 250–350 °C, with a weight loss of around
50% for PIASSAVA, TUCUM INN and OUT; 70% for
JACITARA INN; 55% for JACITARA OUT; and ~30% for
TUCUM fibers. The onset degradation temperature (Tonset) Fig. 7  a TGA thermograms and b DTGA curves of the Amazo-
of TUCUM fiber was relatively higher (Tonset = 321 ± 1 °C) nian palm fibers. Onset degradation temperatures (Tonset): PIAS-
than the other Amazonian palm fibers, corroborating to the SAVA = 302 ± 11  °C; JACITARA INN = 280 ± 2  °C; JACI-
XRD results that showed the higher crystallinity of this TARAOUT = 283 ± 4  °C; TUCUM = 321 ± 1  °C; TUCUM
INN = 284 ± 9 °C; and TUCUM OUT = 264 ± 2 °C

13
 Waste and Biomass Valorization

material. JACITARA INN and TUCUM OUT exhibited performances [16, 116, 117]. The mechanical properties
lower values for Tonset, possibly related to higher contents of the TUCUM INN fibers are higher than TUCUM OUT,
of hemicelluloses and parenchimatic tissues in these plant which can be useful information for selection between these
fibers. The higher lignin content in the PIASSAVA fibers led two types of residues commonly generated from the sepa-
to an expected higher thermal stability. The second thermal ration of the TUCUM fibers. PIASSAVA fibers resulted
degradation stage occurred between around 350 and 550 °C. in lower TS and E, while presenting higher elongation at
No thermal event was observed at temperatures higher than break (EB), which are probably the consequence of the
550 °C (Fig. 7a). higher lignin content of these fibers (Table 5) and lower CF
DTGA curves (Fig. 7b) also show that decomposition and Segal’s crystallinity index (Table 6). Increasing lignin
of the cellulose fibers occurred essentially in two stages, content reduced mechanical performance of the fibers [87].
indicating that the presence of different chemical compo- The mechanical properties of JACITARA OUT confirm
nents led the plant fibers to decompose at different tempera- their high aptitude for use as reinforcement in relation to
tures. These curves revealed the lower thermal stability of JACITARA INN, also corroborating the results showed in
the JACITARA INN in relation to JACITARA OUT. Also, previous sections.
the lower stability of TUCUM OUT in relation to TUCUM The mechanical performances of the present Amazonian
INN is established. The dominant thermogravimetric plant fibers (Table 7) are comparable with those presented in
(DTGA) peak observed in the samples occurred at around literature (Table 8), and high variability of the characteristics
305–330 °C. This is in the temperature range corresponding is probably related to differences on age and location of the
to the weight loss of hemicelluloses (225–325 °C), residual fibers along the plant axis.
lignin (250–500 °C), and cellulose (305–375 °C) as reported
by White et al. [114] and Carrier et al. [115]. Fiber Application in Composite Reinforcement
The thermal properties of the plant fibers are an impor-
tant processing parameter in reinforced composites as well The physical and mechanical performance of lignocel-
as for identifying the different applications for these ligno- lulosic fiber-reinforced composites depends on the fiber
cellulosic materials elsewhere, such as in thermal-sensitive characteristics, such as the fiber dimensions (e.g., critical
papers, processing additives, and disposable products. fiber length) and fiber dispersion along the matrix, as well
as the chemical nature of them. The unsuitable dispersion
Mechanical Performance of the Plant Fibers associated to heterogeneity of non-treated fibers into the
matrix can lead to ineffective reinforcement of the compos-
The average and standard deviation values of the mechanical ites. When fibers are too long, there is a tendency of fiber
properties obtained under the direct tensile test are presented entanglements and difficulties to adequate fiber dispersion.
in Table 7. The highest values of tensile strength (TS) and Reduction of fiber dimensions can improve fiber distribution
modulus of elasticity (E) were obtained for TUCUM fibers and dispersion into the polymeric matrix [124]. For example,
(TS = 360 ± 146 MPa and E = 4.3 ± 2.7 GPa). This obser- for reinforcement of cement-based composites produced
vation correlates well with the findings discussed above industrially (e.g., Hatschek process), the fibers were previ-
for most of the anatomical parameters (Table 4), chemi- ously converted to cellulose pulp fibers and then refined to
cal composition (Table 5), Segal’s crystallinity index (CI), obtain higher malleability and fibrillation of the fiber sur-
and crystalline fraction (CF) determined by XRD (Fig. 5; face, developing an improved adhesion with the cementi-
Table 6), and TGA (Fig. 7). The higher levels of cellulose tious matrix and leading to higher flexural strength to the
content and crystallinity generally led to higher mechanical composites [123].
Many application/fabrication methods to include the lig-
Table 7  Average and standard deviation values of the mechanical
nocellulosic fibers as reinforcing elements have been sum-
properties obtained from tensile test of the Amazonian palm fibers marized in literature [124–128]. The anatomical, chemi-
cal, and mechanical properties of the palm fibers studied
Amazonian palm Tensile Elongation at Modulus of
fibers strength—TS break—EB (%) elasticity—E here may be used to adequately elect the best method to
(MPa) (GPa) be applied. PIASSAVA fibers have cylindrical shape and
high lignin content being less stiff than others, which may
PIASSAVA 39 ± 19 12.4 ± 5.5 1.0 ± 0.5
reduce their natural tendency to entanglement. It may be
JACITARA INN 41 ± 14 6.3 ± 3.3 1.4 ± 0.6
suitable for processes that align the long fibers or that use
JACITARA OUT 120 ± 47 9.0 ± 4.4 3.7 ± 1.6
them randomly dispersed in the matrix. The higher elon-
TUCUM 360 ± 146 11.0 ± 3.6 4.3 ± 2.7
gation at break (EB = 12.4 ± 5.5%) would allow them to
TUCUM INN 130 ± 99 6.4 ± 2.4 4.4 ± 3.1
reinforce fragile matrix and to increase the flexural strength
TUCUM OUT 90 ± 23 5.7 ± 3.3 3.1 ± 1.4
of the composites, as reported for pineapple fibers [128].

13
Waste and Biomass Valorization

Table 8  Mechanical properties Natural fibers Tensile strength— Elongation at Modulus of elastic- References
of the main plant fibers reported TS (MPa) break—EB (%) ity—E (GPa)
in literature
Bamboo 140–411 1.3–8.0 11.0–36.0 [88, 118]
Bagasse 25–290 na 0.5–17.0 [118, 120]
Sisal 458–855 1.9–4.3 9.0–38.0 [87, 88, 118, 119, 121]
Curauá 500–1150 3.7–4.3 11.8 [118]
Pineapple 400–627 14.5 1.4 [118]
Coir 83–222 15.0–37.7 2.3–6.0 [87, 88, 118–121]
Oil palm 65–248 25.0 0.7–3.2 [118, 120]
Malva 160 5.2 17.4 [119]
Cotton 287–597 2.0–10.0 5.5–12.6 [87, 88, 121]
Jute 187–800 1.5–3.1 10.0–55.0 [87, 88, 118]
Ramie 400–938 2.0–4.0 24.5–128.0 [87, 88, 118, 121]
Flax 345–1035 1.2–3.2 27.6–80.0 [87, 88, 118, 121]
Banana 529–914 5.0–6.0 27.0–32.0 [88]

na not available

PIASSAVA fibers were already used as short fibers after works reported in literature deal with the use of chemical
surface modification to produce injection molded compos- reagents on the surface of the fibers to enhance adhesion
ites [129]. Accordingly, the election of the applications and of the fibers to several matrices, such as the use of cationic
fabrication methods for TUCUM, TUCUM INN, and JACI- surfactants [134], silanes [135–138], isocyanates [139, 140],
TARA OUT fibers would require changes on the length of acetic anhydride [141], maleic anhydride [142], corona dis-
the fibers. Extrusion for example would require milled fibers charges [46], and ­SiO2 nanoparticles [143–146].
(e.g., particles lower than 1 mm) in order to be adequately Furthermore, the availability of the lignocellulosic fib-
mixed into the extruder. The higher cellulose content and ers plays as an important role to validate their potential
tensile strength (TS) for TUCUM, TUCUM INN followed to be used in the production of lignocellulosic-reinforced
by JACITARA OUT allows higher processing temperatures composites in large scale. The fibers studied here are still
(up to ~ 280 °C). These fibers are stiffer than their counter- explored and collected locally in lower scale by extractivism
parts and may require a process that aligns the long fibers. and used in handcrafts while some of them (TUCUM INN
These stiffer fibers may also be applied as long fibers for and TUCUM OUT) are local residues of this extractivism.
applications in particle boards and textile structures. Fibers PIASSAVA has been used mainly to produce broom heads
with high cellulose content may be pulped and/or defibril- using low-technology procedures, and can be largely found.
lated in order to obtain cellulose micro/nanofibrils [130, All the fibers studied here can be grown or managed in their
131] or acid hydrolyzed to obtain cellulose nanocrystals natural environment [147–149] and in agroforestry systems
[132] that can be, homogeneously mixed (randomly dis- for fiber obtention in large scale. JACITARA has been sug-
persed or aligned) in polymeric matrixes to increase tensile gested to be stimulated to grow naturally through selective
strength of composites and nanocomposites [122, 128–133]. cutting of canopy trees and controlled regenerating in dry
Further studies are needed to evaluate the surface char- lands [149]. Nowadays, there is still a lack of permanent
acteristics of the fibers, such as wetting, adhesion, porosity, market for most of the present fibers, except for PIASSAVA
surface energy, and surface area, in order to decide about that has an increasing extractive production and already pos-
the need for previous chemical pre-treatments in order to sess an important and established market in the Brazilian
improve adhesion with polymers (mainly hydrophobic ther- Amazon [150–152].
moplastics) and cement-based matrix. PIASSAVA fibers
may be more hydrophobic due to their high lignin content,
while the hydrophilic nature of JACITARA and TUCUM Conclusions
fibers will probably adversely affect their adhesion to hydro-
phobic matrices. However, such plant fibers may be func- Assessing the potential of plant fibers for reinforcement
tionalized, i.e., coated with new chemical groups or com- purposes only using anatomical features can generate mis-
patibilizers, in order to generate new moieties or to reduce leading conclusions about the quality and possible applica-
the number of reactive hydroxyl groups on their surfaces, tions of these fibers. Then, chemical, structural, thermal,
and then be used properly in hydrophobic matrices. Several and mechanical properties were determined here, for better

13
 Waste and Biomass Valorization

predictions and decisions about the optimal uses of such cementitious, geo-polymer and polymer composites in civil
fibers. TUCUM and TUCUM OUT presented the narrower engineering. Compos. B 92, 94–132 (2016)
3. Rowell, R.M., Han, J.S., Rowell, J.S.: Characterization and fac-
(diameters = 9.9 ± 1.8 and 11.0 ± 2.0 µm, respectively) fib- tors affecting fiber properties. In: Frollini, E., Leão, A., Mattoso,
ers and lower lumen diameters (6.1 ± 1.3 and 6.5 ± 1.5 µm, L. H. C. (eds.) Natural Polymers and Agrofibers Based Com-
respectively), while JACITARA INN and OUT were wider posites: Preparation, Properties and Applications, pp. 115–134.
(diameter ~ 25 µm) fibers and presented higher lumen diame- Embrapa Instrumentação Agropecuária, São Carlos (2000)
4. Kabir, M.M., Wang, H., Lau, K.T., Cardona, F.: Chemical treat-
ters (~ 16 µm). PIASSAVA and TUCUM INN are the shorter ments on plant-based natural fibre reinforced polymer compos-
(length = 0.9 ± 0.3 mm) fibers, while JACITARA INN and ites: an overview. Compos. B 43(7), 2883–2892 (2012)
OUT are the longer (length ~ 1.7 mm). TUCUM fibers pre- 5. Joseph, K., Medeiros, E.S., Carvalho, L.H.: Compósitos de
sented the higher aspect ratio (AR = 140 ± 34). Calculated matriz poliéster reforçados por fibras curtas de sisal. [Composites
of polyester matrix reinforced by short fibers of sisal]. Polimeros
results of anatomical parameters such as wall fraction (WF) 9(4), 136–141 (1999)
and coefficient of rigidity (CR) were more useful about 6. Li, Y., Moyo, S., Ding, Z., Shan, Z., Qiu, Y.: Helium plasma
predicting mechanical properties of the fibers. PIASSAVA treatment of ethanol-pretreated ramie fabrics for improving the
fibers presented lower values of WF and CR, and contain mechanical properties of ramie/polypropylene composites. Ind.
Crops Prod. 51, 299–305 (2013)
relatively higher lignin and extractive contents than their 7. Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Alwani, M.S., Islam, M.N., Suhaily, S.S.,
counterparts, which led to lower crystallinity (CI = 22.3%; Dungani, R., H’ng, Y.M., Jawaid, M.: The use of bamboo fibres
CF = 29.0%), lower tensile strength (TS = 39 ± 19 MPa), as reinforcements in composites. In: Faruk, O., Sain, M. (eds.)
lower modulus of elasticity (E = 1.0 ± 0.5 GPa), and higher Biofiber Reinforcements in Composite Materials, pp. 488–524.
Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Cambridge (2015)
elongation at break (EB = 12.4 ± 5.5%). JACITARA OUT 8. Holt, G.A., Chow, P., Wanjura, J.D., Pelletier, M.G., Wedegaert-
fibers presented higher potential for reinforcement pur- ner, T.C.: Evaluation of thermal treatments to improve physical
poses than JACITARA INN, showing higher crystallinity and mechanical properties of bio-composites made from cotton
(CI = 42.0%; CF = 43.4%), higher thermal stability, and byproducts and other agricultural fibers. Ind. Crops Prod. 52,
627–632 (2014)
higher mechanical properties. TUCUM fibers presented the 9. Alves, C., Ferrão, P.M.C., Silva, A.J., Reis, L.G., Freitas, M.,
higher cellulose content, and the higher values of TS and E, Rodrigues, L.B., Alves, D.E.: Ecodesign of automotive compo-
as also corroborated by their higher crystallinity (CI ~ 69%; nents making use of natural jute fiber composites. J. Clean. Prod.
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versity of Lavras (UFLA) and the laboratory of electron microscopy Cherian, B.M., Leão, A.L.: The use of curauá fibers as rein-
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