Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

DOI 10.1007/s00170-012-4558-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Additive manufacturing and its societal impact:

a literature review
Samuel H. Huang & Peng Liu & Abhiram Mokasdar &
Liang Hou

Received: 6 May 2012 / Accepted: 3 October 2012 / Published online: 16 October 2012
# Springer-Verlag London 2012

Abstract Thirty years into its development, additive man- Keywords Additive manufacturing . Environmental
ufacturing has become a mainstream manufacturing process. impact . Energy consumption . Supply chain . Health and
Additive manufacturing build up parts by adding materials wellbeing
one layer at a time based on a computerized 3D solid model.
It does not require the use of fixtures, cutting tools, coolants,
and other auxiliary resources. It allows design optimization 1 Introduction
and the producing of customized parts on-demand. Its
advantages over conventional manufacturing have captivat- Additive manufacturing (AM) is the “process of joining
ed the imagination of the public, reflected in recent main- materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer
stream publications that call additive manufacturing “the upon layer” [1]. It is also known as rapid manufacturing [2]
third industrial revolution.” This paper reviews the societal or rapid prototyping [3]. Unlike conventional manufacturing
impact of additive manufacturing from a technical perspec- techniques such as machining and stamping that fabricate
tive. Abundance of evidences were found to support the products by removing materials from a larger stock or sheet
promises of additive manufacturing in the following areas: metal, additive manufacturing creates the final shape by
(1) customized healthcare products to improve population adding materials. It has the ability to make efficient use of
health and quality of life, (2) reduced environmental impact raw materials and produce minimal waste while reaching
for manufacturing sustainability, and (3) simplified supply satisfactory geometric accuracy [1–3]. Using additive man-
chain to increase efficiency and responsiveness in demand ufacturing, a design in the form of a computerized 3D solid
fulfillment. In the mean time, the review also identified the model can be directly transformed to a finished product
need for further research in the areas of life-cycle energy without the use of additional fixtures and cutting tools. This
consumption evaluation and potential occupation hazard opens up the possibility of producing parts with complex
assessment for additive manufacturing. geometry that are difficult to obtain using material removal
processes. As such, it is unnecessary to consider design for
manufacturing and assembly (DFM/DFA) principles in
product design, which is conducive to design innovation.
S. H. Huang (*) : L. Hou
AM enables environmental friendly product design as
Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, well. Unlike traditional manufacturing processes that place
Xiamen University, many constraints on product design, the flexibility of AM
Xiamen, Fujian Province, People’s Republic of China 360005 allows manufacturers to optimize design for lean produc-
e-mail: [email protected]
tion, which by its nature eliminates waste [4]. In addition,
S. H. Huang : P. Liu : A. Mokasdar AM’s ability to construct complex geometries means that
School of Dynamic Systems, University of Cincinnati, many previously separated parts can be consolidated into a
Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA single object. Furthermore, the topologically optimized
designs that AM is capable of realizing could increase a
P. Liu
Department of Industrial Engineering, Jilin University, product’s functionality, thus reducing the amount of energy,
Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China 130012 fuel, or natural resources required for its operation [5].
1192 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

The development of additive manufacturing technology Different AM processes build and consolidate layers in
started in the 1980s [6]. Significant progress has been made different ways. Some processes use thermal energy from
since then, and there is an expectation that additive manu- laser or electron beams, which is directed via optics to melt
facturing technology can revolutionize the manufacturing or sinter (form a coherent mass without melting) metal or
industry and provide various benefits to the society at large. plastic powder together. Other processes use inkjet-type
These benefits include: printing heads to accurately spray binder or solvent onto
powdered ceramic or polymer. Major AM processes are
& Healthcare products customized to the needs of individual briefly summarized as follows:
consumers, which is expected to significantly improve
population wellbeing. & Fused deposition modeling (FDM). The patent for FDM
& Reduced raw material usage and energy consumption, (US Patent 5121329) was awarded on June 9, 1992, but
which is a key contribution to environmental sustainability. the technique was described earlier in Crump [10]. Liquid
& On-demand manufacturing, which presents an opportu- thermoplastic material is extruded from a movable FDM
nity to reconfigure the manufacturing supply chain to head and then deposited in ultra-thin layers onto a sub-
bring cheaper products to consumers faster while utiliz- strate. The material is heated to 1 °C above its melting
ing fewer resources. point so that it solidifies almost immediately after extru-
Although a large number of papers pertaining to additive sion and cold welds to the previous layers. The materials
manufacturing have been published over the past three deca- used have since been expanded to include wax, metals,
des, most of them focused on various processing technologies. and ceramics [3]. Machines with two nozzles have also
Recently, some researchers started investigating system-level been developed, one for part material and the other for
issues in additive manufacturing. For example, a group of support material that is cheaper and breaks away from the
researchers at Loughborough University has been exploring part without impairing its surface [11]. A good variety of
the use of additive manufacturing to achieve low-carbon materials can be used in FDM and the part accuracy can
design, manufacturing, and service for several years [7]. reach ±0.05 mm. FDM equipment has a compact size, and
Issues related to the societal impact of additive manufacturing the maintenance cost is low. However, FDM has some
have also been discussed. However, such information is scat- disadvantages, e.g., the seam line between layers, the
tered in various publications with different technical focuses. required supports, long build time, and delamination
The objective of this paper is to gather, analyze, categorize, caused by temperature fluctuation [12].
and summarize information pertinent to the societal impact of & Inkjet printing (IJP). Ink jet is a non-impact dot-matrix
additive manufacturing. The paper is organized as follows. technology originally developed for printing 2D images.
Section 2 provides a brief introduction of additive manufac- Its origin can be traced to the late nineteenth century and
turing and its characteristics. Section 3 investigates the impact the first patent (US Patent 2566443) for practical inkjet
of additive manufacturing on population health and wellbeing. device was awarded on September 4, 1951 [13]. IJP uses
Section 4 discusses the environmental impact of additive liquid phase materials, or inks, that consist of a solute
manufacturing. Section 5 explores the possibility of revolu- dissolved or dispersed in a solvent. A fixed quantity of
tionizing the delivery of additively manufactured products ink in a chamber is ejected from a nozzle through a
through supply chain reconfiguration. Section 6 discusses sudden, quasi-adiabatic reduction of the chamber volume
the potential occupational hazards of additive manufacturing. via piezoelectric action. The ejected droplet falls under
Finally, a summary analysis is presented in Section 7. action of gravity until it impinges on the substrate and then
dries through solvent evaporation. Printing of a 3D part
involves the use of pre-patterned substrates at multiple
2 Additive manufacturing technology layers of processing. Various types of materials have been
used in IJP to produce a variety of products including solar
AM technology consists of three basic steps: cells, sensors, and thin-film transistors [14]. IJP can
achieve faster response and just-in-time customization.
(1) A computerized 3D solid model is developed and con- Its disadvantages include fragile print heads (that is prone
verted into a standard AM file format such as the to clogging or blockage) and expensive ink cartridges.
traditional standard tessellation language format [8] or & Laminated object manufacturing (LOM). The patent for
the recent additive manufacturing file format [9]. LOM (US Patent 4752352) was awarded on June 21,
(2) The file is sent to an AM machine where it is manip- 1988. A simpler process was presented in Feygin and
ulated, e.g., changing the position and orientation of Hsieh [15]. LOM use adhesive-coated sheet materials.
the part or scaling the part. The adhesive, which can be pre-coated onto materials or
(3) The part is built layer by layer on the AM machine. be deposited prior to bonding, allows the sheets to be
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203 1193

attached to each other. 3D parts are then manufactured by of SLA is that the product size is relatively small, roughly
sequentially laminating and cutting 2D cross-sections. The no larger than a 2-foot cube. Another disadvantage is the
cutting is done using laser beam where its velocity and cost. The photopolymer alone costs $300 to $500, not to
focus is adjusted so that the cutting depth corresponds mention the machine itself. Also, the materials used in SLA
exactly to the thickness of the layer, thus avoid damaging are relatively limited compared to other AM processes [21].
the underlying layers. A variety of materials can be used, & Selective laser sintering (SLS). The patent for SLS (US
including paper, metals, plastics, fabrics, synthetic materi- Patent 4863538) was awarded on September 5, 1989, but
als, and composites. The LOM process is inexpensive and the process was described earlier in Deckard and Beaman
no toxic fumes are generated. It can also be automated with [22, 23]. SLS uses a high power laser to fuse small
little operator attention. However, LOM has some Z-axis particles of the build material (polymers, metals, ceramics,
accuracy problems which results in dimensional stability glass, or any material that can be pulverized). The fabri-
issues. It may generate some internal cavities which affect cation powder bed is heated to just below the melting
product quality. In addition, postproduction time is needed point of the material to minimize thermal distortion and
to eliminate waste and in some cases secondary processes facilitate fusion to the previous layer. Each layer is drawn
are required to generate accurately functional parts [16]. on the powder bed using the laser to sinter the material.
& Laser engineered net shaping (LENS). The LENS tech- The sintered material forms the part whilst the un-sintered
nology was originally developed at Sandia National powder remains in place to support the structure and may
Laboratories in collaboration with Pratt & Whitney and be cleaned away and recycled once the build is complete.
then licensed to Optomec Inc. in 1997 [17]. The patent SLS offers the freedom to quickly build complex parts that
(US Patent 6046426) was awarded on April 4, 2000. are more durable and provide better functionality over
With LENS, a part is fabricated by focusing a high- other AM processes. No post curing is required, and the
powered laser beam onto a substrate to create a molten build time is fast. However, SLS operation is complicated
pool in which metal powder particles are injected to build as many build variables need to be decided. The achiev-
each layer. The substrate is moved beneath the laser beam able surface finish is not as good as that from SLA, and the
to deposit a thin cross-section to create the desired geom- material changeover is difficult [16].
etry. Consecutive layers are sequentially deposited to & Three-dimensional printing (3DP). The patent for 3DP
build a 3D part. With appropriate control of fabrication (US Patent 5204055) was awarded on April 20, 1993, but
parameters, desired geometric properties (accuracy and the work was reported earlier in Sachs et al. [24]. 3DP
surface finish) and material properties (strength and duc- functions by the deposition of powdered material on a
tility) of a part can be achieved [18]. LENS can be used to substrate that are selectively joined using a binder sprayed
repair parts as well as fabricate new ones. It does not through a nozzle. The material is first stabilized through
require secondary firing operations. However, LENS still misting with water droplets to avoid excessive disturbance
needs postproduction process and the part must be cut when it is hit by the binder. Following the sequential
from the build substrate. It also has a rough surface finish application of layers, the unbound powder is removed.
which may require machining or polishing. The part may be further processed by subjecting it to a
& Stereolithography (SLA). The patent for SLA (US Patent firing at high temperature to further strengthen the bond-
4575330) was awarded on March 11, 1986 and the ing. This process may be applied to the production of
technique was publicized in Hull [19]. SLA uses a metal, ceramic, and metal/ceramic composite parts. 3DP
photosensitive monomer resin and a UV laser to build offers the advantage of speedy fabrication and low materi-
parts one layer at a time. It requires support structures to als cost [25]. In fact, it is probably the fastest of all AM
attach the part to the build platform. On each layer, the processes. However, there are some limitations, such as
laser beam traces the cross-section of the part on the rough surface finish, size limitation, and high cost.
surface of the liquid resin to solidify the pattern. The
Note that the AM process of solid ground curing (SGC)
build platform is then lowered in order to coat the part
ceased to be used in 1999 [2] and hence is not included in
thoroughly. It is then raised to a level such that a blade
the previous summary. The disappearance of SGC is due to
wipes the resin, leaving exactly one layer of resin above
the fact that the production system was very complex and
the part. The part is then lowered by one layer and left until
therefore suffered from high initial and operating costs.
the liquid has settled to ensure an even surface before the
Compared to conventional manufacturing processes, AM
next layer is built [20]. Once the part is completed, the
processes have the following perceived advantages:
support structures may be removed manually. SLA is
particularly suitable in the manufacturing industry as it & Material efficiency. Unlike conventional subtractive
lessens the time it takes for a prototype part to be produced manufacturing where large amount of materials need to
and can achieve a good surface finish. The main limitation be removed, AM uses raw materials efficiently by
1194 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

building parts layer by layer. Leftover materials can 3 Impact on population health and wellbeing
often be reused with minimum processing.
& Resource efficiency. Conventional manufacturing pro- Easy access to vaccines, increased availability of medicine,
cesses require auxiliary resources such as jigs, fixtures, and breakthrough advances in surgical procedures and ther-
cutting tools, and coolants in addition to the main machine apeutic techniques have improved the general quality of life
tool. AM does not require these additional resources. As a of the people around the world after World War II. A direct
result, parts can be made by small manufacturers that are consequence has been the reduction in mortality rate and
close to customers. This presents an opportunity for im- increased life expectancy in both developed and developing
proved supply chain dynamics. countries. The global population has increased steadily, and
& Part flexibility. Because there are no tooling constraints, the population is aging. In 2006, almost 500 million people
parts with complex features can be made in a single worldwide were 65 and older. This number is projected to
piece. In other words, there is no need to sacrifice part increase to 1 billion by 2030 [27]. Caring for an increasing
functionality for the ease of manufacture. In addition, it aging population has put significant strain on government
is possible to build a single part with varying mechanical budget world-wide. An Organization for Economic Co-
properties (flexible in one part and stiffer in another operation and Development study found that the share of
part). This opens up opportunities for design innovation. total health expenditure attributed to people aged 65 and
& Production flexibility. AM machines do not require cost- over ranged from 32 to 42 %, compared with their popula-
ly setups and hence is economical in small batch pro- tion share of 12 to 18 % [28]. Under such circumstances,
duction. The quality of the parts depends on the process delivering high quality, economically efficient healthcare to
rather than operator skills. As such, production can be improve the health and wellbeing of the entire population
easily synchronized with customer demand. In addition, has become one of the key societal challenges in the twenty-
the problems of line balancing and production bottle- first century.
necks are virtually eliminated because complex parts are A promising approach to deliver high-quality and eco-
produced in single pieces. nomically efficient healthcare is personalized care that tai-
lors to specific characteristics and needs of patients. This
However, AM technology still cannot fully compete with concept is fairly broad, which ranges from providing long-
conventional manufacturing, especially in the mass produc- term care tailored to the wants and needs of elderly [29] to
tion field because of the following drawbacks [26]: the use of a patient’s biological data to determine the best
course of therapy [30]. AM technology is well suited to
& Size limitations. AM processes often use liquid polymers, produce customized products that meet individual needs
or a powder comprised of resin or plaster, to build object and hence can play a significant role in personalized health-
layers. These materials render AM unable to produce large- care. Specifically, it has been used to produce customized
sized objects due to lack of material strength. Large-sized surgical implants and assistive devices for improved health
objects also often are impractical due to the extended and wellbeing of the general population.
amount of time need to complete the build process. AM technology can be used to make custom surgical
& Imperfections. Parts produced using AM processes often implants in a solid or resorbable material. The need for
possess a rough and ribbed surface finish. This appear- surgical implants has been increasing. For example, in
ance is due to plastic beads or large-sized powder par- 2001, almost 20,700 Americans underwent chin augmenta-
ticles that are stacked on top of each other, giving the tion surgery, up a staggering 71 % compared to the previous
end product an unfinished look. year. Similarly, the need for lip augmentation went up 49 %,
& Cost. AM equipment is considered an expensive invest- whereas the need for cheek implant went up 47 % [31]. The
ment. Entry level 3D printers average approximately basic idea of making custom surgical implants is to use
$5,000 and can go as high as $50,000 for higher-end computer tomography scan to obtain patient specific data,
models, not including the cost of accessories and resins from which a solid model of the required implant is devel-
or other operational materials. oped through reverse engineering. The model is then used to
build a customized implant for the patient using appropriate
Researchers have been working on improving AM pro- materials. Singare et al. [32] reported that this approach can
cesses to overcome the abovementioned drawbacks. None- produce very accurate implants that function well and in the
theless, it is unlikely that AM technology will make meantime have aesthetical appeal. In addition, such an ap-
traditional manufacturing processes obsolete. However, it proach can significantly shorten the design cycle and deliv-
is reasonable to expect that AM processes will play an ery lead time of custom fit surgical implants [33]. Custom
increasingly important role in manufacturing as a comple- implants produced using AM technology have been used for
menting technology. a variety of applications including skull ([32, 34–36]), knee
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203 1195

joint [37], elbow [38], and hip joint [39]. The most common was attributed to energy efficiency improvements. The other
application is probably that of dentistry, where an excellent half was a result of structural changes including the changes in
review paper is available [40] and the information will not product mix and off-shoring the manufacture of energy inten-
be repeated here. In fact, a variety of commercial dentistry sive products [44]. Although US manufacturers were success-
products based on AM technology are now available, such ful in reducing energy intensity, a closer look at electricity use
as bridges and crowns offered by the Sirona group (Salz- per unit of material processed has revealed an alarming trend.
burg, Austria) and Invisalign clear dental braces offered by The study, conducted by Gutowski et al. [45], showed that
Align Technology (San Jose, CA). Another application area new manufacturing processes were capable of working to
where AM products are commercially available is that of finer dimensions and smaller scales but at lower rates, which
custom hearing aids where such products are offered by resulted in very large specific electrical work requirements. It
Minerva Laboratories (Cardiff, UK) and Phonak (Stafa, has also been observed that these new processes make more
Switzerland). use of high-exergy value materials in very inefficient ways.
AM technology can also be used to produce custom-fit The authors acknowledged that such processes could produce
safety equipment using light weight materials. Safety equip- products with longer useful life and/or lower energy consump-
ment such as helmets and protective garments is an impor- tion during the use phase. Nonetheless, they stated that “the
tant aspect of occupational safety and health. These devices seemingly extravagant use of materials and energy resources
are essential to protect professionals such as firefighters, by many newer manufacturing processes is alarming and
policemen, construction workers, and athletes from potential needs to be addressed….” Therefore, although AM is per-
bodily harms. Safety equipment produced using AM tech- ceived to have a positive impact on energy consumption and
nology has the potential to provide excellent protection the environment, it is necessary to conduct a more thorough
without sacrificing personal comfort of the user. As a result, analysis.
the user can achieve a high level of performance while Conducting energy consumption and environmental im-
receiving maximum protection. An example is the SCUTA pact analysis for AM processes is a challenging but necessary
project conducted at Loughborough University where AM task. Although environmentally conscious manufacturing has
technology is used to produce personal protective equip- received increasing interest since the 1990s, there is not a
ment [41]. The goal is to tailor protective sports garments uniformly satisfactory quantitative method to evaluate the
to individual athletes by taking into account variations in environmental impacts of manufacturing processes, let alone
size and shape of different individuals. The garments can be AM. The environmental analysis for manufacturing processes
produced in one-piece that fit the body perfectly without the should include process time, energy utilization, primary flow
need for seams or joins. They can also be optimized to of work-piece materials, and secondary flows of process cata-
reduce the specific impacts that the athletes are exposed to. lysts, as shown in Fig. 1 [46, 47, 50].
Researchers have also explored the use of AM technolo- Based on the theory of industrial ecology, there are two
gy to produce scaffolds for tissue engineering applications major methods for environmental impact assessment, name-
and drug delivery devices. A summary of these research ly, environmental impact assessment (EIA) and life-cycle
works can be found in Giannatsis and Dedoussis [42]. Note analysis (LCA). However, these methods often cannot mea-
that these applications have not reached the stage of com- sure the actual environmental impacts directly, predict
mercialization. Nonetheless, the potential of AM technology effects, or represent causal linkages with specific effects.
to transform population health care has been recognized. In addition, weighting factors are normally given in a de-
This is evident from the ambitious CUSTOM-FIT European scriptive language, such as “low,” “moderate,” and “seri-
initiative that aimed to create a fully integrated system for ous” which is difficult if not impossible to transform into
the design, production, and supply of individualized medical numbers and solve mathematically [48, 49]. Some research-
and consumer goods products [43]. The initiative is driven ers [49] tried to set up a quantitative model for LCA or EIA,
by AM technology and is expected to have a major benefi- but more work and scientific evidence is needed to deter-
cial impact on the quality of life of European citizens. mine its performance, correctness, and practicality.
Coming back to the EIA of AM processes, the common
opinion is that AM has some good environmental character-
4 Energy consumption and environmental impact istics [51]. These characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
By utilizing only the amount of materials needed for the
Manufacturing of goods requires energy. Industrial energy product, AM technologies have the potential to reduce life-
demand is one-third of the total consumption in the USA. cycle material mass and energy consumed relative to conven-
Over the past 30 years, US industry has achieved 50 % tional subtractive manufacturing techniques by eliminating
reduction in energy intensity, i.e., the amount of energy it engineered scrap and the use of harmful ancillary process
takes to produce $1 of goods. Roughly half of the reduction inputs. The pollution of terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric
1196 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

Fig. 1 Environmental analysis

for manufacturing processes
(modified from [46, 47])

systems is much less in AM than in conventional manufactur- [57] studied the energy consumption rates of two SLS
ing processes. AM processes require no cutting fluids, which platform: Sinterstation HiQ+Hs and EOSINT P 390. Table 3
are the main source of hazard in the manufacturing waste summarizes results reported by these researchers. One can
streams [51]. Serres et al. [52] carried out an environmental see that there are significant variations of energy consump-
assessment of direct additive laser manufacturing (CLAD, tion rates for the same AM process. It is unlikely that these
Construction Laser Additive Directe in French) process, with variations are solely caused by the types of equipment used.
a life-cycle inventory as large as possible and to compare its Rather, most of the variations may be attributed to the way the
environmental impact with conventional machining. The ex- experiments are conducted. For example, in the experiment
perimental results showed that the total environmental impact conducted by Baumers et al. [57], the measured energy con-
was much greater in the case of machining. CLAD process is sumption rates of SLS were higher than expected as extra
much more environmentally friendly, with an impact reduc- energy consumptions occured in the equipment warm-up and
tion of about 70 %. Comparative studies were carried out in cool-down stages. It is possible that the pure AM building
LENS [53] and Direct Metal Deposition [54, 55] with similar process is not energy intensive. However, once the entire
results. operating procedure is considered, AM might not have an
However, comparing with conventional manufacturing edge over traditional manufacturing processes in terms of
processes, AM processes have their unique features in terms energy consumption. Because the literature on this topic is
of system complexity and operating style. A comprehensive limited, no firm conclusion can be drawn at this time.
comparison of AM and other manufacturing processes in
terms of energy usage, water usage, landfill usage, and the
use of virgin materials was conducted under the ATKINS 5 Impact on manufacturing supply chain
project [7]. The result is summarized in Table 2. Although
AM has clear advantages in terms of environmental impact, Manufacturing and delivering products to customers require
its energy consumption far exceeds that of casting. This may the efforts of various companies that form the manufacturing
come as a shock to some researchers. supply chain. These companies may include raw material
The perception that AM consumes less energy than con- suppliers, component suppliers, original equipment manufac-
ventional manufacturing processes may be misplaced. A turers, wholesalers/distributors, logistics service providers,
possible cause could be due to the way that energy con- and retailers. In a supply chain, materials flow forward from
sumption is measured. A measure commonly used is energy suppliers through various stages toward customers, whereas
consumption rate, namely, the kilowatt hours (kWh) con- information and funds flow backward. It has been pointed out
sumed per kilogram of part geometry produced. Using this that AM has the potential to reduce the number of stages in the
measure, Luo et al. [51] analyzed three typical AM process- traditional supply chain [58]. Specifically, AM technology
es, namely, SLA, SLS, and FDM. Sreennivasan and Bourell offers two opportunities: (1) to redesign products with fewer
[56] studied the performance of SLS HiQ equipment with components and (2) to manufacture products near the custom-
similar method and measured its mean power consumption ers (i.e., distributed manufacture). The net effect is the reduction
as 19.6 kWh. In the most recent literature, Baumers et al. in the need for warehousing, transportation, and packaging.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203 1197

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Incineration, landfill, recycling

Tuck et al. [59] discussed how AM technology could
change supply chain management thinking. First, AM can
improve the efficiency of a lean supply chain through just-

Incineration,landfill
Landfill, recycling
in-time (JIT) manufacture and waste elimination. Because
AM only requires 3D data and raw materials in order to
produce a complex part, it will reduce setup and changeover
Disposal

time, and the number of assemblies. This in turn results in a

reduction of material distribution and inventory holding for
fluid vapor

work in progress. It is also possible to implement JIT manu-

particulate,

facture at the shop floor instead of JIT delivery by suppliers to

residues
Aerosol

the shop floor. As a result, non-value added activities such as

Tool

No

No

No

No

No

No

No
material movement and inventory holding can be reduced to a
(cutting, cooling)

minimum. The result is a lean supply chain with low cost.

Liquid residues

Second, AM can improve the responsiveness of an agile

supply chain. A build-to-order strategy can be implemented
Fluid mix

to ensure that no stockout would occur. The overriding cost

Small amount of resin, No

No

No

No

No

No

No
for AM production is not labor but the machines and raw
materials, which makes it economical to locate production
facilities near the end customers. In addition, it is possible to
removed supports

removed supports

removed supports
Removed supports,
Tool scrap, Chips

customize products to meet individual customer needs. This

material chips
Material chips,
Material chips

Material chips

Material chips
Fixture and Laser Solid residues

will facilitate the implementation of a build-to-order strategy

Microchips,

and increase responsiveness.

Several researchers have investigated the use of AM tech-
nology in the spare parts supply chain [60–62]. The spare
used

parts supply chain in the aircraft industry faces significant

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
No

No

No

No

challenges of providing fast repair and maintenance services

while minimizing costs. A large commercial airplane is made
tooling

up of several million parts. Most parts are infrequently needed,

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

but they have to be kept in stock in order to ensure fast service

time. The current supply chain for aircraft spare parts func-
Piezoelectric nozzle
Steel, aluminum, alloy Mechanical energy
Energy Consumed

High power laser

tions as follows. A safety stock of standard replacement parts

UV laser beam

nozzle, heat

is kept at the airline’s warehouse. These parts can be ordered at

beam, heat

Metal, ceramic, binder Piezoelectric

laser beam

laser beam
High-power
Nylon, metal, ceramic, High power
Table 1 Contrast between traditional machining and different AM processes

regular intervals according to a maintenance plan. Other less

frequently used parts are purchased from suppliers and often
Nylon, ABS, ceramic, Heat

require a 24-h delivery time to ensure fast service. Therefore,

suppliers must keep these parts in stock and use an overnight
Liquid photopolymer

Liquid materials, ink

investment casting

delivery service. To keep the stock of these slow moving (i.e.,

metal, ceramic,
Paper, polymer,

infrequently demanded) parts as low as possible, the strategy

paraffin wax

Metal, binder
Acronym Raw material

wax, alloy

of demand aggregation is used which requires central ware-

housing. The trade-off is increased delivery cost. Another
problem is related to the production batch size of these parts.
Current production technology requires parts to be produced
in large batch size to take advantage of economy of scale.
LENS

Laminated object manufacturing LOM

FDM
SLA

3DP
SLS

IJP

However, for slow moving parts, this means a large amount of

capital is tied up in the form of inventory. AM technology
obvious has the potential to solve this problem. However,
Laser engineered net shape
Fused deposition modeling

because AM technology is still in its developmental stage,

Three-dimension printing
Selective laser sintering

only a limited range of parts can be produced economically.

Therefore, it is necessary to use a systematic step-by-step
Stereolithography

Inkjet printing

procedure to determine suitable applications. The decisions

Machining
Technique

should be revisited periodically because AM technology is

constantly evolving. Detailed discussion of this procedure can
be found in [62].
1198 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

Table 2 Comparison of energy use and environmental impact of different manufacturing techniques under the ATKINS project

Process Energy use (kg CO2 Water usage Landfill waste (kg) Virgin material use Hazardous waste
per component) (kg per component) (kg per component) (kg per component)

Casting 1.9 0 N/A 2 N/A

Flexline machining 2.4 0.08 1.512 (waste can be recycled) 2 (from casting) 0.0064ii
Clean machining N/a 0.15 N/A N/A N/A
AM 13.15 0 0 0.65 0

Hasan and Rennie [61] noted that a fully functional AM the user. They concluded that on-demand and centralized
supply chain is not yet available in the spare parts industry. production of spare parts is most likely to succeed.
The authors proposed a business model to enable such a Although AM technology has yet to be truly incorporated
supply chain. The model is based on an e-business platform into the spare parts supply chain, it has been successfully
that provides the following services: used to supply certain consumer goods. Reeves [63] de-
scribed four such businesses: (1) Fabjectory that enables
& Sourcing: give buyers easy access to a pool of suppliers.
players of Second Life to purchase models of individualized
& Demand identification: assist suppliers to identify cus-
avatar characters, (2) FigurePrints that allows players of
tomers and their demand.
World-of-Warcraft to order 1/16th scale models of their
& Content display: provide an e-catalogue to display the
online gaming characters, (3) Landprint that offers person-
products and services provided by the suppliers
alized 3D model of any place on earth, and (4) Jujups that
& Transaction: enable the exchange of procurement infor-
offers a range of personalized gifts such as photo frames,
mation between the buyers and suppliers.
badges, mugs, and even chocolate. It appeared that Fabjec-
& Promotion: help suppliers advertise their products and
tory has since gone out of business, but the other three are
services
doing quite well. With this type of business model, retailers
Holmstrom et al. [60] proposed two different approaches do not carry any inventory. Goods are produced on-demand
to integrate AM technology in the spare parts supply chain. either in-house or through subcontract to a third-party man-
The first approach is to use centralized AM capacity to ufacturer and then shipped directly to the customers. There
replace inventory holding. AM machines are deployed in is no need for warehousing and distribution, although the
centralized distribution centers to produce slow-moving final products still need to be shipped to customers. It is
spare parts on demand. Producing parts in a centralized possible that this consumer goods supply chain can be
location has the advantage of aggregating demand from further simplified when AM technology matures to the stage
various regional service locations to ensure that the invest- where inexpensive personal 3D printer becomes a reality.
ment in AM capacity is well utilized. The disadvantage is Customers can design their own personalized products or
that the produced parts need to be shipped to the service obtain files of standard products online through a technolo-
locations, which results in the increase of response time. For gy service provider. The products can then be built right in
certain parts that are needed in the first line maintenance, front of the customers using their personal 3D printer. This
inventory still needs to be carried in the service locations. scenario is not far-fetched. In 2004, Idealab launched the
The centralized approach is desirable when parts that can be Desktop Factory to bring affordable 3D printers to the mass.
produced using AM are limited and the required response In 2009, the assets of Desktop Factory were acquired by 3D
time is not critical. The second approach, distributed AM systems (Rock Hill, SC), a company that is currently offer-
deployed at each service location, is suitable when the ing a sub $10K 3D printer. This disruptive technology has
demand of AM producible parts is sufficiently high to the potential to drastically change the landscape of the
justify the capacity investment. The advantage is the elim- conventional manufacturing supply chain.
ination of inventory holding and transportation costs and a
fast response time. In addition to these two approaches,
Holmstrom et al. also contemplated the feasibility of mobile 6 Potential health and occupational hazards
AM but conceded that there are many challenges. The
authors further discussed the trade-off between batch pro- Conventional manufacturing processes such as casting,
duction and on-demand production, and that between spe- forging, and machining generate various air/water emission,
cialized and general purpose AM. The key variables noise, fluid spills, and wasted chip powders which are
considered are materials and production costs, distribution potential health and occupational hazards. The main heath
and inventory obsolescence costs, and life-cycle costs for risk generated by traditional manufacturing processes is oil
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203 1199

Quantum
mist resulted from metalworking fluid. Long-term exposure

163.69
to oil mist can lead to increased susceptibility to several types
of cancer. Oil mist can also cause diseases such as oil acne,
contact dermatitis, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and lung
23.08
8000
fibrosis. Noise also presents a fairly common workplace haz-
ard. Occupational hearing loss is the most common work-
115.2
2000

related injury in the USA, with 22 million workers exposed

to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242
346.4

million spent annually on worker’s compensation for hearing

FDM

1650

loss disability [64, 65]. These problems can be avoided using

AM processes. However, AM processes may create new
EOSINT P 390

health problems. Therefore, it is important to investigate the

toxicological and environmental hazards that may occur due
to handling, using, and the disposal of the materials used in
66.02

various AM processes. These investigations can help achieve

pollution prevention and reduction of occupational hazards
HiQ + Hs

and health risks. They may also prove to be a catalyst for

56.75

greater acceptance of the AM industry.

A wide assortment of materials like epoxy resins, cyanoa-
crylates, polycarbonates, acrylates, elastomers, acrylonitrile/
Vanguard HiQ

butadiene/styrenes, and nylons (polyamides) have been intro-

duced for AM during the last two decades. However, the
effects of some of the materials are not well understood. For
14.5

example, a low-viscosity carbonate-epoxy-based liquid resin

known as “TuxedoTMG3-HCM” was introduced by Ameri-
Model2500

can Dye Source over 10 years ago [66]. Some experiments

29.83

carried out on laboratory animals showed that TuxedoTMG3-

HCM could cause genetic alteration and mutation, and change
cell structure. However, its potential health effects have not
Model2000

been tested, and no limit has been laid on how much a human
40.09

being can be exposed to this chemical [66].

SLS

Various studies on AM materials concluded that harsh

Table 3 Summary of reported energy consumption of different AM processes

skin reactions and eye irritation and allergies can occur

SLA5000

when the operator comes in contact with these chemicals

20.70

by either inhaling the vapors or if the materials accidently

spill on the skin. Prolonged exposure to these chemicals
SLA3500

may lead to chronic allergies though nothing can be said

about whether they can be fatal. Since the majority of the
41.38

chemicals are long-chain molecules, their biodegradability

is very poor and the materials remain in the environment for
SLA250

extended periods of time. Poisonous gases like carbon di-

32.47
SLA

oxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides

are found to be emanated after the breakdown of these
Energy consumption rate (kWh/kg)

chemicals. It has also been predicted that noxious halocar-

bons (CFCs, HCFCs, CCl4), trichloroethane (CH3CCl3),
nickel, and lead compounds might emerge from the oper-
ations of AM machines. Therefore, the environmental im-
pact of the AM industry is a subject of great concern [48].
Name of equipment
Type of equipment

Even though some researchers [48] have acknowledged

the need for standardization of raw materials in the AM
industry, the potential toxicity, environmental hazards, and
chemical degradability of solvents used for their removal
still remains a topic of considerable research potential.
1200 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203

Along with the few harmful after-effects of photopolymer production platform [75]. Several mainstream publications,
liquid resin, not much is known about the effects of the including the Economist, Forbes, and USA Today, have
solvents (propylene carbonate, tripropylene glycol mono- brought public attention to the AM technology. The April
methylether, isopropanol) used to dissolve support struc- 2012 issue of the Economist billed AM as the production
tures left after making prototypes in SLA. Nonetheless, technology of the future and called it “the third industrial
they are known to cause some symptoms like skin burns revolution.” It is highly likely that AM will have a significant
and respiratory uneasiness. Table 4 showed different chem- societal impact in the near future. A critical technical review of
icals used in various AM processes and their occupational the promises and potential issues of AM is beneficial for
and environmental effects [67–74]. It can be observed that further advancing its development.
most of the chemicals are not really harmful to humans This review identified many positive impacts of AM,
except one or two like photopolymers and propylene glycol. summarized as follows:
Nonetheless, AM machine operators need to be educated in
handling and disposal of these materials along with the & Customized healthcare products to improve population
handling of high-intensity laser beams. Safety equipment health and quality of life. AM has been used to produce
like masks, goggles, and working gloves must obviously customized surgical implants and assistive devices in the
be provided in the work area. Slowly and steadily, AM healthcare industry. Researchers are now investigating the
processes will surely become safer and safer for the oper- use of AM to produce scaffolds for tissue engineering
ators as new technological and safety features are developed applications and drug delivery devices. Because AM is
and implemented in AM machines. well suited to produce customized products, it is expected
to play a significant role in personalized healthcare to
improve the safety, quality, and effectiveness of healthcare
7 Conclusion for the general population.
& Reduced environmental impact for manufacturing sustain-
After 30 years of research and development, AM has evolved ability. Compared to conventional machining processes,
from a niche process for rapid prototyping to a legitimate AM is more efficient in terms of virginal material con-
manufacturing process for parts production. Many companies sumption and water usage. It does not require the use of
are producing commercial parts using AM process. For ex- coolant and other auxiliary process inputs, and thus
ample, Boeing now has 200 different AM part numbers on 10 produces less pollution to the terrestrial, aquatic, and

Table 4 Occupational and environmental effects of different chemicals used in AM processes

AM Chemical/solvent Emissions Hazards of usage Biodegradability

process

SLA Propylene carbonate CO2,CO,SOx Low system toxicity was found in rats Readily biodegradable (more than
80 % degraded in 10 days)
Urethane resins Too much ingestion may lead to vomiting Not found to be dangerous to the
environment
Tripropylene glycol Slight irritation after eye contact. Can be biodegraded by 50 % in just
No absorption or irritation to the skin. 8.7 days, and by 81.9 % over a
28-day test period
Isopropanol Irritation and burning sensation in eyes Has a potential to acutely decrease
and sometimes corneal injuries; irritation oxygen from aqueous systems
and soreness on the skin and prolonged
exposure may cause dermatitis
SLS Polyamide resin CO2 No serious hazards were found during Form inflammable mixture with some
handling or exposure to this chemical chemicals or long exposure to air
Acrylonitrile Molten plastic likely to cause lethal burns, Since it is insoluble in water,
butadiene styrene processing fumes may lead to eye irritation its eco-toxicity is low
and choking of the respiratory tract
LENS Photopolymers CO2,CO,SOx Inhalation may cause ulceras and burning in No hazardous decomposition products
throat and coughing; contact with skin and
eyes causes redness, irritation and swelling
FDM Propylene glycol CO2,CO,SOx,PMc,NOx Irritation in eyes, skin, nose, throat; headache, No hazardous decomposition products
monomethylether nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination;
vomiting, diarrhea
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 67:1191–1203 1201

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