Electrical Workshop

EE-101

Lab Manual

Department of Electrical Engineering

Authored by
Engr. ISMAIL KHAN JADOON .
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

List of Experiments

No. Description

1 Introduction of tools Electrical materials, symbols and observation

2 To control one series & Two series connected Electric Lamp using 1- Way switch.

To control two parallel connected Electric Lamp using 1-Way switch & control two Electric
3 Lamps by using two 1-Ways switch separately.

To control single parallel connected Electrical Lamps using 2-Way 2 switches [Stair case
4
Circuit].
5 To control two lamps by single 2-way switch such that either they can glow one lamp or both.

6 Wiring & installation of Fluorescent Tube & control switch

A. To Wiring a Lamp and a Fan in Parallel with 2 single way switch.

7 B. To Wiring up a Plug Socket & single way switch.
C. To Wiring up Heavier Loads.

8 To study the principle of working and servicing of electric iron box

9 To study the working and maintenance of ceiling fan.

A. Wiring of consumer's terminals, Distribution system house wiring

10
B. Study the Method & system of wiring And choice of wiring
11 To study the working principle of Air Conditioner

Study the working principal of Induction type single phase energy meter
12

13 Introduction and use of various types of cables.

To study & understanding the earthling/ grounding, Factors affecting the value of earth
14
electrode resistance, Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil.

1
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

General Workshop Rules & Precaution

RULES

All students in the workshop are expected to adhere to the following guidelines.
1.The students are supposed to come in proper workshop time. Wearing
Shoes in the workshop are compulsory.
2. Do not fool around in the lab: Take your lab work seriously and behave
Appropriately in the laboratory. Be aware of your classmates‘ safety as well as your own at all
times.
3. To successfully complete the experiments in one lab period, you must come
Prepared to the laboratory. You must read the experiment in advance and answer the pre-lab
questions.
4. Please treat the instruments with care, as they are very expensive.
5. Return the components to the correct bins when you are finished with them.
6. Before leaving the lab, place the stools under the lab bench.
7. Before leaving the lab, turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
8. Keep your work area neat and uncluttered- Have only books and other materials that are needed to
conduct the experiment in the laboratory.
9. Experiment: The student works with a partner and they both take the data on separate notebooks.
The lab instructor will look at the data and sign on your notebook at the end of the experiment.
10. Any student missing a lab (not present in the lab) with no proper or reasonable excuse will get a
―0‖ grade on that specific lab and will have his/her final letter grade reduced.
11. This laboratory can be used by students during laboratory hours only.

Precaution
1. Use Power supply merely to test the circuit.
2. Use one hand instead of two. This will save you from fatal shock.
3. Protect your body from coming into contact with the conductor/wires.
4. Perform practical with utmost care and attention. Mental absence may cause several shocks.
5. Take care while removing plug from shocks as your finger may touch the energized pin.
6. Rubber shoes should be used during practical.
7. Ask the lab instructor to check the circuit before energizing.
8. If a person receives a shock, shut the power off immediately or push him using insulator like
clothes, wood etc.
9. Hours play running or practical jobs are strictly prohibited in the laboratory.
10. Keep your work area neat and clean.

2
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 1
Introduction of tools Electrical materials, symbols and observation

Objectives
1. To understand the basic of electric
2. To understand the electric symbol
3. To understand the basic electric components function

Introduction
Theory of basic electric function voltage, current, ohm law & electric circuit.

Voltage
Voltage is the pressure, which drives the electrical current in a specific direction in the circuit. It is
denoted by the symbol ‗‘V‘‘ and in volt [V].Voltages/ Potential difference in divided into
alternating voltage [AV] and direct voltage [DV]. Av is one whose polarity is changing contentious
with the passage of time and DV does not change its polarity with the passage of time.

Current
Flow of charges through the circuit or any material in a specific direction is known as Electrical
Current. It is denoted by the symbol ‗‘I‘‘ and is measured in ampere [A].Current may flow due to
flow of possibility charged particles, e.g. holes or positive ions, and negatively charged particles
e.g. electrons or negative ions. There are two conditions which must be fulfilling for the smooth of
electrical current through any, material. These conditions are as follows.
Potential difference across the terminal of component must be established. Path of flow of current
must be completed. Electrical Current is divided into alternating current [AC] and direct current
[DC]. AC is one whose direction of flows is changing continuous with the passage of time and DC
is not change the direction of its flow with the passage of time.

Resistance
It is passive circuit component used to dissipate voltage in the circuit. Its resistance is measured in ohm
and resistance color code scheme is normally used to determine its resistance in the electric circuit
.resistance has four bands of difference colors. Each color band has been assigned unique digit which is
given in the following table 1.

Table -1

3
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Color of Band Code

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Gold 5% Tolerance
Silver 10% Tolerance

1st Band represents the 1st significant digit.

2nd Band represents the 2nd significant digit.
3rd Band represents the Multiplier (It is written as power of 10)
4th Band represents the maximum possible variation of resistance that is known as tolerance of that
resistance.
Example:
Let‘s consider whose color bands are Brown, Black, Red and Silver.
We may easily find out the resistance of the mentioned resistor using color band table in the following
fashion.
1st Band represents the 1st significant digit = Brown = 1
2nd Band represents the 2nd significant digit = Black = 0
3rd Band represents exponent of 10 = Red = 2
4th Band represents the maximum variation of resistor‘s value = Silver = 10% tolerance.
So
R = 10*10^2
R = 10*100
R = 1,000 = 1kΩ
Equivalent Resistance of more than one Resistor may be determining as follows.
1. Req = R1+ R2 + R3 +……… ( For Series Connection)
2. 1/Req – 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+………(For Parallel Connection)

4
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Ohm’s Law
This law describes the relation b/w current and voltage across that component. It states the voltage
V across any component directly proportional to current I flowing through that component.

VαI

V=IR
Here V is the voltage across the component, I is Current flowing through that component. It is
denoted as P is measured in Watt [W].

P=VI

Electrical Circuit
The path Electric Energy through which Electrical Current Flows is called Electrical Current. The
devices connected in the path of Electric current is said to be circuit component. These
components are generally divided into two categories known as passive circuit components and
Active circuit components passive components are those which dissipate the Electric Energy such
as Electric lamp, Resistors and electric motors etc. Generator is the example of Active circuit
components. Some of circuit components and their brief description are given in the following
table 2.

5
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Table -2

Components Circuit symbols Description

Supplies electrical energy. It provides
Direct Current. The larger terminal [on the
Battery left]is positive[+]

DC supply Supplies electrical energy. It provides

direct current.

AC supply Supplies electrical energy. It provides

alternating current.

A coil of wire which create A magnetic

field when Current Passes through it. May
Inductor
have an iron core Inside the coil.

A transducer which Convert electrical

Lamp(Lighting)
energy to light.

A transducer which converts electrical

Lamp(Indicator)
energy to lights.

A transducer which converts electrical

Heater
energy to heat.

A safety device which will ‗blow‘ [melt] if

the current Flowing through it exceeds A
Fuse
specific value.

A transducer which converts electrical

Motor energy to mechanical energy.

Electrical system convert mechanical

Generator
energy to electrical energy

6
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Two coil of wire linked by an iron core.

Transformer is to step up [increase] and
set Down to decrease AC voltage. It
Transformer
works on the principle of Electromagnetic
Induction.

A connection to earth. For Many

electronic circuits this is the 0V [zero
Earth(Ground)
voltage] of the power supply.

Bell A Transistor Which converts the energy

to sound.

A push switch allow to Current flow only

when the Button is pressed. This switched
Push Switch(push-to-
used to operate doorbell.
make)
This type of switch is normally closed
[off] only when it is in the closed [on]
Push-to-break switch
position.
SPDT= Single Pole, Single Throw.
An on-off switch allows current to flow
On-off Switch only when it is in the closed [on] position.
SPDIT=Single pole Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the
flow of current to one of two routes
2-way Switch
according to its position.

A resistor restricts the flow currents.

Resistor

This type of variable resistor with 2

Variable Resistor contact [ a rheostat]
(Rheostat) Is usually used to control current.

This type of variable resistor with 3

Variable Resistor contacts [a potentiometer]
(Potentiometer) Is usually used to control voltage.

7
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Devices that allow electrically operated

equipment to be connected to the
Power plug
primary alternating current (AC)power
supply in a building

This type of variable resistor [a preset] Is

Variable Resistor operated with a small screwdriver or
(preset) similar tool….

A capacitor sore electric charge. It‘s an

Capacitor unpolorized Capacitor.

A capacitor stores electric charge. It can

also be used as a filter, to block DC
Capacitor, Polarized
signals but pass AC signals.

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor used in radio tuner.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

used with other component to make an
Transistor NPN
amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifier current. It can be

used with other component to make an
Transistor PNP
amplifier or switching circuit.

A light sensitive transistor.

Phototransistor

A transducer which Converts sound to

electrical energy.
Microphone

A transducer which converts electrical to

Earphone
sound energy.

8
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Voltmeter A voltmeter is used to measure

voltage.

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure

current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive

Galvanometer
meter which is used to measure tiny
amount of current.

Ohmmeter An ohm meter is used to measure

resistance.

An oscilloscope is used to display

Oscilloscope the shape of electrical signals and it
can used to measure their voltage
and time period.

Thermistor Thermistor is temperature

dependent variable resistor.

A transducer which Converts

Loudspeaker electrical to Sound energy.

Specialized electronic component

with two electrodes, Diodes can be
used as rectifiers, signal limiters,
Diode
voltage regulators, switches, signal
modulators, signal mixers, signal
demodulators, and oscillators.

9
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 2
To control one series & two series connected Electric Lamp using 1- Way switch.

Equipment
1. Plier
2. Cutter
3. Tester
4. panel
5. DMM
6. switch
7. lamps
8. pieces of cables

Operations to be carried out

1. Fitting the Wires
2. Connection of the bulb holder
3. Power From main
4. Operating the bulb
Procedure
The circuit contains one lamp and 1-way switch.
The circuit contains two lamp and 1-way switch.
1. Switch is connected in series of AC voltage source
2. Lamps are also in series with each other and with switch as well.
3. In series connection of circuit components only one terminal of each component is connected
directly with each other and rest of terminals are connected with other components.
4. In series connection same amount of current flows through each of the components but applied
voltage is divided with respect to their resistance, offered by them in flow of current.
5. When switch is open [off] state both lamps remains off and at closed [on] state both Lamps will
glow with lesser brightness.

10
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Lamp 1-way switch

Lamp

Neutral
Neutral
AC supply 220v
AC supply 220v
Phase

Phase

1-way switch
Fig-2.2
Fig-2.1
Control one series connected electric lamp using 1-
Control one series connected electric lamp way switch
using 1-way switch

To control two series connected Electric Lamp using 1- Way switch.

Lamps
Lamp Lamp
Neutral Neutral
AC supply 220v
AC supply 220v
Phase
Phase

1-way switch

Fig-2.3 Fig-2.4

To control two series connected Electric Lamp using 1- Way switch To control two series connected Electric Lamp using 1- Way switch

Safety Precautions
1. All connection should be tight and clean
2. All connections to the switches and bulb holders should be right.
3. Always red wire should be used for phase and black for neutral.
Result
Control of two lamps in series by a single switch is done.

11
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 3

To control two parallel connected Electric Lamp using 1-Way switch & control two Electric Lamps
by using two 1-Ways switch separately.
Equipment
1. Plier
2. Cutter
3. Tester
4. Panel
5. DMM
6. Switch
7. Lamps
8. pieces of cables

Operations to be carried out

1. Fitting the Wires
2. Connection of the bulb holders
3. Power From main
4. Operating the bulb

Procedure
The circuit contains two lamps and 1-way switch is connected in series of AC voltage source but
lamps are connected in parallel with each other and with switch as well. In parallel connection
same amount of voltage across each components but current id divided in these components. When
switch is open [off] state both lamps remains off and at closed [on] state both lamps will glow with
their full brightness

12
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

To control two parallel connected Electric Lamp using 1-Way switch.

Lamp

Lamp Lamp
Neutral
Neutral

220V Supply
220V Supply
Phase
Switch
Lamp
Phase

Fig-3.1 Fig-3.2

To control two parallel connected Electric Lamp using 1-Way switch To control two parallel connected Electric Lamp using 1-Way switch

Result
Control of two lamps in parallel by a single switch is done.

To control two Electric Lamps by using two 1-Ways switch separately.

Procedure
This circuit contains two lamps, two 1-switches is connected in series. When both of switches are
closed [on] both lamps become in parallel with each other and glow with their full brightness. In
case of switch 1 is closed [on] and switch 2 is open [off] lamp 1 will glow and lamp 2 remains Off
and vice versa for switch 1 is open [off] and switch is closed[on].

13
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Lamp

Lamp Lamp
Neutral
Neutral

220V AC supply
220V AC supply

Phase Switch Switch

Phase
Switch Switch

Fig-3.3 Fig-3.4

Fig 3.3 & 3.4 shows to control two Electric Lamps by using two 1-Ways switch
separately

Safety Precautions:
1. All connections to the switches and bulb holders should be right.
2. Always red wire should be used for phase and black for neutral.

Result:
Control of two lamps separately in parallel by a single switch is done.

14
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 4
To control single parallel connected Electrical Lamps using 2-Way 2 switches
[Stair case Circuit].

Equipment
1. Plier
2. Cutter
3. Tester
4. Panel
5. Two way switch

Operations to be carried out

1. Fitting the Wires
2. Connection of the bulb holders
3. Connect two way switch as figs shown
4. Power From main
5. Operating the bulb

Procedure
In this circuit on lamp and two 2-way switches are connected with AC voltage source. When both
of switches are p1 and p2 state circuit will conduct and lamp will glow. When these lamps are in
their alternate state means S1 is at P1 and S2 is at P2 then circuit does not conduct and lamp
remains off in that case. This Circuit is known as stair case Circuit because it is implemented in the
stairs of and buildings.

Fig- 4.1

Fig 4.1 shows Circuit diagram of Stair case Circuit

15
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Neutral

A.C 220V
Phase

Phase

2 way switch
2 way switch
Fig-4.2 Fig-4.3

Fig 4.2 & 4.3 shows Circuit control single parallel connected Electrical Lamps using 2-Way 2 switches

These two way switches have a single pole double throw (SPDT) configuration. Each has a common
terminal (COM) with a pole that can be switched between position L1 or L2. As shown in the figure
above have the COM, L1 and L2 of both the SPDT switches connected together. For incandescent
lamp, the recommended wire gauge used is AWG #18. The LIVE AC Source is connected to L1 of
SW1 and one side of the load is connected to L2 of SW2. The other side of the load is then connected
to NEUTRAL of the AC Source. With this configuration, the lamp will be turned ON when one
switch is at ON position and the other is at OFF position. If both switches are in the same position,
the lamp will be OFF

Safety Precautions
3. All connections to the switches and bulb holders should be right.
4. Always red wire should be used for phase and black for neutral.

Result
Control of one lamp by a two way two switch is done.

16
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 5
To control two lamps by single 2-way switch such that either they can glow one lamp or both.

Equipment
1. Plier
2. Cutter
3. Tester
4. Panel
5. Two way switch

Operations to be carried out

1) Fitting the Wires
2) Connection of the bulb holders
3) Connect two way switch as fig shown
4) Power From main
5) Operating the bulb

Procedure
In this case two lamps and one 2-way switch is connected with AC voltage source in such a way
that P1 is connect with Lamp1 and P2 is connected with common terminal of lamp1 and lamp2.
When switch is at P1 state Lamp1 and lamp2 become in series and both of them ill glow with their
lesser brightness. When switch is at P2 state Lamp 1 becomes open and only Lamp2 will glow.
Lamp-1
Common

Phase
TWO way switch

220V AC supply
Lamp-2
Neutral

Fig-5.1
Fig 5.1 shows circuit diagram of control two lamps by single 2-way switch such that either they can glow one
lamp or bothPrecautions
Safety
5. All connections to the switches and bulb holders should be right.
6. Always red wire should be used for phase and black for neutral.

Result
Control of one lamp by a two way switch is done.

17
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 6

Wiring & installation of Fluorescent Tube with control switch.

Equipment
1. 4 Feet 36Watt Fluorescent Lamp -01 nos.
2. 40W Magnetic Ballast -01 no‘s
3. Starter and base -01 no‘s
4. Fluorescent Lamp Holders -02 no‘s
5. PF correction Capacitor-2.5 micro Farad -01 no‘s
6. Fixture to install above accessories
7. MCB 6A -01 no‘s [ from a Distribution Board already installed]
Operations to be carried out
1. For Industrial applications, 1.5 mm2 [called as 1.5 mm squared] Cross sectioned double insulated
Cu [Copper] Cables [Cu/PVC/PVC] are used for the Phase [Live] and the Neutral cables.
1. For Residential applications, 1.0 mm2 Cross sectioned double insulated Cu [Copper] Cables
[Cu/PVC/PVC] are commonly used for the Phase and the Neutral cables.
2. Earth [Ground ]cable should be 2.5mm2 single insulated Cu[Copper] Cables [Cu/PVC] for both
Industrial or Residential type of applications.

Fluorescent light working

The starter is like a key of fluorescent light because it is used to light up the tube. When we connect the
AC supply voltage to the circuit, then the starter act like short circuited and current flow through those
filament (located at the first and second end of the tube light) and the filament generate heat and it ionized
the gas (mercury vapor) in the fluorescent tube lamp. So the gas becomes electrically conductive medium.
At the same time when the starter opened the circuit path of two filaments from series connected, then the
ballast release its stored voltage. And it makes the fluorescent tube fully lighten. Now the starter has no
job in the circuit, if you open it from the circuit the fluorescent tube light will be still lighten, until you
release the main supply
Procedure
Make sure that the Power is isolated [shut down] to the Distribution board or any circuit you will be
working with.
Connect the Phase [L] wire to the outgoing side of a 6A or a 10A [Maximum] MCB from the Distribution
Board [DB]. Draw the Phase wire to the Fluorescent Light Fitting and connect to one terminal point of the
Magnetic Ballast. Connect another wire to the other terminal of the ballast and connect to one of the
terminals of the holder terminal of the Fluorescent Lamp. Connect a wire from the terminal of the other

18
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

holder terminal of the Fluorescent Lamp to the Starter base terminal. Connect a wire from the second
terminal of the Starter base to the second holder terminal of the Fluorescent Lamp
Connect the Neutral [N] wire to the Neutral Link provided in the DB and draw the wire to the receptacle
and connect to the unconnected terminal of the Fluorescent Lamp's second holder as shown in the
diagram. Connect the Earth [E] wire to the Earth link provided in the Distribution Board. Draw Earth wire
to the Fluorescent Light Fitting and connect to the Earth point of the Magnetic Ballast

Fig-6.1 Fig-6.2

Fig-6, 1 & 6.2 shows Wiring of Fluorescent Tube with control switch

Safety Precautions
1. Though the process assembling a fluorescent light is very simple and straightforward, some safety
precautions need to be observed. Make it a habit when dealing when all electrical installations as
electricity can kill.
2. The most important thing to always remember is to isolate all live supplies... In short,
always switch off the mains as you can never be sure. Take it a step further by sticking a notice in
the main switch panel that some maintenance work is going on lest someone switch it back on
unknowingly.
3. When you have completed your work, always clear up all leftover wire cuttings and double check
to see everything is in place before switching back on the electricity supply.
4. Work smart, work safe and have fun assembling your fluorescent light.

Result
Wiring & installation of Fluorescent Tube & control switch is done.

19
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 7

A. To Wiring a Lamp and a Fan in Parallel with 2 single way switch.

B. To Wiring up a Plug Socket & single way switch.
C. To Wiring up Heavier Loads.

Equipment
1. Plier
2. Cutter
3. Tester
4. Panel
5. Lamp
6. Fan
7. Switch
8. Wall socket
9. Earthling rod
10. Ground heavy load socket

A. To Wiring a Lamp and a Fan in Parallel with 2 single way switch.

Operations to be carried out

6) Fitting the Wires
7) Connection of the bulb holders
8) Connect the lamp, switch & fan as shown in fig
9) Power From main
10) Operating the bulb

Procedure
The input phase and the return path neutral are common for both the electrical gadgets or rather for all
appliances that may be further included. Note that the fan speed regulator is also a load (mostly resistive)
which should be connected in series with the fan and the switch. By adjusting the regulator knob we
actually resist the flow of current into the fan thereby checking or varying its speed as desired.

20
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Fig-7.1
Fig-7.2

Result
Wiring a Lamp and a Fan in Parallel with 2 single way switches is done.

B. To Wiring up a Plug Socket & single way switch.

Procedure
The wiring is no different from the above ones. Here the load points are just replaced with the socket
terminals, or in simple words it‘s an outlet for receiving the phase and the neutral potentials through a
series switch placed in line with the phase

21
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Wall socket

Power

Neutral Phase Switch

Fig-7.3

Fig-7.3 shows, To Wiring up a Plug Socket & single way switch

Result
Wiring up a Plug Socket & single way switch is done

C. To Wiring up Heavier Loads.

Procedure
External loads like irons (presses), geysers, mixers, etc. normally have a plug and require a socket to be
plugged into, so sockets wired in the above manner can be used for powering these loads. However the
socket/switch assembly and the wires used must all be appropriately rated. The recommended standards
are a 3/18 (3 strands of 18 SWG each) for wires and 15 Amps for switch/socket. For smaller loads the
specifications may be reduced to 1/18 and 5 Amps respectively.
Please note that although the above electrical house wiring layouts may look easy, there are a couple of
things that needs to be taken care of. Firstly, for all configurations the switch must always come in line
with the phase and before the load. Secondly the socket‘s right side outlet should provide (or be
connected) with the phase which again comes only after passing through the switch. Lastly but not the
least, every house wiring system should incorporate a sound earthling line for providing the user total
safety from residual or leaking body currents from a particular appliance.

22
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

The above argument can be understood through the following straight line diagram, see carefully the
current path, after commencing from the phase source, it enters the switch, then the load and completes
the cycle by ultimately getting back to the neutral point. The third path (earth) though inactive during most
occasions, sometimes becomes an important parameter with old and over-used appliances for grounding
any residual currents that may be leaking out from the bodies of these appliances.

External
Earthling rod
Wall
Neutral Phase
socket

Switch

Fig-7.4

Fig -7.4 shows, Wiring up Heavier Loads.

Result
Wiring up Heavier Loads is done

23
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 8

To study the principle of working and servicing of electric iron box

Equipment
1. Electric Iron
2. Electric iron connecting wire
3. Test lamp
4. Digital Multi meter
5. Plier
6. Cutter
7. Screw driver
Working principle
Electric iron boxes are very essential home appliance used for ironing garments.
Nowadays this iron boxes are available at different forms with types of facilities.
Generally used two types are as follows.
A. Ordinary
B. Non automatic type

When cool the bi-

metallic strip in flat

As the iron
heat up one
metal expend
more

Fig-8.2
Fig-8.1
Fig-8.1, shows electric iron electric configuration Fig-8.2, shows parts of electric iron

The parts of an ordinary non automatic type iron boxes are chromium plated sole plate, Nichrome
Heating element with mica covering, One single plate (Pressure plate) to cover the heating element,
Chromium plated case and ebonite handle.
When supply is given to nichrome heating element it will heated up and the sole plate
Touching with it also gets heated. This nichrome element is mica sheet in order to insulate

24
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Electricity and conduct heat easily. The iron box body should be earthed well, since there is a usual

Dial of Wires to heating system

thermosta

Desired Mercury Switch

temperature

Actual temperature
Coil bimetallic strip
Uncoil bimetallic strip

Fig-8.4
Fig-8.3
Fig-8.4 shows thermostat bi-metallic strip function
Fig-8.3 shows the Application of bimetallic strip

Chance for electric shock. While using this ordinary iron box we have to switch off it frequently in
Order to prevent over heating; because there is no control for heating of element. The heating
Element is fitted between sole plate and pressure plate tightly, to prevent air contact. Ebonite
Handle of the iron box is used to move it without heating or electric shock to body. Power rating of
This type iron box is around 450 W.

Electrical Bimetallic strip

connection

Higher metal strip

Electrical contacts closed

Electrical Lower metal strip

contacts Electrical connection

Contacts
movements
Electrical contacts open due
to heat
Open circuit
condition

Fixed point
Heat

Fig-8.5

Fig-8.5 shows iron bimetallic strip function

25
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

B. Automatic iron box

This type of iron box has a thermostat switch and is connected in series with line. Thermostat
Controls the temperature, prevent over heating of Iron box and avoid damage of heating element.
The required temperature for different types of garments can be obtained by adjusting the
Thermostat knob provided on the iron box body.
Thermostat is a thermal switch which operates automatically due to the variation of heat
Produced around it. Thermostat consists of two contacts, one as fixed contact and other as
Moving contact. The movable contact of thermostat consists of a bimetal which is normally in
Contact with another strip of metal having fixed contact.
When supply is given to iron box the current starts to flow through the contacts and the temperature
Rises. This increment in temperature causes the contacts of bimetal strip to bent and opens.
It will cause to stop the flow of current through heating element. While ironing when temperature
Reduces than pre fixed value bimetal strip regains its normal position and the circuit again completed.
An indicator lamp of 3.8 V is connected in the circuit on the handle of iron box to
Indicate the working. Automatic iron boxes are now available in light weight form with power
Rating 750 W.
Servicing
1. Iron box is not working
a) Check the supply at consuming end
b) Check the thermostat for open circuit
c) Check the heating element continuity
2. Iron box has no enough temperature when knob is placed at one position.
a) Check the heating element.
b) Adjust the screw below the knob to produce enough temperature.
3. Shock on body
a) Check the continuity of earth wire to body. If it does not get continuity dismantle the
Cover and connect earth wire properly.

26
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 9

To study the working and maintenance of ceiling fan.

Equipment
1. Electric Fan 56W
2. Electric Fan connecting wire
3. Dimmer
4. Test lamp
5. Digital Multi meter
6. Plier
7. Cutter
8. Screw driver
Fan
Fan is an essential home appliance nowadays and is available in different style and facilities.
Generally used types are table fan and ceiling fan. We can mount the ceiling fan on
The ceiling for providing wind to whole the room. As per IE rule the minimum height from
Floor to fan must be2.5 meter. Table fan can be places on tabletop or any flat surface. But
It has minimum space limit compared to ceiling fan.
Construction
Main parts of a ceiling fan are
1. Winding
2. Capacitor &
3. Regulator
Winding of the motor can be done manually or by automated machine. Regulator may be
Electronic type or resistance type. Electronic type regulator has negligible power loss and compact size.
But in the case of resistance type, resistances are connected in series with the circuit; this may cause
power loss as heat.
In table fan one permanent split capacitor run (PSC) motor is the heart of a fan. This
Motor consists of two windings one as starting winding and other as running winding.
Starting winding of this motor has high resistance and low reactance but running winding has low
resistance and high reactance. One capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding and whole of
this circuit is put in parallel across running winding. In the case of ceiling fan these two windings are
placed in stator in the inner side of the fan.
Rotor has no winding; it is the outer body of the fan. Ceiling fan motor operates just in opposite manner as
compared to general motor. That is actual rotor of the motor is blocked and the stator is free to rotate. So
ceiling fan runs in anticlockwise direction. At the same time table fan motor is operated as normal case
and so it runs in clockwise direction. Capacitor connected in series with the starting winding should be
value 2.5 micro farad. Pyranel insulated foil paper capacitor is using for this purpose. It helps to
Provide a split phase effect from single phase AC supply

27
 UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Phase Switch
Fan regulator

220V AC supply
Fan

Neutral

Fig-9.1 Fig-9.2
Fig-9.1 shows internal connection of celling for Fig-9.2 shows external connection of celling fan with
starting & running fan winding with capacitor switch & regulator

SERVICING
Problems and solutions normally occurring in fans are as follows
1. Fan is not working when supply is given
a) Check the supply at the consuming end.
b) Dismantle the fan from ceiling and remove the cover. Check the
Windings, if it is burnt rewind it with proper gauge copper wire.
c) Number of turns must be equal to the previous winding, because it may affect
The speed of the fan. If starting winding is burnt, it alone can be replaced but in
The cases of running winding we want change these two sets of windings.
2. Fan is not starting and will work when push to start
a) Check the voltage at the consuming end
b) Dismantle the capacitor from fan and connect it to AC supply for 30 sec. Then disconnect and
short circuit the capacitor terminals. At that time we can hear one spot sound if it working,
otherwise it can be replaced by new one.
c) Check the bearing of the motor; if it is dirty grease may be applied.

28
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 10
A. Wiring of consumer's terminals, Distribution system house wiring
B. Study the Method & system of wiring And choice of wiring

Introduction
A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the supplier‘s
meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances through controlling and safety devices is known as wiring system.
The supplier‘s service cable feeding an installation terminates in what is usually called the service fuses.
In an ordinary house the service fuse is called as service cutout. Such cutouts including service meters
remain the property of the supplier and represent the furthest point of the supplier responsibility. The point
at which the consumer's wiring is connected into cutout is known as point of commencement of supply or
consumer's terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply cables are entirely under the control
of consumer's and so laid out as per his selection.
Systems of distribution of electrical energy
Since as per recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights, fans and socket-outlet that
can be connected in one circuit is 10 and the maximum load that can be connected in such a circuit is 800
watts, hence in case more load or more points are required to be connected to the supply system, then it is
to be done by having more than one circuit.
Distribution Board System

Fig- 10.1
Fig-10.1 shows distribution board system
In distribution board system, which is most commonly adopted for distribution of electrical energy in a
building, the fuses of various circuits are grouped together on a distribution board, sometimes simply
known as fuse board.

29
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

The two copper strips, known as bus-bars, fixed in a distribution board of hard wood or metal case are
connected to the supply main through a linked switch so that the installation can be switched off as a
whole from both the poles of supply if required. A fuse is inserted in the + ve or phase pole of each circuit
so that each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse.
In large buildings, however, if only one distribution board were used, some of the points would be at a
considerable distance from it and in such cases it is advisable to employ sub-distribution boards either to
save cable or to prevent too great voltage drop at the more distant points (lamps or fans or other
appliances). In such cases main distribution board controls the circuit to each sub-distribution board from
which the sub-circuits are taken, as shown in fig. a
The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decided as per number of points to be wired and load to be
connected to the supply system. For determination of load of an installation the following ratings maybe
assumed unless the values are known or specified.
a) Fluorescent lamps — 40 watts.
b) Incandescent lamps, fans, and socket outlets — 60 watts.
c) Power socket-outlets — 1,000 watts.
d) Exhaust fans — as per capacity of exhaust fans.
Methods of wiring
There are two methods of wiring known as
1. joint box system (or Tee system) and
2. Loop-in system
1. Joint Box or Tee System
In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through joints made in joint boxes by means of
suitable connectors or joint cutouts. In this method though there is a saving in the quantity of wire or cable
required but the same is offset by the extra cost of joint boxes. The other disadvantage of T-connections is
that the number of T connections made in a wiring system results in weakness if not properly made. Now-
days the use of this system is limited to temporary installations only, as its cost is low.

Fig-10.2

Fig-10.2 shows the circuit diagram of joint box or tee system

30
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

2. Loop- in- system

This system is universally employed for connections of various lamps or other appliances in parallel. In
this system when a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped-in by bringing
it direct to the terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed, as shown in fig 10.3

Fig-10.3

Fig-10.3 shows circuit diagram of loop in system type wiring

The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to another until
the last point on the circuit is reached.
The phase or line conductors are looped either in switch board or box and neutral conductors are looped
either in switch board or from light or fan. Line or phase should never be looped from light or fan.
The advantages and disadvantages of loop-in system are as follows;
Advantages
a) Joint boxes are not required.
b) In loop-in system no joint is concealed beneath floor or in roof
Spaces. As they are made only at outlets so they are accessible for
Inspection and opening out merely by removing the fitments
Concerned. Hence fault location is easy.
Disadvantages:
a) Length of wire or cable required is more and voltage drops and copper
Losses are, therefore, more.
b) Looping-in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.
SYSTEMS OF WIRING
The types of internal wiring usually employed in our country are:
1. Cleat wiring:
In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either VIR or PVC type. The cables are held by
porcelain cleats about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made in two halves, one base and
the other cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and whole of it is
then screwed on wooden plugs (gut ties) previously cemented into the wall or ceiling. Thus the cables are
firmly griped between the two halves of the cleats and secured to the supporting wall or ceiling. The cleats
used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of various sizes and

31
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

different numbers of cables respectively. The cleats are of three types—one groove, two grooves and three
grooves to accommodate one, two, and three cables respectively.

Fig-10.4

Fig-10.4 shows circuit diagram of cleat system wiring

Advantages
a) It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
b) Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
c) Material is recoverable after dismantlement.
d) Inspection, alterations and additions can be easily made.
e) Skill required is little.
Disadvantages
a) It is not good looking.
b) It is quite temporary and perishes quickly.
c) The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
d) The insulation catches dampness from the atmosphere and common salt
Like substance appears on the insulation which lowers the insulation
Resistance and Causes leakage. Hence this system of wiring cannot be
Used in damp places.
e) Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.
Fields of Application
The wiring of this type is very suitable for temporary installations in dry places. This is also acceptable
where appearance is not so important and cheapness is the main consideration. This system is not suitable
for use in domestic premises.
2. Wooden Casing and Capping Wiring
The cable used in this type of wiring is either VIR or PVC or any other approved
Insulated cables. The cables are carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The
Casing consists of V-shaped grooves (usually two to hold the cables of opposite polarity in

32
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

different groves) and is covered at the top by means of rectangular strip of wood, known as capping, of
same width as that of casing. The capping is screwed to the casing by means of wooden screws fixed at
every 15 cm on the center fillet. To protect the casing against white ants first class seasoned teak wood,
varnished by shellac varnish is employed. Two or three cables of same polarity (either all phases or all
Neutrals) may be run in one groove and in no case the cables of opposite polarity should be run in the
same groove. The casing is usually placed 3.2 mm apart from the wall or ceiling by means of porcelain
distance pieces of thickness not less than 6.5 mm in order to keep the casing dry at the back.

Fig-10.5

Fig-10.5 shows block diagram of cleat system wiring

3. CTS or TRS Wiring.

In this type of wiring the cables used may be single core, twin core or three core TRS cables with a
circular oval shape. Usually single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are sufficiently chemical proof,
water proof, steam proof but are slightly affected by lubricating oils. TRS eagles are run on well-seasoned,
perfectly straight and well varnished (on all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm at least. The
width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it. The battens are
available in width of 13,19,25,31,38,44,50,56,63,69 and 75 mm. The wooden battens are secured to the
walls or ceiling by flat head wood screws to wood or other approved plugs at an interval not exceeding 75
cm. The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips already fixed on the
batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10 cm in case of horizontal runs and 15 cm in case of
Vertical runs. The wiring after erection is neatly painted with two coats of oil-less no cracking paint as
specified in IS 732 and so on.
Advantages
a) Its installation is easy and quick and saving in labor largely compensate
For the extra cost of the cable.
b) Its life is long.
c) Within certain limits it is fire proof.
d) It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalis.
e) It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.
f) If the job is carried out with proper attention, it gives a nice
Appearance.
Disadvantages
a) Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.
b) This type of wiring cannot be recommended for use in situations open
To sun or rain unless preventive steps are taken to preserve the
Insulation of cables.

Fields of Application
The TRS wiring is suitable for low voltage installations and is extensively used for
Lighting purposes everywhere i.e. in domestic, commercial or industrial buildings except

33
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Workshop where it is liable to mechanical injury.

This type of wiring is suitable in situations where acids and alkalis are likely to be present
4. Lead Sheathed Wiring
This type of wiring employs conductors insulated with VIR and is covered with an outer sheath of lead
aluminum alloy containing about 95% lead. This metal sheath gives protection to the cable from
mechanical injury, dampness and atmospheric corrosion. The whole lead covering is made electrically
continuous and is connected to earth at the point of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to
leaking current and to provide safety against the sheath becoming a live. The cables are run on wooden
batten and fixed by means of link clips as in TRS wiring. The great part of the cable employed is flat twin
(the cable having two insulated conductors side by side covered with red and black tape respectively and
under one flat covering of lead alloy). Three-core flat type cable is also used in certain cases as well as
single core cables under a circular sheath of lead alloy.
Advantages
a) It provides protection against mechanical injury better than provided by TRS wiring.
b) It is easy to fix and looks nice as it can be run in building without damaging decoration and can be
painted to suit color scheme of the surroundings.
c) Its life is long if proper earth continuity is maintained throughout.
d) It can be used in damp situations provided protection against moisture effect on the ends of the cable is
given.
e) It can be used in situations exposed to rain and sun provided no joint is exposed.
Disadvantages
a) It is costlier than TRS wiring.
b) It is not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may occur.
c) In case of damage to insulation the metal sheath becomes alive and gives shock, so as to provide safety
against electrical shock it is necessary that the sheath is properly earthed and an earth wire is run side by
side with it and all pieces are properly bounded or joined together so that not a single cover is left
unearthed. Skilled labor and proper supervision is required
Fields of Application
This wiring system is suitable for low voltage (up to 250 volts) installations. It may be used in places
exposed to sun and rain provided no joint is exposed. It may also be used in damp places with a suitable
protective covering. It should not be used in places where chemical corrosion may occur... This type of
wiring is not very common in use these days except for some small installations and distribution boards
etc.
5. Conduit Wiring
In this system of wiring steel tubes, known as conduits, are installed on the surface of
Walls by means of saddles or pipe hooks or buried under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are drawn into
afterwards by means of a GI wire of size of about 18 SWG. In damp situations the conduits can be spaced
from the walls by means of small wooden blocks fixed below the pipes at regular intervals. In order to
facilitate drawing of wires numbers of inspection fittings are provided along its length. The conduits
should be electrically and mechanically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable point.
The conduits used for this purpose are of two types namely (i) light gauge (or split type) conduit and
heavy gauge (or screwed type) conduit. Light gauge or split conduit with a seam along its length is used
for cheap work. It is not water tight or even damp proof and is not permitted on medium voltage (i.e. on
voltages higher than 250V). Screwed conduit (solid drawn or with welded seam) is used for all medium
voltage (250 V or 600 V)

34
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Circuits and in places where good mechanical protection and absolute protection from moisture is desired.
In general the finish of the conduit is black stove-enameled, there being a smooth coating of enamel both
on the inside and outside surface of the tube. Galvanized conduit is also employed, especially in damp
situation when the conduit is on the surface but under ordinary conditions buried in walls it offers little, if
any, advantage over good enameled conduits.
Advantages
a) It provides protection against mechanical damage.
b) It provides complete protection against fire due to short-circuits etc.
c) The whole system is water proof.
d) Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy.
e) Its life is long if the work is properly executed.
f) It is shock proof also if earthling and bonding is properly done.
Disadvantages
a) It is very costly system of wiring.
b) Its erection is not so easy and requires time.
c) Experienced and highly skilled labor is required for carrying out the job.
d) Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation
Unless the system outlets are properly drained and ventilated.

Fields of Application
a) As this system of wiring provides protection against fire, mechanical damage
b) and dampness so this is the only approved system of wiring for:
c) a) Places where considerable dust or puff is present such as in textile mills, saw
d) Mills, flour mills etc.
e) b) Damp situations.
f) c) In workshops for lighting and motor wiring.
g) d) Places, where there is a possibility of fire hazards such as in oil mills, varnish
h) Factories etc.
i) e) Places, where important documents are kept such as a record room.
j) f) Residential and public buildings, where the appearance is the prime thing. The
k) Recessed type conduit wiring is preferred for residential and public buildings.
CHOICE OF WIRING
1. The following factors should be considered before selecting a particular type of wiring.
Safety: The first and foremost consideration is safety to a person using electricity against leakage
or shock. Where there is a possibility of fire hazard, conduit wiring is used.
2. . Mechanical Protection: The wiring must be protected from mechanical damage during use.
3. Permanency: The wiring must not deteriorate unduly by action of weather, fumes, dampness etc.
4. Appearance: The wiring should he good looking.
5. Durability: The wiring must be durable.
6. Accessibility: In wiring system there should be facilities for extension, renewal or alterations.
7. Initial Cost: The wiring selected should suit the pocket of the owner of the
8. Building.
9. Maintenance Cost: The wiring should have, as far as possible, the lowest maintenance cost.
The other factors, in addition to above, to be kept in view while making the choice of wiring is
load voltage to be employed, type of building etc.

35
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 11
To study the working principal of Air Conditioner

Air conditioner
An air conditioner removes heat and moisture from the air by passing it over a cold surface. When warm,
moist "inside" air is blown across the surface of the unit's cooling coil, the air temperature drops and the
water vapor in it condenses making the air cooler and drier and therefore more "comfortable."
Room air conditions are installed on windows or wall openings. The assembly incorporates a refrigeration
unit, and double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides of the motor, one on the evaporator side
and other for the air cooled condenser. The room (or cooling) side and the outdoor (or heat rejection) side
of the unit are separated by an insulated patrician within the casing.
How Does an Air Conditioner Work?
Air conditioners and refrigerators work the same way. Instead of cooling just the small, insulated space
inside of a refrigerator, an air conditioner cools a room, a whole house, or an entire business.
Air conditioners use chemicals that easily convert from a gas to a liquid and back again. This chemical is
used to transfer heat from the air inside of a home to the outside air.
The machine has three main parts. They are a compressor, a condenser and an evaporator. The compressor
and condenser are usually located on the outside air portion of the air conditioner. The evaporator is
located on the inside the house. The working fluid arrives at the compressor as a cool, low-pressure gas.
The compressor squeezes the fluid. This packs the molecule of the fluid closer together.
The closer the molecules are together, the high its energy and its temperature. The working fluid leaves
the compressor as a hot, high pressure gas and flows into the condenser. If you looked at the air
conditioner part outside a house, look for the part that has metal fins all around. The fins act just like a
radiator in a car and help the heat go away, or dissipate, more quickly.
When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is much cooler and it has changed from a
gas to a liquid under high pressure. The liquid goes into the evaporator through a very tiny, narrow hole.
On the other side, the liquid's pressure drops. When it does it begins to evaporate into a gas. As the liquid
changes to gas and evaporates, it extracts heat from the air around it. The evaporator also has
Metal fins to help in exchange the thermal energy with the surrounding air.
By the time the working fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a cool, low pressure gas. It then returns to the
compressor to begin its trip all over again.
A fan is connected to the evaporator that circulates the air inside the house to blow across the evaporator
fins. Hot air is lighter than cold air, so the hot air in the room rises to the top of a room. There is a vent
there where air is sucked into the air conditioner and goes down ducts. The heat exchanging takes place at
the evaporator as the heat is removed from the air, the air is cooled. It is then blown into the house
Through other ducts usually at the floor level.
This continues over and over and over until the room reaches the temperature you want the room cooled
to. The thermostat senses that the temperature has reached the right setting and turns off the air
conditioner. As the room warms up, the thermostat turns the air conditioner back on until the room reaches
the comfortable temperature.
The refrigeration cycle in an air conditioner is:
1. The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot, high pressure
Freon gas (red in the diagram above).

36
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

2. This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid.
3. The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, low-
pressure Freon gas (light blue in the diagram above).
4. This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside
the building.

Fig-11.1

Fig-11.1 shows the basic working principal of Air conditioner

37
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 12
Study the working principal of Induction type single phase energy meter

Induction meter
Induction type instruments are used only for a.c measurements. These instruments can be used either as
ammeter, voltmeter or wattmeter. However, the induction principle finds its widest application as an
energy meter. Induction type single-phase energy meter is used invariably to measure the energy
consumption in any a.c circuit in a prescribed period where supply voltage and frequency are constant.
Energy meter is an integrating instrument which measures the total quantity of electrical energy supplied
to the circuit in a given period.
Working Principle
The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current flows through two suitably located coils (current coil and potential coil)
produces rotating magnetic field which is cut by the metallic disc suspended near to the coils, thus an
e.m.f is induced in the disc which circulates eddy currents in it. By the interaction of rotating magnetic
field and eddy currents, torque is developed and causes the disc to rotate.
Induction meter Construction
An induction type single phase energy meters, as shown in fig. has the following main parts of the
operating mechanism.
Driving system
Moving System
Braking System
Recording mechanism
Driving System
The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets,
a. Series magnet
B. shunt magnet
a. Series magnet
It consists of a number of U- shaped laminations of silicon steel together to form a core. A core of thick
wire having a few turns is wound on both the legs of U-shaped magnet as shown in fig. This coil is
connected in series with load. Thus it is excited by the circuit current I and is known as current coil. This
magnet is placed below the aluminum disc and produces the magnetic field, se proportional to and in
Phase with the line current I.

b. Shunt Magnet
It consist of a number of M-shaped laminate ions of si l icon steel assembled together to form a core. A
coil of thin wire having large number of turns is wounded on the central limb of the magnet as shown on
below: Fig. The coil is connected across the load. Thus it is excited by the current proportional to the
supply voltage and is known as, potential or pressure coil. This magnet is placed above the aluminum disc.
In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure coil must lag behind the
Supply voltage by 90°. For this the copper shading band (Short circuiting copper ring) is provided on the
central limb of the shunt magnet. The phase difference of 90° is obtained by adjusting the position of this
shading band. The shading band acts as Short circuited transformer secondary. Since its resistance is

38
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

negligibly small as compared to its inductance, therefore current circulating in the shading band lags
behind the supply voltage nearly by 90°. Thus the shunt magnet produced a field, so proportional to
applied voltage. This field is in phase with the current flowing through the pressure coil Ip but is in
quadrature with the applied voltage.
Moving System
It consists of a light aluminum disc mounted on a vertical spindle. The aluminum disc is positioned in the
air gap between series and shunt magnets, The spindle is supported by a cup shaped jeweled bearing at the
bottom end and has a spring jewel bearing at the top end. Since there is no control spring the disc makes
continuous rotation under the action of deflecting torque.
Braking system
A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminum disc as showing the Fig. forms the braking
system. When the aluminum disc moves in the field of the braking magnet, flux is cat and currents are
induced in the disc. The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the rotation (lens‘s law). Thus
braking torque is produced. Since the induced current is proportional to the speed of the disc (N) therefore
braking torque (T) is proportional to the disc speed (i.e.) T. x N.
The position of braking magnet is adjustable and therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by shifting the
magnet to different radial positions. If the braking magnet is moved towards the center of the disc, flux cut
the disc is less which reduces the induced current and thus the braking torque is reduced. Hence by the
inward movement of the magnet, braking torque decreases but the speed of the disc increases and vice-
versa.
Recording mechanism
The function of recording or registering mechanism is to record continuously a number on the dial which
is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. The number of revolutions of the disc is a
measure of the electrical energy passing through the meter.
Working

Fig-12.1

Fig-12.1 shows the internal construction & working of induction meter

39
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

When the energy meter is connected in the circuit, the current coil carries the load current and pressure
coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. The magnetic field produced by the series
magnet (series coil) is in phase with the line current and magnetic field produced by the shunt magnet
(pressure coil) is in quadrature with the applied voltage (since the coil is highly inductive). Thus a phase
Difference exists between the fluxes produced by the two coils.
This set up a rotating field which interacts with the disc and produces a driving torque and thus, disc starts
Rotating. The number of revolutions made by the disc depends upon the energy passing through the meter.
The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that electrical energy consumed in the circuit is
directly registered in kWh.
The speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of the braking magnet. For example, if the
energy meter registers less energy than the energy actually consumed in the circuit. Then, the speed of the
disc has to be increased which is obtained by shifting the braking magnet nearer to the center of the disc
and vice-versa.

40
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 13
Introduction and use of various types of cables.

Cables
The cable or wire used in internal wiring is covered with insulation. The conductor is covered with
insulation so that it may prevent leakage of current from the conductor and thus minimize the risk of fire
and shock.
The wire employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups according to
1. Conductor used
2. number of cores used
3. voltage grading and
4. type of insulation used
According to the conductor material used in cables, these may be divided into two classes known as
copper cables and aluminum cables.
According to the number of cores, the cable consists of, the cables maybe divided into the classes known
as single core cables; twin core cables; three core cables; two core with ECC (earth continuity conductor)
cables etc.
According to voltage grading the cables may be divided into two classes:
1. 250/440 volt cables
2. 650/1,100 volt cables.
According to type of insulation the cables are of the following types:
1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) Cables
VIR cables are available in 250/440 volt as well as in 650/ 1100 volt grades and are used for general
electrical wiring in cleat, casing-capping and conduit wirings.
VIR cable consists of either tinned copper conductor or aluminum conductor covered with a layer of
vulcanized Indian rubber insulation. Over the rubber insulation cotton tape sheathed covering is provided
with moisture resistant compound bitumen wax or some other insulating material for making the cables
moisture proof. The thickness of rubber insulation depends upon the voltage grade for which the cable is
required.
The copper conductor is tinned to provide protection against corrosion due to presence of traces of
sulphur, zinc oxide and other mineral ingredients in the VIR.
2. Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Type Sheathed (CTS) Cables
These cables are available in 250/440 volt grades and used in CTS'(or TRS) wiring. TRS cable is nothing
but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an outer protective covering of tough rubber. These
cables are water proof, hence can be used in wet conditions. These cables are available as single core,
circular twin core, and circular three cores, flat three cores, twin core with an earth continuity conductor
etc. In wiring of a three pin plug separate earth wire may be used, as it will be cheaper in cost and easy
In installation.
These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed cables, described later and
have the properties similar to those, of lead sheathed cables.
3. Lead Sheathed Cables
These cables are also available in 250/440 volt grades and are used for internal
Wiring where climatic condition is not dry and has a little bit moisture. The lead sheathed cable is a
vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead. The lead sheath provides
very good protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient protection against mechanical injury

41
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

and so can be used without casing or conduit system. It is available as a single core, twin core, flat three
core and flat twin core with an earth continuity conductor.
4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Insulated Cables
These cables are available in 250/440 and 650/1,100 volt grades and are used in concealed wiring system.
In this type of cable conductor is insulated with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than rubber so PVC
cable does not require cotton tapping and braiding over it for mechanical and moisture protection. Since
the PVC is thermo-plastic insulation, so it is affected at high temperatures and it may soften and flow
down. These cables cannot be used for giving connections to the heating appliances, pendant lighting etc.
Though the insulation resistance of PVC is lower than that of VIR but its effect is negligible for low and
medium voltages below 600 volts,
5. Weather Proof/Cables
These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply or industrial supply.
These cables are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated conductors being suitably taped
(only in case of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then compounded with weather resisting
material. These cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades. These cables are not
affected by heat or sun or rain. Although TRS cables can be used for outdoor purposes but due to their
higher cost, weather proof cables are generally used for outdoor services.
6. Flexible Cords
A cable containing one or more cores, each formed of a group of wires, the diameter of cores and of the
wires being very small to afford flexibility, is known as flexible cord. These are used as connecting wires
for such purposes as from ceiling rose to lamp holder, or from socket-outlet to portable apparatus such as
radios, fans, lamps, heaters etc. The flexibility of such wires facilitate in handling the appliances and
Prevent the wires from breakage. The flexible cords used for house hold appliances are available in
various pleasing colors, sizes and of various thickness of insulation.
These wires should never be used for fixed wiring.

42
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Experiment no. 14

To study & understanding the earthling/ grounding, Factors affecting the value of earth electrode
resistance, Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil.

What are earthling /grounding?

Earthling or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of earth. Equipment
or a system is said to be 'earthed' when it is effectively connected
To the ground with a conducting object. Earthling provides protection to personal and equipment by
ensuring operation of the protective gear and isolation of faulty circuit during:
1. Insulation failure
2. Accidental contact
3. Lightning strike
Importance of earthling
Earthling is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipment‘s. Earthling is done also for preventing
the operating personal from hazardous shocks caused by the damage of the heating appliances. Consider
an electric heater connected to the supply using two-pin plug and socket. If by some chance the heating
element comes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the body of the heater being a conducting
material will be at the same potential as the heating coil. If a person comes and touches the body of the
heater, current will flow through his body, which will result in an electric shock.
To avoid unnecessary accident, it is recommended that electric heater be connected to a 3-pin socket using
a 3-core cable. (Note: To see a three-core cable, open a plug of an electric iron. There will be three wires,
red, blue and green. The green wire connected to the body of the iron is the earth wire) In this case the
body of the electric heater is connected to the green wire of the cable, which is connected to the earth
through the earth terminal. Besides the body of the electric heater, bodies of hot plates, kettles, toasters,
heaters, ovens, refrigerators, air conditioners, coolers, electric irons etc. could be earthed using three pin
plugs. The resistance of the path to the earth terminal through the earth wire is very low. Hence, even if
the heating element comes in contact with the metallic body and a human being comes in contact with the
metallic body, major part of the current will flow only through the earth wire (usually the green wire in a 3
core cable). Moreover because of the low resistance path, a large current will flow through the phase wire
and the fuse will blow off. For large current to flow, earth resistance should be low. To achieve this proper
earthling has to be done.
Earthling is classified as:
1. System earthling
2. Equipment earthling

System earthling: It is the earthling of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is employed to
limit the voltage of live conductors with respect to potential of general mass of earth. This is necessary to
prevent failure of insulation. Equipment earthling: Is earthling of non-current carrying metal parts of
electrical equipment‘s. As per Rules non-current carrying metal parts must be earthed with two separate
and distinct earth continuity conductors to an efficient earth electrode. However equipment‘s with double
insulation need not be earthed.
Some Definitions

43
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Earthling A tower/ equipment are connecting to the general mass of earth by means of an electrical
conductor.
Earth Electrode Connection to earth is achieved by electrically connecting a metal plate, rod or other
conductors or an array of conductors to the general mass of earth. This metal plate or rod or conductor is
called as "Earth electrode".
Earth led the conductor by which connection to earth is made.
Earth loop impedance the total resistance of earth path including that of
Conductors, earth wire, earth leads and earth electrodes at consumer end and
Substation end.
Factors affecting the value of earth electrode resistance
1. Electrode material.
2. Electrode size.
3. Material and size of earth wire.
4. Moisture content of soil.
5. Depth of electrode of underground.
6. Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.
7. Earth resistance consists of following components
8. Resistance of metal electrode
9. Contact resistance between electrode and soil
10. Resistance of soil away from electrode surface.
The resistance decreases with the presence of moisture and salt in soil. To increase the effectiveness of
earth, the total earth resistance should be reduced. Efforts should be made to reduce the resistance
contributed by each of above three components.
Earth Electrodes
Earth electrodes can be following shapes
1. Driven Rods or pipes
2. Horizontal Wires
3. Four Pointed Stars
4. Conductive Plates
5. Round Vertical Plates
6. Square Vertical Plates
7. Buried Radial Wires
8. Spheres made of metal
9. Water Pipes
Water pipe as earth electrode
As water pipes exist extensively and these are most of the time embedded in earth, they can make a good
earth electrode. Such earthling is not objectionable with alternating currents. But with direct currents, the
flow of fault currents in pipes produces electrolysis and results in heavy corrosion of pipes. This
electrolysis process makes the water also harmful to certain extent. If water pipes are proposed to be used
as earth electrode, then only main water supply pipe should be used as an electrode. The water supply
main pipe should have metal-to-metal joints between its segments. A perfect electrical connection should
be made between water pipe & earth conductor. Pipe should be cleaned thoroughly with emery paper.
Earth conductor also should be cleaned thoroughly. The cleaned conductor should be wrapped 4 to 5 times
and ends clamped by nuts & bolts. The earth resistance achieved by such an arrangement is usually a
fraction of an ohm. Low resistance of such system is due to long length of water pipe and the fact that it is
mostly embedded below earth. This method is mostly used for grounding in telephone services. Electrodes

44
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

should be made of a metal, which has a high conductivity. Normally copper is used. The size of the
electrode should be such, that it is able to conduct the expected value of stray equipment‘s. For example a
3 phase star wound generator must have its neutral point at earth potential.
The salts commonly used for chemical treatment of soil are
1. Sodium Chloride
2. Calcium Chloride
3. Sodium Nitrate
4. Magnesium Sulphate
Other factors, which affect the soil resistivity, are
1. Temperature of soil the resistivity increases when temperature falls below the freezing point. If the
temperature falls from 20degrees C to O degree C, soil resistivity goes up from 7200-ohm cm to 14000-
ohm cm.
2. Moisture Content of Soil Small changes in moisture content seriously affect the resistivity. For
example if the moisture content changes from 25% to 30%, soil resistivity drops from 250000-ohm cms to
6400-ohm cm. It is important that earth electrodes should be in contact with moist soil. It should be
ensured that the electrodes are deep in soil and if possible below the permanent water level.
3. Mechanical Composition of soil finer the grading, lower the resistance.

Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil

1. Pipe Earthling

Fig-14.1
Fig-14.1 shows Cross section of pipe
earthling

45
UCEST, Lahore Leads University Electrical Workshop

Pipe earthling is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe can be made of steel,
galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m and an internal diameter of 38mm
are used. The pipe should not be painted or coated with any non-conducting material.
Fig. 14.1 shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed at least 1.25m below
the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate layers of charcoal and salt for a distance of
around 15 cm. This is to maintain the moisture level and to obtain lower earth resistance. The earth lead of
sufficient gauge should be firmly connected to the electrode and it should be carried in a Gl pipe at a depth
of 60cm below the ground level. A funnel with a wire mesh should be provided to pour water into the
sump. Three or four bucket of water should be poured in a few days particularly during summer season.
This is to keep the surroundings of the electrode permanently moist.
2. Plate earthling
A typical illustration of plate earthling is shown in Fig. The plate electrode should have a minimum
dimension of 600x600x3.15mm for copper plate or 600x600x6.3mm for Gl plates. The plate electrode
should be placed at least 1.5m below the ground level. The earth conductor is to be securely connected to
the plate by means of bolts and nuts. The bolts and nuts should be of the same material as that of the plate.
The earth conductor should be carried in a Gl pipe buried 60 cm below the ground level. The plate
electrode should be surrounded by a layer of charcoal to reduce the earth resistance. A separate Gl pipe
with funnel and wire mesh attached is provided to pour water into the sump.
3. Strip earthling
For all places having a rocky soil bed, this type of earthling is suitable. On this system, wires or strips
made of GI of size 25 mm x 4 mm or made of copper of size 25 mm x 1.6 mm are embedded 0.5 m, below
the soil in the form of a network. The length should not be less than 1.5 m as per ISI specification. Detail
are given Detail are given in figure below.
Effect of Soil Properties in Earthling
While it is not possible to change the fundamental nature /properties of soil at a given location, but local
variations of soil conditions do occur even in a small area. When a location for making earthling pit has to
be selected, preference should be given to location, which is likely to give minimum electrical resistance.
In the list below, soils have been arranged in ascending order with regard to their electrical resistance.
1. Wet marshy lands, or lands containing ashes (Avg Resistivity 2400 ohm cms)
2. Clay, loamy soil, arable land clay
3. Clay & loam mixed with varying proportion of gravel & sand (Avg Resistivity
15,800 ohm cms)
4. Damp & wet sands
5. Dry sand
6. Gravel & Stones

46