Name : Ayhan AbdulAziz Ismail

Department : Biomedical Engineering

Biology Mid Term Electronic Examination

Biomedical Engineering Department /Engineering College
Second semester / First attempt 2020/6/21

WRITE ALL ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET

The time given for answering all the questions will be until 10 o’clock on
22/6/2020) after this period I will not receive the answers.

Answer all the following questions: (40 marks)

1-What are the four differences between mitosis and meiosis?

Definition :

Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of four daughter
cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Mitosis

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter
cells each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Mitosis and meiosis are both processes of cell division, Organisms are
constantly replenishing their cell supply and creating new cells to replace old or
damaged ones, also making cells to be used to create new organisms during
sexual reproduction.

Yes Mitosis and meiosis are both needed in replication in their own ways
but, Mitosis and meiosis have different purposes: mitosis replaces body cells
with identical copies, while meiosis creates genetically different sex cells that
will be used to create an entirely new organism.

Another difference during mitosis, there is only one cell division the cell goes
through the steps of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase once but,
Meiosis goes through two cell divisions so it goes through each phase twice ( the
prophase I, prophase II, etc….. ).

Also because increasing genetic diversity is a goal of meiosis but not mitosis
(where all the daughter cells are identical), during prophase in meiosis, a
process called recombination/crossing over occurs. This is when non-sister
chromatids of homologous pairs exchange genetic material so that the daughter
cells are more genetically diverse from each other.

Here is the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis in cell division :

Mitosis Meiosis

Interphas Each chromosome replicates. The result Chromosomes not yet

e is two genetically identical sister visible but DNA has
chromatids been duplicated or
replicated

Prophase Prophase I – crossing-over recombination Prophase –Each of the

– Homologous chromosomes (each duplicated
consists of two sister chromatids) appear chromosomes appears
together as pairs. Tetrad is the structure as two identical or
that is formed. Segments of equal sister chromatids,
chromosomes are exchanged between The mitotic spindle
non-sister chromatids at crossover points begins to form.
 known as chiasmata (crossing-over) Chromosomes
condense and thicken

Metaphase Metaphase I Chromosomes Metaphase -The

adjust on the metaphase chromosomes assemble
plate. Chromosomes are at the equator at the
still intact and arranged as metaphase plate
pairs of homologues

Anaphase Anaphase I Sister Anaphase – The spindle

chromatids stay intact. fibres begin to contract.
However, homologous This starts to pull the
chromosomes drift to the sister chromatids apart.
opposite or reverse poles At the end of anaphase,
a complete set of
daughter chromosomes
is found each pole

And here are some other general differences between Mitosis Meiosis :

Mitosis Meiosis

Where it happens Occurs in all organisms Only occurs in animals,

except viruses plants and fungi

Production Of Cells Creates body/somatic Creates germ/sex cells

cells

Number of cell divisions One cell division ( 4 Two cell divisions (8

stages total) stages total)

Recombination/crossing No Recombination/crossing
over recombination/crossing over of chromosomes
over in prophase during prophase I
Discovered by who ? Walther Flamming Oscar Hertwig

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2-What is nondisjunction in meiosis?

I already defined what Meiosis is and now I will talk about ( Non – Disjunction )
regarding Meiosis…

Definition :

Nondisjunction happens when chromosomes do not separate properly during

cell division, This produces cells with imbalanced chromosome numbers.

Chromosomes have the cells DNA which is needed for its functions and
reproduction when these chromosomes fail to separate properly,
nondisjunction happens, Which leads to the daughter cells to have an
incorrect number of chromosomes, one may have too many while another may
have too few, This causes problems in cell function because a cell cannot
function normally without the correct chromosome complement.

Nondisjunction in meiosis I :

Nondisjunction happens during anaphase When a pair of homologous

chromosomes do not separate before being distributed into two daughter cells,
one cell has two copies of a chromosome while the other cell has no copies.
When each of these cells goes on to divide into two cells during meiosis II, the
four total cells produced will all have chromosomal abnormalities.

Nondisjunction in meiosis II :

If a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly during anaphase of

meiosis II, One daughter cell will have an extra chromosome and one daughter
cell will be missing a chromosome, If the other daughter cell created in meiosis I
 splits properly the other two of the four total daughter cells created during
meiosis II will have the normal number of chromosomes, So effects of
nondisjunction during meiosis are observed only in the offspring of the
individual, The effects of non-disjunction during mitosis are only observed in
that individual and are not passed on to the next generation.

Examples of Nondisjunction :

 Cancer :

When nondisjunction happens in somatic cells the cell systems can detect that something has
gone wrong and cause that cell to undergo apoptosis (cell suicide).

 Down Syndrome :

Down syndrome occurs as a result of maternal nondisjunction during meiosis I. It produces an

egg cell with an extra copy of chromosome 21.

 Sex Chromosome Aneuploidy :

Sex chromosome aneuploidy is the term for an abnormal number of sex chromosomes.
Normally, females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. Nondisjunction
can cause individuals to be born female with one X (Turner syndrome), female with three X
chromosomes (Trisomy X), male with XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), or male with XYY (XYY
syndrome).

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3-Which cell organelles are surrounded by two phospholipid bilayers?

Mitochondria organelle make ( ATP ), Mitochondria their shape is oval, And they
have a double membrane organelles that have their own Ribosomes and DNA,
Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded
with proteins, The inner layer has folds called cristae,
which increase the surface area of the inner membrane.

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4-Which type of cells are most likely to have the greatest concentration of
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

Definition :

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) is a membranous organelle

found in most eukaryotic cells, It is a subset of the endomembrane system of
the endoplasmic reticulum its main functions are the synthesis of lipids, steroid
hormones, the detoxification of harmful metabolic byproducts and the storage
and metabolism of calcium ions within the cell. The smooth ER is distinguished
from the other parts of the endoplasmic reticulum by the absence of
membrane-bound ribosomes.

These next cells are the types of cells that ( SER )’s concentration would be high
because those types of cells demand that high of a concentration in order to
function :

adrenal gland and certain other endocrine glands, it plays a key

role in the synthesis of steroid hormones from cholesterol.

In the liver enzymes in the SER catalyze reactions that render drugs, metabolic
wastes, and harmful chemicals water-soluble, thereby contributing to their
detoxification, or removal, from the body. The SER also plays a role in the
conversion of glycogen to glucose.
In skeletal muscle cells, SER occurs as a specialized membrane structure
known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a critical
storage site for calcium ions, taking up the ions from the cytoplasm. It also
releases calcium ions when the muscle cell is triggered by nerve stimuli,
resulting in muscle contraction.

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5-Give the name of an Organelle which serves as a primary packaging area for
molecules that will be distributed throughout the cell?

Definition :

The Golgi apparatus is one of many organelles found in most cells, Its
responsible for packaging proteins into vesicles prior to secretion and therefore
plays a key role in the secretory pathway.

Function :

The golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids that is receives

from the endoplasmic reticulum, These biochemicals leave

the golgi by exocytosis before being delivered to different intracellular or

extracellular targets.

 Protein processing – carbohydrate regions of glycoproteins are altered by

addition, removal or modification of carbohydrates.

 Lipid processing – adds phosphate groups and glycoproteins to lipids from

the endoplasmic reticulum (such as cholesterol) to create the
phospholipids that make up the cell membrane.

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6-During witch phase both the contents of the nucleus and the cytoplasm is
divided?

During Mitotic Phase and here is an explanation :

The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated

chromosomes are aligned, separated, and move into two newidentical daughter
cells, The first portion of the mitotic phase is called karyokinesis or nuclear
division the second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into the two daughter cells.

Also during Cytokinesis or ( cell motion ) is the second main stage of the mitotic
phase during which cell division is completed via the physical separation of the
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells, Division is not complete until
the cell components have been apportioned and completely separated into the
two daughter cells, Although the stages of mitosis are similar for most
eukaryotes, the process of cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have
cell walls, such as plant cells.

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7-In which stage of mitosis Chromosomes become visible.

Chromosomes become visible during prophase, the first stage of mitosis, the
chromosomes form, and the nuclear envelope and the nucleolus are no longer
visible.

….. ….. …..

8-During witch stage of mitosis sister chromatids become separated.

In Anaphase and here is the explanation :

Metaphase leads to anaphase, during which each chromosome's sister

chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell away from each
other, Enzymatic breakdown of unity which causes this separation to happen,
When separated every chromatid becomes an independent chromosome.

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9-The term "binary fission" is best applied to which type of creatures?

Binary Fission Definition :

Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction where a single living cell or an

organelle grows twice its size and then splits into two identical daughter cells,
each of these daughter cells has the potential to grow into the size of the
original cell or organelle, ( Binary fission differs from other types of fission in
that; only two parts are formed from a single entity ).

This form of reproduction is called asexual as the process doesn’t involve the
formation or fusion of gametes.

Binary fission is the mode of reproduction in many prokaryotes including,

archaea, cyanobacteria, eubacteria, and some eukaryotes like
amoeba and Paramecium.

Some cell organelles like mitochondria also undergo cell division by the
process of binary fission.

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10-A human bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 46

chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain altogether?

Since chromosomes = 46

And the mathematical equation is

( 2 * n = 46 ), The number of

Chromatids will be 92

Here is a picture that shows the

Comparison of the numbers

Between Chromosomes and

Chromatids in ( Mitosis and

Meiosis I & II ).

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11-Why it is difficult to observe individual chromosomes with a light microscope

during interphase.

Because during interphase the chromosomes are coiled up and long and Un-
Twisted, It’s very difficult to observe the chromosomes in interphase, But it
becomes much simpler in the following phases because the chromosomes
becomes dense and visible and separated, That isn’t the case with
chromosomes during interphase.

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12-What is a kinetochore?
Definition :

A kinetochore is a protein structure that forms on a chromatid during cell

division and allows it to attach to a spindle fiber on a chromosome, During the
replication process, the two chromatids unite by centromere or the part of the
chromosome that is connected to the spindle fiber. The purpose of the
kinetochore is to pull the chromatids apart. Kinetochores also help during cell
division by making sure that each new cell has one chromatid from each pair.

Here are two images for further understanding :

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13-What are the factors that inhibits cell division?

Every time a cell divides, millions of base pairs in its DNA are duplicated, If
errors occur in this transcription process, they can lead to cancer, Fortunately
nature has found a pretty reliable control system that keeps cell division on
track.

1. Inhibit of Cell division in Bacteria :

Since bacteria can divide rapidly, they grow exponentially, doubling over and
over until they reach the carrying capacity of their environment, or the
maximum amount of organisms an environment can support. Once they reach
carrying capacity, they can no longer divide, Some things that control the
carrying capacity include food, space, and waste.
 2. Inhibit of Cell division in Humans :

Internal Limits :

Instead of cells dividing as fast as they can our cells have an internal limit of
divisions and then stop dividing, All cells in the body have this internal control
and most cells only divide between 50-70 times before they stop or die, But
adult stem cells which are special cells that can make many other types of cells,
can divide much longer and embryonic stem cells can divide nearly indefinitely.

External Limits :

Cells only divide when they receive specific signals from proteins called
mitogens, The presence of mitogens can limit cell division, Mitogens are needed
for cell division in healthy cells and are released depending on what cells the
body needs, For example during injury like a cut, cells receive signals that tell
them more cells are needed the cells divide and move in to fill the wound only
dividing until the wound is healed.

3. Cancer :

Cancer cells do not exhibit contact inhibition, While most cells can tell if they
are being ( crowded ) by nearby cells cancer cells no longer respond to this stop
signal.

Cancer cells can divide without receiving the ( all clear ) signal, While normal
cells will stop division in the presence of genetic (DNA) damage, Cancer cells
will continue to divide, The results of this are ( daughter ) cells that contain
abnormal DNA or even abnormal numbers of chromosomes.

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14- How many pairs of autosomes do humans have?

Definition :

In humans each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46.

Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same

in both males and females, The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ
between males and females, For better understanding There are total 23 pairs
of chromosomes in humans. There are 22 pairs of autosomes. There are one
pair of chromosomes in humans. There are X and Y sex chromosomes. The
females have X and X chromosome. The males have X and Y chromosomes,
Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X and one
Y chromosome.

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15- What do we mean when we say that an organism is haploid?

I talked about Haploid and diploid shortly in the previous questions but I will go
in further detail for haploids…

Definition :

Haploid is the condition of a cell having a one set of chromosomes. Humans and
many other organisms are diploid organisms. This means that the majority of
their lifecycle is spent with two copies of the genome in every cell, Haploid cells
are created for reproductive purposes, By reducing the genome to one copy
different copies can be rearranged when creating a zygote. By reducing the DNA
material in the gametes to haploid, many new combinations are possible within
the offspring. This increases the genetic variation and helps populations adapt
to their environment.

1. Haploid Cells in Humans :

For the entirety of your life, the cells in your body are diploid, with a few
exceptions. Your mother and father produced gametes, haploid cells, which
came together to produce the first cell of your body. This single celled zygote
replicated both copies of DNA before dividing into two identical daughter cells.

2. Haploid Drones in Insects

Many species of insect have a special sex determination system, which relies on
the ploidy of the individual involved.

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16- Cell membrane is hydrophobic in the inner layers and doesn't allow water-
soluble molecules to pass, although water can permeate cells. Why?

A phospholipid bilayer is a semi-permeable

membrane that doesn’t allow passage for large

molecules and to ions, But small polar molecules

can sometimes pass easily ( Like Ethanol ) but

more often pass at low rates if at all (Like Water),

Small non-polar molecules can pass through the membrane easily, Because
larger molecules simply cannot fit between the lipid molecules to make their
way through, Small molecules that can fit must be hydrophobic, otherwise the
fatty acyl core of the membrane will repel them and block them from
proceeding, Higher concentrations of cholesterol by filling in gaps between
phospholipid tails, it decreases permeability even for small molecules that can
normally pass through the membrane easily. Cells need far more than small
nonpolar molecules for their material and energy requirements, The
membranes of living cells are not purely phospholipids, And proteins embedded
in the phospholipid bilayer can form conveyances for the transport of many
different molecules in and out of the membrane.

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17- How does the cell membrane on the exterior of the cell differ from the
membranes inside the cell?

The cell membrane is phospholipids, It also consists of Cholesterol

which contributes to the fluidity of the membrane, and there are various
proteins embedded within the membrane that have a variety of functions.

A single phospholipid molecule has a phosphate group on one end, called the
( head ) and two side-by-side chains of fatty acids that make up the lipid
tails,The phosphate group is negatively charged making the head polar and
hydrophilic—or ( water loving ) a hydrophilic molecule is one that is attracted to
water, The phosphate heads are attracted to the water molecules of both the
extracellular and intracellular environments, The lipid tails are uncharged or
( non-polar) and are hydrophobic or ( water fearing ) a hydrophobic molecule
repels and is repelled by water, Some lipid tails consist of saturated fatty acids
and some contain unsaturated fatty acids. This combination adds to the fluidity
of the tails that are constantly in motion.

Phospholipids are thus amphipathic molecules,

An amphipathic molecule is one that contains

both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.

The cell membrane consists of two adjacent layers of phospholipids.
The lipid tails of one layer face the lipid tails of the other layer, Meeting at the
interface of the two layers, The phospholipid heads face outward one layer
exposed to the interior of the cell and one layer exposed to the exterior,
Because the phosphate groups are polar and hydrophilic, they are attracted to
water in the intracellular fluid, Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid interior of the
cell. The phosphate groups are also attracted to the extracellular fluid.
Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid environment outside the enclosure of the cell
membrane, Interstitial fluid (IF) is the term given to extracellular fluid not
contained within blood vessels. Because the lipid tails are hydrophobic, they
meet in the inner region of the membrane, excluding watery intracellular and
extracellular fluid from this space, The cell membrane has many proteins, as
well as other lipids (Like Cholesterol) that are associated with the phospholipid
bilayer, An important feature of the membrane is that it remains fluid the lipids
and proteins in the cell membrane are not rigidly locked in place.

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18- What are the membrane structures that function in active transport?

Definition :
Active transport is one method of certain substances to pass through the
membrane, With Active transport, It DOES need ( ATP ) and in some cases
with the help of ( protein carriers ) and usually against its concentration
gradient.

Here are some ways on how Active Transport passes substances through
membranes:

Sodium-  Three sodium ions form inside the cell bind to the pump.
Potassium  The Phosphate group form a molecule of ATP binds to the pump.
Pump  The pump changes shape and the sodium ions are released outside
the cell.
 Two potassium ions bind to the pump.
 The phosphate group is released form the pump and the pump again
changes shape and releases the ions into the inside of the cell.

Endocytosis  Endocytosis is a process by which cells can take in large particles and
deposit them into the cell. This is accomplished by forming
membrane-bound sacs that pinch off from the cell membrane.
 Endocytosis can be used to bring large particles, such as glucose, into
a cell. Also, this process can be used by white blood cells to ingest
viruses or bacteria and then digest them in their lysosomes. There
are two sub-categories of endocytosis: Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis.
Pinocytosis brings liquids into the cell while Phagocytosis is
responsible for transporting large particles or other solids into the
cell.

Exocytosis  Exocytosis is very similar to endoxytosis except that it deposits

materials from inside the cell on the outside instead of the other way
around. Vesicles are formed in the Golgi Bodies, filled with materials
to be sent outside the cell, and then fuse with the cell membrane and
release their contents outside of the cell.

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19- In fluid mosaic model of cell membranes, which type of molecule can spans
the membrane, from its inner to outer surface?

Carbohydrates.

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20- What is the difference between the membrane transport proteins and the
soluble enzymes in a cell?

The main difference between Soluble Enzymes and Membrane transport

Proteins is that, Soluble Enzymes dissolve a substance while a membrane
transport proteins lets a substance pass through for example :

Types of Enzymes :

 Amylase breaks down starches and carbohydrates into sugars.

 Protease breaks down proteins into amino acids.

 Lipase breaks down lipids, which are fats and oils, into glycerol and
fatty acids

And as for membrane transport proteins :

….. …… …..

21-How to traffic cytoplasmic protein to cell membrane?

One component of the cytoplasm is cytosol, A water based solution that

contains ions, Small molecules, And macromolecules, In eukaryotes the
cytoplasm also includes membrane bound organelles which are suspended in
the cytosol the cytoskeleton, a network of fibers that supports the cell and gives
it shape and is also part of the cytoplasm and helps to organize cellular
components, Even though the cytosol is mostly water, it has a semi-solid, Jello -
like consistency because of the many proteins suspended in it. The cytosol
contains a rich broth of macromolecules and smaller organic molecules,
including glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic
acids, and fatty acids. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and other elements
are also found in the cytosol. Many metabolic reactions, including protein
synthesis, take place in this part of the cell.

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22-Give examples of cell secretory products?

Name Secretion Function

Gonadotropic Gonadotropins FSH : Stimulates

Ovarian Follicle
( Basophilic ) FSH Development.
LH LH : Stimulates
Maturation of
ovarian follicles

Corticoptropic Corticotropin Stimulates the

release of
(Basophilic ) hormones from
adrenal cortex

Somatotropic Growth Hormone Promotes anabolic

activity
( Somatotroph )

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23-What do we mean by gene is expression?

Definition :

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is

used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule, The cell reads the sequence
of the gene in groups of three bases, Each group of three bases (codon)
corresponds to one of 20 different amino acids used to build the protein.

Gene expression’s Process has two major satges :

1.Transcription: the production of (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase, and

the processing of the resulting mRNA molecule.
2.Translation: the use of mRNA to direct protein synthesis and the ( post-
translational ) processing of the protein molecule.

It’s structure also has Exons and Introns :

Exons: Exons code for amino acids determine

the amino acid sequence.

Introns: Introns are portions of the gene that

do not code for amino acids and are deleted from

the mRNA molecule before translation.

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24-In cardiac muscle cells, what percentage of Ca2+ is released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum which required for muscle contraction?

Explanation :

Cardiac contractility is regulated by changes in intracellular Ca concentration

([Ca2+]). Normal function requires that [Ca2+] be sufficiently high in systole and
low in diastole, Much of the Ca needed for contraction comes from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and is released by the process of calcium-induced
calcium release.

So the percentage of Ca2+ released is ( 80% ).

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25-How can vertebrate hearts beat regularly outside of animal body?

vertebrate heart is myogenic (rhythmic contractions are an intrinsic property of

the cardiac muscle cells themselves), Also Pulse rate varies widely in different
vertebrates but it is generally higher in small animals, at least in birds and
mammals. Each chamber of the heart has its own contraction rate.

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26-What is blood brain barrier?

Blood vessels are critical to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all of the tissues and
organs throughout the body, The blood vessels that vascularize the central
nervous system (CNS) possess unique properties, termed the ( blood–
brain barrier ), which allow these vessels to tightly regulate the
movement of ions, molecules, and cells between the blood and the brain, This
precise control of CNS homeostasis allows for proper neuronal function and also
protects the neural tissue from toxins and pathogens.

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27-What is cerebrospinal fluid? Where you can found it? Who is responsible for
its secretion and what its function is?

Cerebrospinal fluid or (CSF) is a liquid that fills the brain and the spinal cord and
prevents shock with a mechanical barrier, Formed primarily in the ventricles of
the brain, the (CSF) supports the brain and provides lubrication between
surrounding bones and the brain and spinal cord,

Here is an image of ( CSF ) :

When someone suffers a head injury the fluid acts as a cushion, fighting the
force that comes from the impact. The fluid helps to maintain pressure within
the cranium at a constant level, An increase in the volume of blood or brain
tissue results in a corresponding decrease in the fluid, And (CSF) is produced
from arterial blood by the choroid plexuses of the lateral and fourth ventricles
by a combined process of diffusion.

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28-Action potential transition is facilitated by myelination, why?

The rate of action potential limits information within the nervous system, So
our body has various mechanisms to optimize the propagation of action
potentials along the axons, One way of improving passive current flow is to
increase the diameter of an axon, Another strategy is to improve the passive
flow of electrical current is to insulate the axonal membrane, reducing the
ability of current to leak out of the axon and thus increasing the distance along
the axon that a given local current can flow passively, This strategy is evident in
the myelination of axons, a process by which oligodendrocytes in the
central nervous system wrap the axon in myelin, which consists of multiple
layers of closely opposed glial membranes by acting as an electrical insulator,
myelin greatly speeds up action potential conduction The major reason
underlying this marked increase in speed is that the time-consuming process of
action potential generation occurs only at specific points along the axon, called
nodes of Ranvier, where there is a gap in the myelin wrapping, If the entire
surface of an axon were insulated, there would be no place for current to flow
out of the axon and action potentials could not be generated, An action
potential generated at one node of Ranvier elicits current that flows passively
within the myelinated segment until the next node is reached, This local current
flow then generates an action potential in the neighboring section, and the cycle
is repeated along the length of the axon.

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29-How many times does a heartbeat in a lifetime of humans?

The answer is difficult to say because the rate of the heart beating isn’t always
the same, For a resting heart it’s about 70to 110 beats per minute but if you
exercise that number will go up to around 200 beats per minute, If we take that
into consideration, The average heartbeat of a human being is 2.5 Billion times.

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30-Write the path which describes the passage of blood originating in the left
leg of heart?

Dr. Bushra, I didn’t understand the question, What is the ( left leg of heart ) ?

….. ….. …..

31-What is the name of the heart valves that make sure blood flows from the
atria to the ventricles and not the other way around?
They Are Atrioventricular (AV) Valves Or Tricuspid Valve
Mitral Valve
Tricuspid Valve: It’s located between the right atrium and the right ventricle
When closed, It allows oxygen depleted blood returning to the heart from the
venae cavae to fill the right atrium. It also prevents the back flow of blood as it
is pumped from the right atrium to the right ventricle, When open, it allows
blood from the right atrium to flow into the right ventricle.

Mitral Valve: This heart valve is located between the left atrium and left
ventricle, When closed it allows the left atrium to fill with oxygen-rich blood
returning to the heart from the pulmonary veins, It opens to allow blood from
the left atrium to fill the left ventricle.

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32-Why dose most men are immune to urinary tract infections.

The answer is the anatomy of both genders, Women have bigger risk for urinary
tract infections because of their anatomy: The bacteria that normally live in the
pelvic region, And the major cause of this type of infection don’t have to travel
far to infect the bladder.
For men anatomy can help prevent this type of infection, The longer urethra in
men makes it more difficult for bacteria to travel backward that far without
being washed out or killed by the immune system.

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33-What are the characters for normal and abnormal urine?

Normal Abnormal

Urine Ammount 1200-1500 ml Under 1200 ml or over

1500 ml

Color Straw or Amber Or Red or Cloudy or Dark

transparent Orange

Consistency Clear Liquid Thick

Sterility No Micro - Organisms Does have Micro –

Organisms

Ph Level 4.5 – 8 PH Under 4.5 PH or Over 8

PH

Glucose Present Not Present

Blood Not Present Present

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34- Why Neurons cannot replace themselves?

Neurons are born in areas of the brain that are rich in concentrations of neural
precursor cells (neural stem cells), These cells have the potential to generate
most if not all of the different types of neurons and glia found in the brain.

Neurons can die by the cause of :

 Parkinson’s As for Neurons replacing themselves they can’t do

disease that because they can’t divide, There are very few
exceptions to this but only two special places in the
 Huntington’s brain can give birth to new neurons, The brain
disease cannot replenish dead neurons.

 Alzheimer’s
disease
….. …..
 Blows to the …..
brain
35- How can Neurotransmitters transmit electrical
 Spinal cord impulses in nerves?
injury
A nerve impulse is electrical and it happens
because of a difference in electrical charge across
the plasma membrane of a neuron, We also have the sodium - potassium pump
regulates the electrical gradient across the plasma membrane of a neuron when
it is not actively transmitting a nerve impulse, This gradient is called the
resting potential of the neuron.

An action potential is a sudden reversal of the electrical gradient across

the plasma membrane of a resting neuron, When the neuron receives a
chemical signal from another cell, The action potential travels rapidly down the
neuron’s axon as an electric current.
A nerve impulse is transmitted to another cell at either an electrical or a
chemical synapse, Neurotransmitter chemicals are released from the pre -
synaptic cell into the synaptic cleft between cells, The chemicals travel across
the cleft to the postsynaptic cell and bind to receptors embedded in its
membrane.

There are many different types of neurotransmitters, Their effects on the

postsynaptic cell generally depend on the type of receptor they bind to, The
effects may be excitatory, Inhibitory or modulatory in more complex ways, Both
physical and mental disorders may occur if there are problems with
neurotransmitters or their receptors.

….. …… …..

36-Which of the following can lead to decreased venous return of blood to the
heart?

C) Damage to the venous valves

37- Which of the following blood pressure readings would be indicative of

hypertension?

C) 170/96 in a 50-year-old man

38-If you took a drug that inhibited the reabsorption of Na+ in the Proximal
tube, you would:
A) Have an increased urine output
39-Active transport of substances from the blood into the nephron is called

C) Tubular secretion.
40-Which of these conditions increase the amount of urine produced?

B) increased atrial natriuretic hormone secretion

Good Luck

Assist.Prof.Dr. Bushra Mohammed-Amin Mohammed