City & Guilds 2365

Unit 203
Electrical installations
technology
Student Workbook
WORKBOOK MUST BE COMPLETED BY
LEARNER AND HANDED IN TO TUTOR BEFORE
203 EXAM

Tutor signature__________________________________ Date __________

Learner signature________________________________ Date __________

Regulations

Learning outcome
The learner will:
1. know implications of electrical industry regulations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
1.1. identify statutory regulations
1.2. identify non-statutory regulations
1.3. state implications of statutory regulations
1.4. state implications of non-statutory regulations.

Range
 Statutory regulations: HASAWA, EAWR, ESQCR, PUWER, COSHH, CDM, Manual
Handling, PPE, Noise at Work, Environmental Act, DDA, Equal Opportunities.
 Non-statutory regulations: BS 7671, On-Site Guide, Unite Union Book, Guidance
Notes, Codes of Practice.
 Implications: Prosecution, fine, imprisonment, prohibition notices, improvement notices,
dismissal, injury, death, loss of earnings, lost clients, loss of reputation.

Regulations
When working in the building services industry, it is necessary to comply with a number of
Regulations. These Regulations can be classified as follows:
 statutory
 non-statutory.

Acts (of Parliament) are ‘statutory’, ie they are legally binding and therefore enforceable by
law. Certain Regulations are made under Acts of Parliament and, as a result, are also
statutory.
Other Regulations have advisory/guidance purposes only and, as a result, they are ‘non-
statutory’, ie they cannot be enforced by law.
However, non-statutory Regulations are generally considered to reflect standards of good
practice and may be cited in a court of law. Additionally, although certain Regulations have
no legal status, they are based on Acts/Regulations that are statutory and, consequently,
breaking the non-statutory Regulations will often result in breaking one or more statutory
Acts or Regulations.

Statutory Regulations
A number of statutory Acts and Regulations were identified in Unit 201 under Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) legislation. Some of these are repeated here, along with others of
which you will need to be aware.

The Health and Safety at Work etc Act (HASAWA)

These are statutory and cover all places where work is carried out. The ‘etc’ was added to
cover voluntary work, etc. All persons are responsible for their own and others’ safety.

The Electricity at Work Regulations (EAWR)

There are currently 33 regulations, of which 1–16 and 29 are the most relevant to most
electricians. This is a legal (statutory) document, whereas the wiring Regulations (BS 7671)
are not.

Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations (ESQCR)

The opening up of the electricity markets resulted in there being many more ‘generators’ than
the original CEGB, and many more ‘suppliers and ‘distributors’ of electricity and ‘meter
operators’ than the original Regional Electricity Authorities. New regulations were necessary
to unify engineering, safety and contractual standards for all generators, suppliers,
distributors and meter operators. The Regulations seek to safeguard continuity and quality of
electricity supplies to all consumers, from whoever they are obtained, and to ensure the
safety of the public from the substation installations, as well as electrical distribution via
overhead and underground distribution systems.

Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER)

This covers the supply and use of equipment in the workplace. Equipment must be safe to
use and used safely by the operatives.

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH)

As the name suggests, these Regulations cover anything used in the workplace that could be
considered hazardous to health. This would include chemicals, asbestos, cements, oils,
sprays, etc.

Construction (Design and Management) Regulations (CDM)

The Regulations place specific duties on clients, designers and contractors to rethink their
approach to health and safety so that it is taken into account throughout the life of a
construction project, from its inception to its subsequent final demolition and removal.

Manual Handling Operations Regulations (MHOR)

These Regulations aim to reduce the very large incidence of injury and ill health caused by
the manual handling of loads at work.

Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations (PPEWR)

Requires an assessment of PPE requirements to be carried out, the employer to supply the
PPE and the employee to wear the protective equipment.

Control of Noise at Work Regulations

Everyone at work could be exposed to noise and suffer temporary or permanent hearing
loss. These Regulations place a duty on employers within Great Britain to reduce the risk to
their employees’ health by controlling the noise they are exposed to whilst at work.

Environmental Act
This is an Act of Parliament that defines the fundamental structure and authority for waste
management and control of emissions into the environment.

Disability Discrimination Act (DDA)

This has now been repealed and replaced by the Equality Act 2010 (except in Northern
Ireland where the Act still applies). Formerly, it made it unlawful to discriminate against
people because of their disabilities in relation to employment, the provision of goods and
services, education and transport.

Equality Act
This act requires equal treatment in access to employment, as well as private and public
services, regardless of the protected characteristics of age, disability, gender reassignment,
marriage and civil partnership, race, religion or belief, sex and sexual orientation.

Non-statutory Regulations
A number of non-statutory Acts and Regulations were identified in Unit 201 under Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) legislation. Some of these are repeated here, along with others of
which you will need to be aware.

Requirements for Electrical Installations (BS 7671)

Published by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), these are the national
standard in the United Kingdom for low voltage electrical installations.
The IET (formerly IEE) has published wiring Regulations in the United Kingdom since 1882.
Since their 15th edition (1981), these Regulations have closely followed the corresponding
international standard IEC 60364. Today, they are largely based on the European Committee
for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) harmonization documents and therefore are
technically very similar to the current wiring regulations of other European countries.
In 1992, the IEE Wiring Regulations became British Standard BS 7671 and they are now
treated similarly to other British Standards. Although the IET and BSI are non-governmental
organisations and the Wiring Regulations are non-statutory, they are referenced in several
UK statutory instruments.

On-Site Guide
The On-Site Guide published by the IET is a handbook that contains some information that is
not found in BS 7671:2008. It is meant as a handy notebook reference for electricians
working on building sites.

Unite Union Book

This book has been published by the trade union Unite for over 20 years; The Electrician’s
Guide To Good Electrical Practice revised to BS 7671:2008 contains a wealth of information
for the practising electrician. This information is based on BS 7671 but contains much more
and is, additionally, pocket-sized and therefore ideal to keep in the toolbox or van for
reference purposes.

IET Guidance Notes

The IET issues a number of Guidance Notes based on different topics. They provide
additional clarification on how to implement and comply with BS 7671. Current titles are:
 Guidance Note 1: Selection and Erection, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 2: Isolation and Switching, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 3: Inspection and Testing, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 4: Protection Against Fire, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 5: Protection Against Electric Shock, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 6: Protection Against Overcurrent, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 7: Special Location, 4th Edition
 Guidance Note 8: Earthing and Bonding, 2nd Edition.
Although all are important, when designing and installing electrical installations, the most
popular in the set is Guidance Note 3: Inspection and Testing.

Codes of Practice
These give practical guidance on compliance. Although failure to comply with an Approved
Code of Practice is not an offence in itself, these Codes have special legal status. If an
employer/individual faces criminal prosecution under health and safety law, and it is proved
that the advice of the Approved Code of Practice has not been followed, a court can regard it
as evidence of guilt unless it is satisfied that the employer/individual has complied with the
law in some other way. Following Approved Codes of Practice is therefore regarded as best
practice.

Implications of non-compliance with regulations

The direct implications of breaking statutory Regulations include the following:
 prosecution
 fine
 imprisonment
 prohibition notices (a work activity or premises must not be used until the
non-compliant situation is rectified)
 improvement notices (a work activity or premises can continued to be used but
shortcomings must be rectified within a specified time period).
In addition, the non-direct implications of breaking statutory Regulations include the
following:
 dismissal
 injury
 death
 loss of earnings
 lost clients
 loss of reputation.

Answer the following questions.

 State five implications of not complying with regulations.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State whether the following are statutory or non-statutory.

BS 7671:_______________________________________________________________

CDM:__________________________________________________________________

Codes of Practice:_______________________________________________________

COSHH:_______________________________________________________________

DDA:__________________________________________________________________

EAWR:________________________________________________________________

Environmental Act:_______________________________________________________

ESQCR:_______________________________________________________________

Equal Opportunities:______________________________________________________

Guidance Notes:_________________________________________________________

HASAWA:______________________________________________________________

Manual Handling:________________________________________________________

Noise at Work:__________________________________________________________

On-Site Guide:__________________________________________________________

PPE:__________________________________________________________________

PUWER:_______________________________________________________________

Unite Union Book: _______________________________________________________

 State the main requirements of the Electricity at Work Regulations.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 Which regulations cover the requirements for electricity supply in the United
Kingdom?

_______________________________________________________________

 Which regulations may require site operators to specify the wearing of boots,
high visibility clothing and hard hat, as well specifying safety procedures on
particulars construction sites?

_______________________________________________________________

Technical information
Learning outcome
The learner will:
2. know how to obtain technical information.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
2.1 state purpose of different sources of technical information.

Range
 Sources: Specifications (to select correct materials), drawings (provide technical
information on wiring systems), BS 7671 On-Site Guide, Unite Union Book,
manufacturers’ data, Guidance Notes (install in accordance with Regulations), client’s
needs.

Technical information
Technical information required to enable us to carry out electrical installations can come from
many sources. These include the following:
 specifications (to select correct materials)
 drawings (provide technical information on wiring systems)
 BS 7671
 On-Site Guide
 Unite Union Book
 manufacturers’ data
 Guidance Notes (install in accordance with Regulations)
 client’s needs.

Specifications, drawings and diagrams

In order to enable the various contractors to tender for the work, detailed specifications,
drawings and diagrams have to be produced.
It is essential that, when pricing against other companies, everyone uses the same base for
their final price. This ensures that everyone sets their prices similarly for the same
equipment, cable sizes and runs, etc. Companies are free to apply their own wage rates,
discounts and profit margins in determining the total cost.
Installation specifications give complete details of what is to be included in the installation,
including plans. They will give details of the equipment to be installed, where it is to be
installed, sizes, etc.

BS 7671 (Requirements for Electrical Installations)

Published by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), these are the national
standard in the United Kingdom for low voltage electrical installations.
The IET (formerly IEE) has published wiring Regulations in the United Kingdom since 1882.
Since their 15th edition (1981), these Regulations have closely followed the corresponding
international standard IEC 60364. Today, they are largely based on the European Committee
for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) harmonization documents and therefore are
technically very similar to the current wiring regulations of other European countries.
In 1992, the IEE Wiring Regulations became British Standard BS 7671 and they are now
treated similarly to other British Standards. Although the IET and BSI are non-governmental
organisations and the Wiring Regulations are non-statutory, they are referenced in several
UK statutory instruments.

On-Site Guide
The On-Site Guide published by the IET is a handbook that contains some information that is
not found in BS 7671:2008. It is meant as a handy notebook reference for electricians
working on building sites.

Unite Union Book

This book has been published by the trade union Unite for over 20 years; The Electrician’s
Guide to Good Electrical Practice revised to BS 7671:2008, incorporating amendment 1,
contains a wealth of information for the practising electrician. This information is based on
BS 7671 but contains much more and is, additionally, pocket-sized and therefore ideal to
keep in the toolbox or van for reference purposes.

Manufacturers’ information and data

Manufacturers provide a wide range of information about their products in general and
specifically to individual equipment or components.
Catalogues are produced which illustrate the type and range produced by that manufacturer.
It is usual for this to be quite general but some will include technical data as well.
The production costs of these catalogues, and so on is covered by the price charged by the
manufacturer. The printing costs of these catalogues are relatively high.
Data sheets are normally provided with individual accessories or components where needed.
These apply to wiring diagrams for heating controls, connections for lighting systems etc and
give the load capacity amongst other information.
Paper based systems tend to get out of date relatively quickly. Widespread access to the
internet means that most companies have started to place all their catalogues and data on
their websites. This is a cheaper option, reducing component cost and allowing instant
updates to be posted as and when required.

IET Guidance Notes

The IET issues a number of Guidance Notes based on different topics. They provide
additional clarification on how to implement and comply with BS 7671. Current titles are:
 Guidance Note 1: Selection and Erection, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 2: Isolation and Switching, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 3: Inspection and Testing, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 4: Protection Against Fire, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 5: Protection Against Electric Shock, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 6: Protection Against Overcurrent, 6th Edition
 Guidance Note 7: Special Location, 4th Edition
 Guidance Note 8: Earthing and Bonding, 2nd Edition
Although all are important when designing and installing electrical installations, the most
popular in the set is Guidance Note 3: Inspection and Testing.

Client’s needs
The client or customer will produce a general statement as to what they require. They will
normally appoint an architect or consultant to produce a more detailed plan for approval.
Once approved by the client (and approving authority), the customer’s agent will draw up
detailed plans and specifications.

Answer the following questions.

 What type of information is the below an example of? And where could it be
found?

Cylinder Thermostat
£100 (inc VAT)
Product code: Y747A652
Manufacturer: SmartElectro
Surface mounting cylinder
thermostat, range 40–80°C,
SPDT, 12°C differential

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 ‘A set of documents, plans or diagrams which sets out requirements for

materials, components and service.’ What is this sentence describing?

_______________________________________________________________

 ‘The system is to consist of single core thermoplastic cables installed in

galvanised trunking run at a height of 2.3m above ffl.’ This statement could form
part of what type of document?

_______________________________________________________________

 What set of documents can the design electrician use to determine how the
Regulations can be applied to specific situations?

_______________________________________________________________

Drawings
Learning outcome
The learner will:
3. know how to obtain technical information.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
2.2 recognise different drawing types.

Range
 Drawing types: As fitted drawings, circuit diagrams, block diagrams, schematics, wiring
diagrams, bar charts.

Drawings
Various types of drawings can be used to convey information relating to all aspects of
electrical installations. These include the following:
 as fitted drawings
 circuit diagrams
 block diagrams
 schematics
 wiring diagrams
 bar charts.

Architectural plans including as fitted drawings

These are the types of drawing most likely to be encountered by installation electricians.
They show the layout of the building and the position of accessories and equipment, using
standard symbols.
At the design stage, the electrical company will receive the plans along with the specification.
A typical architectural plan can be found on the following page. This will show on a scale
drawing the position of all accessories and equipment and will allow the designer to
determine the material requirements for the job, and hence accurate pricing.
During the installation phase, the electrician will use the scale architectural plans to position
accessories and equipment accurately. For example, when positioning a socket outlet, the
distance to the socket outlet to a fixed point (eg a wall) will be measured on the plan. This will
be scaled up to give the actual ‘real life’ measurement.
When the installation is complete, there may be some accessories and equipment that, by
mutual consent with the customer, were positioned differently from the original plans. These
changes will be marked on a set of plans referred to as the ‘as fitted’ drawings to reflect
what was actually installed. These are handed over to the customer with the installation
pack.
Circuit diagrams
A circuit diagram is the representation of a circuit arrangement that permits easier
understanding of how the circuit works. In practice, the actual wiring may be different to the
circuit diagram. An example of a circuit diagram is shown below:

Wiring diagrams
A wiring diagram shows how a circuit is actually wired in practice. This may result in a
diagram that makes it harder to understand how the circuit functions. An example wiring
diagram is shown below:

Block diagrams
A block diagram does not show individual conductors or cables but the sequence of
equipment instead. For example, the diagram below shows the supply sequence to an
installation:

Schematic diagrams
These are very similar to circuit diagrams in that they show how a system works rather than
how it is wired. They are generally used on larger control systems, as they can make fault-
finding much simpler. An example is shown below:

Bar charts
Bar charts can be used for many purposes but the most common are involved in planning the
sequence of works; this can be represented graphically by bar charts, as shown below:

The chart on the left indicates when certain activities are due to start and finish. This will
allow the allocation of labour and ordering of material to be carried out. The chart on the right
indicates progress of the job. For example, if we have just completed week three, you can
see that activities one and two have been completed on time but task three is one week
behind. We can also indicate on the bar chart those activities that cannot start until others
have been completed.
Answer the following questions.
 What type of diagram shows how a circuit is wired in practice?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of diagram shows the position accessories in an installation?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of diagram allows a contractor to plan the sequence of work?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of diagram better shows how a circuit works rather than how it is
wired?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of diagram better shows how a system works?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of diagram shows the sequence of equipment?

_______________________________________________________________

Symbols and scales

Learning outcome
The learner will:
4. know how to obtain technical information.
Assessment criteria
The learner can:
2.3 recognise symbols used in drawings
2.4 convert scale from drawings to actual dimensions.
Range
 Symbols: Switching (one way, two way, intermediate, pull, switched socket outlets,
unswitched socket outlets, fused connection units, switched fused connection units)
lighting points (fluorescent, incandescent, wall), cooker control unit, consumer control
unit, integrated meter, fuse, circuit breaker.

Symbols
Below is a selection of architectural symbols that you may find on a plan. These and others
can be found on the inside rear cover of the IET On-Site Guide.
Switching

one way two way

Intermediate pull

Socket outlets

Switched Unswitched

fused connection switched fused

units connection units
Lighting points

Fluorescent Incandescent

Wall

Various
Consumer control
Cooker control unit
unit

Integrated meter Fuse

Circuit breaker

Scales
There need to be plans or drawings of where everything should go if an installation is to be
completed accurately.
Drawing on a piece of paper the size of a whole house or factory would clearly be
impracticable so a plan is drawn to scale, ie it is first decided how much smaller everything
needs to be drawn on the paper. In order to retain accuracy, everything obviously needs to
be made smaller by the same amount.
The most common scales in electrical installation are: 1:20, 1:50, 1:100.
In each case, everything is a 20th, 50th or 100th of its normal size, respectively.
A scale drawing is a drawing that represents a real object. The scale of the drawing is the
ratio of the size of the drawing to the actual size of the object.

Example 1
The length of a building is 60 metres, its width is 40 metres and it is drawn to a scale of
1:100. What are the length and breadth of the building on the drawing?
Solution:

Length Width
Scalelength ¿ Actual length Scalelength ¿ Actual length
Scale Scale
¿ 60 ¿ 40
100 100
¿ 0.6 metres ¿ 0.4 metres
¿ 60 cm ¿ 40 cm

Example 2
On a plan with a scale of 1:50, a socket is measured at 23mm from a wall. How far from the
wall must the socket be installed in the finished installation?
Solution:
Actual distance ¿ Distance on plan × scale
¿ 23 ×50
¿ 1,150 mm
or ¿ 1.15 metres

Answer the following questions.

 The length of a motorway is 600 kilometres.  If 0.5cm represents 50 kilometres,
calculate the length of the motorway on the map.

_______________________________________________________________

 The dimensions of a building are 250 metres by 120 metres. If 10mm represents

20 metres on a scale drawing, calculate the dimensions of the building on the
drawing.

_______________________________________________________________

 If one centimetre represents 10 metres, calculate the dimensions used to make a

scale drawing of a room 20 metres by 40 metres.

_______________________________________________________________

 If on a scale drawing a particular dimension is 120mm, using a scale of 1:10 how

many metres does this represent?

_______________________________________________________________

 If 1cm represents 75 kilometres on a map, calculate how many centimetres will

represent 1,500 kilometres.

_______________________________________________________________

Lighting circuits
Learning outcome
The learner will:
5. know wiring systems of electrical installations.
Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.
Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Lighting circuits
Here are some points to note.
 All lighting points, unless specific light sources with known power ratings are being used,
are assumed to have a rating of 100 watts minimum.
 In order to ensure that there is not a complete blackout when a fault occurs, we should
install at least two lighting circuits in the premises.
 Earthing terminal and cpc. must be provided at all lighting points, including switches and
ceiling roses.
 5/6 amp protective devices are normally used to protect domestic lighting circuits (5 amp
if BS3036 semi-enclosed rewireable fuse; 6 amp if a circuit breaker).
 Domestic lighting circuits are generally wired in 1.0mm2 or 1.5mm2 cables.
 Two types of wiring system are used for lighting circuits:
o two-plate system – normally used where single-core cables are used, eg in conduit
and trunking systems
o three-plate system – normally used where multi-core cables are used, eg.domestic
installations using twin and earth.

Practical lighting circuits – two-plate

One-way switching
Here are some points to note.
 Single pole switches and protective devices must be installed in the line conductor
only.
 For Edison Screw (ES) lamp holders the line conductor must be connected to the
centre contact of the lamp holder.

Two-way switching

Two-way and intermediate switching

Practical lighting circuits – three-plate

One-way lighting circuit

Two-way conversion lighting circuit

Here are some points to note.
 Although this is called a ‘conversion’ circuit, most electricians use this circuit as a
matter of course in domestic installations. For example, the landing light in a house
would be connected to the upstairs lighting circuit with the switch drop going to the
switch on the landing. The three-core and cpc would be run from the landing switch
downstairs to the switch at the bottom of the stairs.

Intermediate switches in the two-way conversion lighting circuit

Intermediate switches can be inserted in to the two-way conversion circuit, as shown below:

Looping at switches
Domestic lighting circuits have for many years been connected using the three-plate method
where the loop terminal is at the ceiling rose.
Today it is increasingly likely to have a decorative light fitting or even down lighters fitted in
place of a standard pendant. These fittings are rarely provided with a loop terminal.
As a result, it has become more popular to make the loop connection at the switch.
This has the advantage of the connections being accessible and at a more convenient
working height.
However, this leaves the problem of terminating the neutral conductor. One solution is to
connect the neutral to a connector block inside the wall box, which takes up extra space.
Some accessory manufacturers now produce light switches with a built-in neutral loop
terminal.
An example of looping at the switch is shown on the following page.
 Using coloured pencils, produce a labelled diagram of a two-plate, one-way
lighting circuit.

 Using coloured pencils, produce a labelled diagram of a two-plate, two-way

lighting circuit.

 Using coloured pencils, produce a labelled diagram of a two-plate, two-way and

intermediate lighting circuit.
Socket circuits
Learning outcome
The learner will:
6. know wiring systems of electrical installations.
Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Socket circuits
Socket circuits are used to easily connect the wide range of electrical and electronic
appliances to the mains supply using a plug and socket arrangement.
A flexible cord, normally not longer than 2 metres, connects the appliance to the plug top,
which is then inserted into a conveniently located socket outlet.
BS 7671 Regulation 553.1.100 states that, ‘Every socket-outlet for household and similar
use shall be of the shuttered type and, for an a.c. installation, shall preferably be of a type
complying with BS 1363’.
Various current ratings are available but the 13-ampere flat pin type is the most commonly
encountered in Great Britain, with each plug top fitted with a cartridge fuse to BS 1362 to
protect the flexible cord.
In order to enable appliances to be wired from a convenient and adjacent socket outlet, the
outlets are wired to a ring radial circuit or to a radial final circuit.
As long as the circuit complies with the requirements of Table H2.1 in Appendix.

Table H2.1 – Final circuits using BS 1363 socket-outlets and connection units
Minimum live conductor
cross-sectional area (mm2)

Overcurrent Copper conductor Copper Maximum

protective thermoplastic or conductor floor area
Type of device thermosetting mineral served
Circuit rating (A) insulated cables insulated cables (m2)
1 2 3 4 5 6
A1 Ring 30 or 32 2.5 1.5 100
A2 Radial 30 or 32 4 2.5 75
A3 Radial 20 2.5 1.5 50
The above reproduced from the IET On-Site Guide

Additionally, where sockets outlets with a rating not exceeding 20A are to be used by
ordinary persons for general use and also for mobile equipment with a current rating not
exceeding 32A for use outdoors, the socket circuit must be protected by an RCD with a
rating (IΔn) not exceeding 30mA and an operating time not exceeding 40mS at 5 x IΔn
(BS 7671 Regulation 411.3.3).
Therefore, all socket outlets circuits in domestic premises will need to be provided with
additional protection in the form of a 30mA RCD.

Radial final circuits

In a radial final circuit the cable comprising of a line, neutral and cpc ‘radiates’ from the
consumer control unit (CCU) looping in and out of each socket outlet until the last outlet is
reached and the circuit ends. The protective device and cable sizes can be found in
Table H2.1 in Appendix H of the On-Site Guide but can be represented by the diagram
below:
Ring final circuits
In a ring final circuit the cable comprising of a line, neutral and cpc starts at the consumer
control unit (CCU) looping in and out of each socket outlet until the last outlet is reached and
then a cable is brought back to the CCU where it is connected into the same terminals as the
outgoing cable. The protective device and cable sizes can be found in Table H2.1 in
Appendix H of the On-Site Guide but can be represented by the diagram below:

The standard ring final circuit utilises smaller conductors than the equivalent radial final
circuit because the current going to each socket outlet comes from two directions, thus
spreading the load. It is vitally important that the ring remains continuous, otherwise there is
a risk of overloading one or more of the cables if the ring is broken. It is for this reason that a
special test – the continuity of ring final circuit conductors test – must be carried out
during the testing process to check that there are no breaks or interconnections to the ring.

Spurs from socket circuits

A spur is defined in Part 2 of BS 7671 as ‘a branch from a ring or radial final circuit’.
Further clarification on the arrangement of spurs for ring and radial final circuits can be found
in Appendix 15 of BS 7671.
 A spur can branch from the circuit by:
 using a joint box of the appropriate rating
(must be accessible for inspection, testing
and maintenance unless fitted with
maintenance-free terminals)
 branching from an outlet connected
directly into the final circuit.
The following points must be remembered when
dealing with unfused spurs from ring final circuits.
 The number of unfused spurs must not
exceed the number of outlets connected
directly to the ring.
 Only one outlet is permitted on each
unfused spur.
 An outlet is one single or one twin socket
outlet or one piece of permanently
connected equipment.

With fused spurs, that is, one fed from a fused connection unit, the number of outlets
connected to the fused spur is not restricted.

General socket circuit considerations

 It is generally desirable to install at least two socket circuits in an installation so that if
a fault occurs, there will still be some live outlets available in the premises. In a
domestic house this usually means one circuit downstairs and one upstairs.
 Where multiple circuits are installed, the number of outlets connected to each circuit
should be roughly the same so that no circuit is greatly loaded compared to others.
 Although socket outlet circuits allow an unlimited number of outlets to be installed, the
total estimated current demand connected to the circuit should not exceed the rating
of the protective device protecting that circuit.
 A separate circuit for the kitchen, where there is likely to be a large number of
appliances used simultaneously, should be considered.

Answer the following questions.

 State the number of unfused spurs that can be installed on a standard A1 ring
final circuit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State the protective device rating for an A3 radial final circuit.

_______________________________________________________________

 State the minimum sized conductor for use on an A2 radial final circuit if it is
insulated with thermosetting plastic.

_______________________________________________________________

 The number of outlets that can be connected to an A1 ring final circuit is

unlimited provided that the floor area served does not exceed:

_______________________________________________________________

 The number of outlets that can be connected to an A2 radial final circuit is

unlimited provided that the floor area served does not exceed:

_______________________________________________________________

 The number of outlets that can be connected to an A3 radial final circuit is

unlimited provided that the floor area served does not exceed:

_______________________________________________________________

Cooker circuits and diversity

Learning outcome
The learner will:
7. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Cooker circuits and diversity

Traditional free-standing cookers are generally
one of the largest current-using pieces of
equipment in domestic premises. Therefore,
they are fed by their own circuit directly from
consumer control unit (CCU).
Adjacent to the cooker there will be a double
pole switch to control the supply to the cooker.
This switch may or may not incorporate a 13A
socket outlet.
When determining the size of cable to be used for the cooker circuit, it is necessary to
calculate the design current, Ib, of the cooker. Simply, all we need to do is to take the total
power rating of the cooker and divide it by the voltage to give the current.
However, it is very unlikely that everything on the cooker will be turned full on
simultaneously. Even if all the elements are on, built-in control gear, such as simmerstats
and ovenstats, will mean that full current will probably not be drawn.
Therefore, we can make an allowance and reduce the design current when calculating
protective device rating and cable size. This allowance is referred to as diversity.
Appendix A of the IET On-Site Guide covers maximum demand and diversity, and Table A2
gives the allowances for diversity for various types of circuit and premises. For a cooking
appliance in an individual household installation, the following allowance can be made:
 the first 10 amperes
 plus 30% full load (f.l.) of connected cooking appliances in excess of 10A
 plus 5A if a socket outlet is incorporated in the control unit.
Example 1
Calculate the assumed demand for a 230 volt cooker which contains:
 2 x 1.0kW hob plates
 2 x 2.0kW hob plates
 1 x 2.0kW oven/grill
 1 x 3.0kW oven

Maximum total power ¿ ( 2 ×1 ) + ( 2× 2 ) +2+3

¿ 11 kW
Maximum current ¿ P
V
¿ 11 ×1,000
230
¿ 47.83 A

The assumed current demand, allowing for diversity, is:

the first 10 A at 100 % ¿ 10 A
leaving 37.83 A at 30 % ¿ 11.35 A
Total ¿ 21.35 A

This means that the cable supplying this cooker would have to have a rating of at least
21.35A. If the control unit contained a socket outlet then the rating would have to be at least
26.35A.

Cooker circuits and diversity

Try the following problem.

 The rating for a 230V electric cooker is:

 4 x 2.75kW hob plates
 1 x 2.5kW top oven
 1 x 4.5kW main oven.
Calculate the maximum assumed current demand, allowing for diversity, if the cooker
control is fitted with a 13A socket outlet.

Maximum total power ¿

¿
Maximum current ¿

¿
The assumed current demand, allowing for diversity, is:
¿
¿
¿
Total ¿

Space heating

Learning outcome
The learner will:
8. know wiring systems of electrical installations.
Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.
Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Space heating
Space heating is generally employed to warm an enclosed space in premises and is usually
held in contrast with central heating, which warms many connected spaces at once from one
heating source.
Space heaters can be divided into those that transfer their heat primarily by convection or by
radiation.
With convection heaters, heating elements
either warm the air directly, or heat oil or
another filler, which in turn transfers heat to
the air. The air then warms the objects and
people in the space.
Convective heaters are suitable for
providing constant, diffuse heat in well-
insulated rooms. Oil heaters warm up slowly
but do not reach dangerous surface
temperatures; wire-element heaters, which
may be fan-assisted, reach operating
temperature much more quickly but may
pose a fire hazard.

Radiant heaters usually comprise tungsten

filaments in heat-resistant quartz envelopes,
mounted in front of a metal reflector in a
plastic or metal case. They operate much
like light bulbs but radiate their energy
primarily in the infrared spectrum. They
convert up to 86% of their input power to
radiant energy, losing the remainder to
conductive and convective heat.
The advantage of radiant heaters is that the
radiation they produce is absorbed directly
by clothing and skin, without first heating the
air in the space. This makes them suitable
for warming people in poorly-insulated
rooms, or even outdoors.
 Most small electrical convector and radiant heaters can be connected
via a flexible cord to a plug-top inserted into a convenient socket
outlet. If the (small) heater is fixed to the wall it can be permanently
connected into a socket outlet using a switched fused connection unit
with a flex outlet (see right).
For larger heating appliances, eg electric storage heaters, a separate
circuit for each heater wired back to its own protective device will be
required. A flex outlet will be installed adjacent to the heater to make
the final connections.
The type of flex required to make the final connection to the heater,
whatever type it is, needs to be carefully considered and usually
needs to be heat resistant flexible cable.

Underfloor heating
Underfloor heating systems, which can sit
beneath stone, tile, wooden or even
carpeted surfaces, will help to keep cold
floors and rooms warm and can offer an
alternative to using radiators to deliver
central heating.
A series of electric wires are installed
beneath or within the flooring as a means
of heating an area or room such as a
cold, tiled bathroom floor, for example.
The electric system installed will depend
on the size of the room and the type of
flooring it has; options include loose-fit
wiring flexible enough to fit into small or
awkward spaces, electric cable systems
or heating mats you roll out to cover
larger areas.
Underfloor heating is generally associated with stone or tiled floors but can be installed in a
carpeted room – just ensure that the carpet and underlay aren’t so dense that they stop the
heat moving upwards.
The electric heating sheets or cables are fitted beneath the flooring and usually on top of a
layer of screed (to ensure the surface is completely flat) and a layer of floor insulation (to
keep the heating source travelling upwards rather than down).
In order to allow control of the temperature, a sensor is installed in the floor and connected to
a thermostat. This often incorporates a time clock to allow the user to pre-set when the
heating turns on and off.

Storage heaters
Heat-retaining clay bricks inside the storage heater are
charged overnight by a heating element to store heat and
release it during the day. Convection and radiation give out a
comfortable balance of heat in the room. Storage heaters use
Economy 7 electricity at night. The Economy 7 electric tariff is
designed to save money on heating bills.
Storage heaters offer comfortable economical warmth
throughout the day by taking advantage of low tariff, overnight
electricity.
 Answer the following questions.

 In an underfloor heating system, what is a cold tail?

 State the two means of heat transference used in space heating.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 Research what is meant by the term ‘Economy 7’ and describe the benefits for
the consumer.

Water heating
Learning outcome
The learner will:
9. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Water heating
There are various types of water heating but they can be classified into two groups:
 stored hot water
 instantaneous.

Stored hot water

The most common form of this group is the
immersion heater that is installed into a hot
water cylinder (see right).
The element is constructed with resistance
wire that will get hot when current flows
through it and this heats the water.
A thermostat is fitted to disconnect the
supply when the water reaches the required
temperature; this is usually set at 55–60°,
which is a compromise between low enough
to reduce the risk of scalding and high
enough to prevent the risk from Legionella.
Also, Regulation 554.2.1 of BS 7671
requires a means to automatically prevent a
dangerous rise in temperature.
The immersion heater must be fed from its own circuit and connected into a switched/fused
connection unit installed adjacent to the cylinder and connected by heat resistant flex as
shown below:
Instantaneous water heater
These high-power water heaters instantly heat water as
it flows through the device and do not retain any water
internally, except for what is in the heat exchanger coil.
Common examples include instantaneous showers and
point of use (POU) water heaters for supplying the hot
tap of a sink or basin. The inside of an electric shower is
shown right.
When the shower unit is turned on, water flows through
the heater chamber and is heated quickly by the high-
powered heating element. This then passes to the hot
water outlet. The temperature of the water is regulated
by the flow rate; a slow flow rate gives hot water and a
fast flow rate gives cooler water.
The shower unit is fed from its own circuit in the
consumer control unit and a double-pole switch is
installed in the vicinity of the shower unit. See the circuit
arrangement below:

Answer the following questions.

 State the two main types of water heating systems.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 The temperature of the water is regulated by the flow rate, what will be the
temperature if it is;

A slow flow rate?

_______________________________________________________________

A fast flow rate?

_______________________________________________________________

 What is the installation requirements of switch used on a shower circuit, if it is

located within the bathroom?

_______________________________________________________________

 What is the installation requirements of switch used on a shower circuit, if it is

located outside the bathroom?

_______________________________________________________________

 Why is thermostat fitted to disconnect the supply when the water reaches a
temperature normally set at 55–60°,

_______________________________________________________________

Alarm and emergency systems

Learning outcome
The learner will:
10. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Alarm and emergency systems

The alarm and emergency systems that electricians are most likely to encounter are the
following:
 fire alarm systems
 intruder alarm systems
 emergency lighting.
Before looking at alarms systems, there is a need to understand basic circuit configurations,
including the following:
 open circuit
 closed circuit.

Open circuit
As the name would suggest, in the open circuit arrangement the circuit is incomplete or
‘open’ and detection devices close to initiate an alarm condition.
The advantage of this system is that, as detectors are connected in parallel with the circuit, it
is easy to connect or disconnect sensors as required.
The drawback with this system is that if a circuit conductor or connection is broken, the alarm
will not operate when required. However, by incorporating monitoring of the circuits, an alarm
condition can be indicated when a conductor or connection is broken.
Monitoring is achieved by connecting an end of line (EOL) resistor across the circuit at the
last detector (or call-point) and a monitoring voltage applied to the circuit; the resulting
current will be relatively small. When a detector closes, the EOL resistor will be
short-circuited and the current will increase greatly, which will be detected by the control
panel that will initiate an alarm condition. This arrangement is shown simply below:

Closed circuit
As the name would suggest, in the closed circuit arrangement the circuit is complete or
‘closed’ and detection devices open to break the circuit to initiate an alarm condition.
The disadvantage of this system is that, as the detectors are connected in series, the circuit
must be interrupted to insert additional sensors and this would prove difficult in practice.
The advantage of this system is that if a circuit conductor or connection is broken, the alarm
will operate; this could be considered fail safe and therefore monitoring is not required.

Fire alarm systems

Fire alarm systems are designed to protect one or both of the following:
 life
 property.
When protecting life, the alarm will be initiated by a combination of manual call points and
automatic detectors, and will generally be audible and possibly automatic to a remote alarm
receiving centre who will then summon the emergency services.
When protecting property, the alarm will generally be initiated by automatic detectors with
emergency services being summoned by a remote alarm receiving centre; this is because
these properties are generally unoccupied most of the time.
The range of automatic detectors includes:
 smoke detectors
 heat detectors
 flame detectors.

It is a requirement that firefighters do not have to search further than 30 metres into premises
to determine the location of the fire. For this reason, a number of circuits are installed in
zones.
Generally, there is more than one sounder circuit but not normally as many as there are
detector circuits.
Fire alarm circuits are generally wired in the open circuit configuration so end of line
monitoring is required. This monitoring is also applied to the sounder circuit but it is
necessary for diodes to be installed so that the monitoring voltage does operate the sounder;
the voltage is reversed in alarm condition to operate the sounder (see below):
When installing smoke detectors in domestic premises – apart from retrofit battery alarms – it
is a requirement that the detectors are mains powered with battery backup and, if more than
one is installed, they should be linked so that when one goes into alarm condition, they all go
into alarm condition.

Intruder alarm systems

Intruder alarms are designed to detect an intrusion or attempted intrusion into premises. A
range of detectors are available for this purpose, including:
 break glass detectors
 door and window contacts
 passive infrared movement detectors
 ultrasonic movement detectors
 microwave movement detector
 beam break detectors.
Most intruder alarm systems are wired closed circuit as a failsafe measure so that if the cable
is cut the alarm is initiated anyway. Additional protection is provided by installing a tamper
circuit that is run with the detector circuit. Enclosures of detectors (and sounder box and the
panel itself) will be fitted with one or more micro-switches that will open the tamper circuit to
give a tamper warning if the alarm is not set or a full alarm if it is set. Additionally, cutting the
tamper circuit conductors will have the same effect.
Modern intruder alarm panels are multi-zone or addressable so detectors can be wired to
their own circuits, thus making identification of the source of the alarm much easier. A typical
detector zone arrangement is shown below:

Since the detector and tamper circuits have different polarities, if a would-be intruder tried to
short out the detector contact, the probability is that they would short out the wrong pair of
conductors and this would also trigger an alarm condition.
Emergency lighting
Emergency lighting must not be confused with standby lighting, whose purpose is to provide
sufficient illumination for normal activities to continue. Emergency lighting provides sufficient
illumination to allow occupants to safely evacuate premises in the event of an emergency.
Similarly, emergency lighting will not provide long-term lighting but should last over a
sufficient duration for the evacuation to take place; emergency lighting luminaires are rated at
between one to three hours duration.
There are two classifications of emergency lighting:
 maintained
 non-maintained.

Maintained emergency
lighting
These are emergency lighting
luminaires that are illuminated
at all materials times, ie all the
time the premises are expected
to be occupied. An example of
this type is an illuminated exit
sign in public entertainment
premises, eg cinemas.
The luminaire is powered from
the mains supply under normal
conditions and this also keeps
internal batteries charged. If the
supply fails, the batteries keep
the luminaire lit.
A circuit for this is shown above. Although a relay is shown, this is to make it easier to
understand how it works; most luminaires achieve the switch-over by using electronics.

Non-maintained emergency lighting

These are
emergency
lighting
luminaires that
are only
illuminated
during a power
failure. At other
times the
luminaire is off.
A circuit for this
is shown on the
right.

All emergency luminaires must be tested regularly to determine that they stay illuminated for
the rated period of time, eg one or three hours. This is usually carried out by inserting a
special ‘fish-tail’ key into a special witch to simulate a power interruption.
The period of time that the luminaire remains illuminated under battery power is then
recorded on the luminaire testing sheet.
 Answer the following questions.

 State the two circuit configurations for alarm circuits.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 In an open circuit the detectors are connected in (delete as appropriate):

Series / Parallel

 What device is connected to the end of an open circuit in order to check that the
circuit has not been broken?

_______________________________________________________________

 In a closed circuit the detectors are connected in (delete as appropriate):

Series / Parallel

 What two things are fire alarm circuits designed to protect?

_______________________________________________________________

 Fire alarm systems are usually connected in:

Series / Parallel

 Intruder alarm systems are usually connected in:

Series / Parallel

 State the two classifications for emergency lighting.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
Data communications

Learning outcome
The learner will:
11. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Data communications
In this day and age, the use of computers is widespread, with many businesses, hospitals
and schools having their own data networks linking all of their computers together to allow
them to share data internally and externally via the internet.
Whilst the role of the electrician will not generally involve installing the computer and
associated equipment (servers, data switches, etc), the electrician may well need to install
the data cabling connecting this network together.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is installed within an organisation to link computers, servers and printers together, and
to connect to other networks, including the internet. A basic arrangement is shown below:

Electricians are likely to be called on to install the cabling between the Ethernet hub and the
users’ equipment (client and printer in the above example). The cables from the hub to the
equipment will generally be installed in some form of cable containment system, eg trunking
or cable basket. The cable will generally be terminated at a suitable socket (eg RG45)
adjacent to the equipment, with the final connection made by an Ethernet patch lead plugged
into the socket at one end and the equipment at the other.
The cable used has to meet very stringent requirements if it is to transfer data quickly and
without loss of data, and not be prone to interference and cross-talk.

Cables are categorised according to their maximum operating speeds, as detailed below.
 Category 3: supports frequencies up to 16MHz and was commonly used in the 1980s.
 Category 4: supports frequencies up to 20MHz but was quickly replaced by category 5.
 Category 5: supports frequencies up to 100MHz and is the most common type of cable
in use today.
 Category 6: supports frequencies up to 250MHz; the augmented category 6 (Cat 6a)
reaches speeds of 500MHz and is gaining increased usage.

The most common category installed is still

Cat 5. This cable consists of four pairs of
insulated conductors. Each pair is twisted
together to reduce interference and cross-talk,
and the pitch of the twist is different for each
pair. The diagram on the right shows a cable
stripped and ready for termination.
The cables are either crimped or pressed into
RJ45 plugs and sockets, as shown below:

Here are a few installation points to note.

 Maximum length of cable should not exceed 100 metres. If longer runs are required,
the use of active hardware, such as a repeater or a switch, is necessary.
 This allows for 90 metres of fixed cabling, two connectors and two patch leads of 5
metres – one at each end.
 Bending radius should be at least 4 times the overall diameter of the cable.
 Fibre optic
This is being used more frequently
for high volume data transmission.
An optical fibre cable is a cable
containing one or more optical
fibres. The latter consist of a core
and a cladding layer, selected for
total internal reflection.
When a light source, usually a laser, is projected in one end, it is reflected off the borders
between the core and the cladding, and will emerge from the other end with only a small
level of reduction in the light strength. By rapidly switching on and off the light source, digital
data in vast quantities can be transmitted over very long distances with minimal interference
and data loss.
Advantages of fibre optic:
 very large data transfer rates
 no electromagnetic interference
 longer lengths of run without the need for repeaters
 better data security.
Disadvantages:
 high installation cost
 complicated installation procedure
 possible health risk during installation.
When stripping the cables, there is a possibility that a small shard of fibre optic cable could
pierce the skin and enter the blood stream; it could then be carried around the body and
possibly cause fatal damage within vital organs.
Care must be taken never to look down the end of the fibre optic cable. This is because if the
laser is fired at one end of the cable, it could cause damage if it gets into the eyes when it
comes out of the other end of the cable.
 Answer the following questions.

 What does the acronym LAN stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

• Category 5: supports frequencies up to?

 150MHz

 200MHz

 500MHz

 100MHz

_______________________________________________________________

 Maximum length of data cable should not exceed?

 50 metres

 100 metres

 150 metres

 200 metres

_______________________________________________________________

 Minimum bending radius on data cable should be at least?

_______________________________________________________________
Control circuits

Learning outcome
The learner will:
12. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.1 describe principles of operation of different circuit types.

Range
 Circuit types: Lighting, power and heating, alarm and emergency systems, data
communications, control circuits, ring final, radial.

Control circuits
The principle of any control circuit is to turn a load on or off; this could be achieved by a
simple switch. However, we may wish to control equipment automatically, depending on the
situation of one or more sensors. An example of this is a thermostat and a time clock to
control a heating system.
A control circuit could be defined as a circuit that uses control devices, eg stop buttons, start
buttons, limit switches, temperature sensors, relays, etc, to turn loads on and off. Sometimes,
control circuits operate at lower voltages than the power circuits that they control.
Apart from lighting circuits that are covered elsewhere, probably the simplest control circuit
that an electrician needs to be familiar with is the direct on line (dol) starter for a motor. The
circuit is shown below:

The control circuit above is indicated by the thinner wires, whereas the motor cables are the
thicker ones.
Control circuits for industrial processes can be very complicated with large cabinets full of
relays, contactors and timers with inputs from many different types of sensors. Wiring and
fault-finding on these requires the provision of good wiring and schematic diagrams.

Another control circuit that the electrician may need to install in domestic premises is a
central heating control system. There are different configurations, depending on the system
arrangement, and these are generally identified by a single letter. Below is the arrangement
for one of the common configurations: the Y-Plan.

Answer the following questions.

 What does the acronym DOL stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

 On what electrical equipment would a DOL be nominally used?

_______________________________________________________________

 List five types of control devices?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 What does the NO stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

 What does the NC stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

 How does a ‘proximity switch’ work?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Wiring systems
Learning outcome
The learner will:
13. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.

Wiring systems
Electricians will be called on to install electric systems in a wide range of environments with
the more common being:
 domestic installations
 commercial installation
 hazardous installations
 industrial installations
 agricultural installations.
These will all have their own unique hazards, both to anyone using the installation and also
to the installation itself, from activities within those premises or the environment within those
premises.
The wiring system chosen for a particular environment will depend on the level of protection
required by the cabling and the type of support needed.
In any electrical system, the means of delivery of electrical energy to a load will vary.
Different types of cable are used, as well as different ways in which these cables are
supported and protected. The name attached to these are called wiring systems and they fall
into general areas.
 Clipped direct: We can clip mineral insulated (MICC), steel wired armoured (SWA),
cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), polyvinyl chloride/polyvinyl chloride (PVC/PVC) cables
directly to a surface, using appropriate clips. The setting defines the nature of the clips
and how the cables are run.
 Steel conduit and trunking: Generally used to deliver single core cables in industrial,
commercial and health settings. They are strong and able to resist high mechanical
stresses.
 Plastic conduit and trunking: As with steel conduit and trunking, single core cables are
generally installed in schools and commercial premises. It is less robust than steel
conduit but easier to install.
 Cable tray: Cable tray is commonly used to support a number of cables where individual
clipping is difficult or not economical. Tray is used either above ceilings or in industrial or
commercial settings. It has a range of sizes from 50mm to 1,000mm.
 Ladder rack: This is similar to cable tray but with greater strength and is used in
industrial settings to deliver large numbers of sub-main cables.
 Basket tray: Again, this is similar to cable tray but is more likely to be used in
commercial premises for large amounts of smaller cables.
PVC cables

Learning outcome
The learner will:
14. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.

PVC cables
The vast majority of cables encountered by electricians will have conductors made of copper.
Some larger cables (16mm2 and above) may have aluminium conductors.
Unless they are placed out of reach, eg overhead, these cables will need to be insulated to
prevent short circuits and people and livestock coming into contact with the live conductors.
The most commonly utilised insulator currently used is polyvinyl chloride, referred to as
PVC. This material is one of the many plastics that are generally used is industry for a wide
range of purposes but is the most suitable for cable insulation.
Although it is very versatile, PVC cable is susceptible to damage when exposed to high
temperatures and also becomes brittle at temperatures approaching freezing point. It also
requires mechanical protection in many situations to prevent damage to the cable.
PVC comes in two main forms:
 thermoplastic
 thermosetting.

Thermoplastic
This is the standard type of PVC insulation used on most electrical cables. It has a maximum
continuous operating temperature of 70°C and will soften above this temperature, resulting in
possible ‘conductor migration’.

Thermosetting
This type of cable is designated as XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene). It has a higher
continuous operating temperature of 90°C. It is often used for mains distribution because it
can operate at higher temperatures, which can bring about a reduction in conductor size with
larger cables.

Low smoke and fume (LSF) cable

One major drawback of PVC is that when it is burnt, it can produce hydrogen chloride fumes
that are toxic; these fumes can also produce hydrochloric acid on surfaces.
Many specifications for public buildings, such as schools and offices, will require the
installation of LSF cable to reduce this risk in the event of a fire.

PVC cable types

PVC single core (6491X)
 This cable comes in sizes from 1.0mm2 upwards and
usually has stranded conductors, although single strand
‘solid’ conductor cable is still available.
 This type of cable requires additional mechanical
protection and is generally installed in conduit and
trunking.
 It is generally found in commercial, industrial and
agricultural installations.
 A range of insulation colours are available to facilitate
cable identification.

PVC insulated PVC sheathed flat twin and cpc (6242Y)

 This cable comes in sizes from 1.5mm2 upwards; 1.5mm2
and 2.5mm2 have solid conductors, and larger sizes have
stranded conductors.
 The sheathing provides some mechanical protection for
the cable and it can be clipped directly to a surface
without any other protection in less onerous conditions.
 It has PVC insulated conductors and an uninsulated cpc
conductor.
 Flat three core and cpc (6243Y) is also available, as is
single core and cpc.
 It is generally, but not exclusively, used for wiring
domestic installations.

PVC insulated PVC sheathed flexible cable (3092Y and

3093Y)
 This cable comes in sizes from 0.5mm2 upwards.
 Each conductor is made up of many fine strands which
make the cable much more flexible.
 The sheathing provides some mechanical protection for
the cable.
 Whilst two- and three-core cables are the most common,
this type of cable is available with many cores.
 It is generally used for connecting portable appliances to
the socket outlet and for connecting lighting points, eg
pendant ceiling rose.
 In order to ensure that all the strands are clamped by the
terminal, they should be twisted together before
termination to avoid ‘whiskers’, ie odd strands that miss
the termination.
 Answer the following questions

 State the main difference between PVC thermoplastic and PVC thermosetting
cables.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State the cable manufacturers’ code for the following cable types:

PVC insulated single core ______________

PVC insulated PVC sheathed flat twin and cpc ______________

PVC insulated PVC sheathed flat 3-core and cpc ______________

PVC insulated PVC sheathed 2-core flexible cable ______________

PVC insulated PVC sheathed 3-core flexible cable ______________

 State the type of cable that is often specified for public buildings.

_______________________________________________________________
Steel wire armoured cable (SWA)

Learning outcome
The learner will:
15. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.

Steel wire armoured (SWA) cable

SWA cables are used extensively for main and sub-
main cables, and for wiring circuits in industrial
installations. They can also be buried directly in the
ground and are therefore useful for connecting
between buildings in domestic installations. The
cable consists of single or multi-core PVC insulated
conductors made of copper or aluminium with steel
wire armour and PVC over sheath.
Typical sizes range from 50mm2–1,000mm2 for
single core types and anything from 1.5mm2 up to
400mm2 for two, three and four core types.
The cable can be fixed directly on to walls, using
cable cleats, or laid directly in the ground or in cable
ducts. If several cables are to follow the same route,
they may be best supported on cable tray, ladder or
racks.

The steel wire armouring can be used as the circuit

protective conductor (cpc) but it must be ascertained from
manufacturers’ information that it has at least the equivalent
cross-sectional area as the corresponding copper cpc.
 Answer the following questions.

 State four installation methods for steel wire armoured cable.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 The steel wire armour can be used as the cpc, provided:

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 Label the following diagram:

Fire resistant cables

Learning outcome
The learner will:
16. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments.
Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.

Fire resistant cables

There are industrial and commercial installations that need to continue working even when
subjected to high temperatures and fire. Examples of these are fire alarm installations,
centrally fed emergency lighting installations and petro-chemical installations. Two types of
cable are available for this purpose:
 mineral insulated copper clad (MICC)
 FP200.

Mineral insulated copper clad (MICC) cable

This cable is made from copper conductors inside a
copper sheath, insulated by inorganic magnesium
oxide powder. The name is often abbreviated to MICC
or MI cable, and it’s known in the trade as
pyro (because the original UK manufacturer is a
company called Pyrotenax). A similar product sheathed
with metals other than copper is called mineral
insulated metal sheathed (MIMS) cable.
MI cables may be covered with a PVC sheath that is
coloured for identification purposes: red for fire alarms,
white for emergency lighting and orange for general
purpose. The plastic sheath provides additional
corrosion protection for the copper sheath, as well as
reducing shock risk under fault conditions.

Advantages Disadvantages
 fireproof  moisture absorption
 great mechanical strength  complicated termination process
 waterproof  cost.
 non-ageing
 small overall diameter
 high current carrying capacity
 earth continuity
 high corrosion resistance
 high operating temperature.
 FP200
Key applications:
 fire detection and fire alarm systems for
buildings
 voice alarm systems
 emergency lighting
 other essential service circuits.
The conductors are made from plain annealed copper
solid (1.0–2.5mm2) or stranded (4.0mm2) circular.
The conductor insulation is high-performance damage
resistant Insudite*. Insudite is a tough composite
insulation that is resistant to impact, nicking and
abrasion, ie all things that normally result in failure of
silicone insulated cables. Consequently, protective
ferrules are not required.
The screen is made from laminated aluminium tape screen bonded to sheath and in contact
with full size tinned annealed copper circuit protective conductor, which provides automatic
screen earthing.
The sheath is made from robust thermoplastic LSOH sheath (the colours are white or red;
other colours to special order). For external exposure, the use of a white sheath is
recommended.
The cable passes a set of tests specified in BS 6387:1994 (Specification for performance
requirements for cables required to maintain circuit integrity under fire conditions), referred to
as the CWZ tests, which comprise of three separate fire, water and shock tests. In order to
meet CWZ and comply with the standard, the cable must pass the following three separate
tests:
 C: resistance to fire at 950ºC for three hours
 W: resistance to fire and water at 650ºC for 30 minutes
 Z: resistance to fire and mechanical shock at 950°C for 15 minutes.

Advantages Disadvantage
 Fire resistant  Types with silicon insulation require
 Good mechanical strength ferrules to be fitted because this
 waterproof insulation is brittle and easily
 easy to terminate damaged.
 relatively cheap compared to MICC.
 Answer the following questions.

 State two types of fire resistant cables.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State the insulation used in mineral insulated cable.

_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of mineral insulated cable.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three disadvantages of mineral insulated cable.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of FP200 cable.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State a disadvantage of FP200 cable.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
Conduit systems

Learning outcome
The learner will:
17. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments
3.5 identify purpose of specialised equipment for installing wiring systems
3.6 calculate spacing factor of wiring enclosures.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.
 Specialised: Conduit and tray benders, stocks, dies, formers.
 Wiring enclosures: Conduit, trunking.

Conduit systems
Conduit is used as a containment system for electrical cables. There are three main types:
 metal (steel)
 PVC
 flexible.

Metal (steel) conduit
The most common form of conduit used for
electrical installation work is steel conduit. The
screwed steel conduit system is undoubtedly the
most popular for permanent wiring installations,
particularly in modern commercial and industrial
buildings.
Advantages of steel conduit:
 affords conductors good mechanical protection
 permits easy rewiring
 minimises fire risks
 can be utilised as the circuit protective conductor.
Disadvantages of steel conduit:
 under certain conditions, moisture is liable to form on the inside of the conduit
 expensive compared with some other systems
 liable to corrosion when subject to acid, alkali and other fumes.
Types of steel conduit finish:
 galvanised for outdoors or situations where steam or dampness is present.
 black enamelled for general work in dry situations.

Typical sizes are 16, 20, 25 and 32mm diameters – available in 3.75 metre lengths.
The working of steel conduit, ie cutting, threading, bending, etc, will be covered in Unit 204.
Steel conduit accessories

Specialist steel conduit tools

 PVC conduit
The basic material is polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is
produced in both flexible and rigid forms. It is impervious
to acids, alkalis, oil, aggressive soils, fungi and bacteria,
and is unaffected by sea, air and atmospheric
conditions. It withstands all pests and does not attract
rodents. PVC conduit may be buried in lime, concrete or
plaster without harmful effects.

Advantages of PVC conduit:

 light in weight and easy to handle
 easy to saw, cut and clean
 simple to form and bend
 does not require painting
 minimal condensation, due to low thermal conductivity in walls
 speed of erection
 excellent electrical and fire resistant properties.
Disadvantages of PVC conduit:
 care must be taken when gluing joints to avoid forming a barrier across the inside of
the conduit
 if insufficient adhesive is used the joints may not be waterproof
 PVC expands around five times as much as steel and this expansion must be allowed
for.
Types of PVC conduit:
 Heavy Gauge Super High Impact: Designed to withstand arduous site conditions
and extreme weather conditions. Major building contractors and government
departments often specify this type of conduit for use.
 Light Gauge Super High Impact: Suitable for pre-cast and in situ concrete work.
 Heavy Gauge Standard Impact: Suitable for typical conduit installations.
 Heavy Gauge High Temperature Material: Suitable for installations where 80/85°C
temperatures are expected.
Typical sizes
Rigid round PVC conduit is typically available in the following sizes: 16, 20, 25, 32, 38 and
50mm diameter in 3 metre lengths.
 Flexible conduit
Flexible conduits are used to connect to motors or other
devices where isolation from vibration is useful.
Flexible conduit can be obtained in PVC or metallic form.
Whichever type is used, a separate cpc must be installed
throughout the entire length of the conduit and terminated to an
appropriate earth terminal at each end.

Sizing conduit
The size of conduit required is worked out using Tables E1, E2, E3 and E4 of the IET
On-Site Guide; these are reproduced on the following pages of this Handout. For each of the
cables that are going to be installed, a term for that particular size of cable is given in either
Table E1 or E3, depending on whether we are dealing with short straight runs or long runs or
runs with bends. The terms for all the cables are added together and compared to the factors
for conduit given in Table E2 or E4. The size of conduit that is most suitable for use with
these cables is the one whose factor is equal to or greater than the sum of the cable factors.
Table E1 – Cable factors for use in conduit in short straight runs
Type of conductor Conductor cross-sectional Cable factor
area (mm2)
Solid 1 22
1.5 27
2.5 39
Stranded 1.5 31
2.5 43
4 58
6 88
10 146
16 202
25 385
Table E2 – Conduit factors for use in short straight runs
Conduit diameter (mm) Conduit factor
16 290
20 460
25 800
35 1400
38 1900
50 3500
63 5600
Table E3 – Cable factors for use in conduit in long straight runs over 3m or runs
of any length incorporating bends
Type of conductor Conductor cross-sectional Cable factor
area (mm2)
Solid 1 16
or 1.5 22
Stranded 2.5 30
4 43
6 58
10 105
16 145
25 217
The above tables reproduced from the IET On-Site Guide
Table E4 – Conduit factors for runs incorporating bends and long straight runs

Length Conduit diameter (mm)

of run 16 20 25 32 16 20 25 32 16 20 25 32 16 20 25 32 16 20 25 32
(m)
Straight One bend Two bends Three bends Four bends
1 188 303 543 947 177 286 514 900 158 256 463 818 130 213 388 692
1.5 Covered by 182 294 528 923 167 270 487 857 143 233 422 750 111 182 333 600
2 Tables 177 286 514 900 158 256 463 818 130 213 388 692 97 159 292 529
2.5 E1 and E2 171 278 500 878 150 244 442 783 120 196 358 643 86 141 260 474
3 167 270 487 857 143 233 422 750 111 182 333 600
3.5 179 290 521 911 162 263 475 837 136 222 404 720 103 169 311 563
4 177 286 514 900 158 256 463 818 130 213 388 692 97 159 292 529
4.5 174 282 507 889 154 250 452 800 125 204 373 667 91 149 275 500
5 171 278 500 878 150 244 442 783 120 196 358 643 86 141 260 474
6 167 270 487 857 143 233 422 750 111 182 333 600
7 162 263 475 837 136 222 404 720 103 169 311 563
8 158 256 463 818 130 213 388 692 97 159 292 529
9 154 250 452 800 125 204 373 667 91 149 275 500
10 150 244 442 783 120 196 358 643 86 141 260 474
Additional factors
 For 38mm diameter use 1.4 x (32mm factor)
 For 50mm diameter use 2.6 x (32mm factor)
 For 63mm diameter use 4.2 x (32mm factor)

The above table reproduced from the IET On-Site Guide

Example 1
The following cables are to be drawn into a straight 2m length of conduit:
 2 off solid core 1.5mm2
 4 off solid core 2.5mm2
 4 off stranded 4mm2.
Calculate the conduit size required to accommodate these cables.
Solution:
Factor for 2 off solid core
1.5mm2 from On-Site Guide ¿ 27 ×2
Table E1
¿ 54
Factor for 4 off solid core
2.5mm2 from On-Site Guide ¿ 39 × 4
Table E1
¿ 156
Factor for 4 off stranded 4mm2
¿ 58 × 4
from On-Site Guide Table E1
¿ 232
54+ 156+232 ¿ 442
From On-Site Guide
¿ 20 mm
Table E2, size required

Example 2
The following cables are to be drawn into a 2m length of conduit with 2 bends:
 2 off solid core 1.5mm2
 4 off solid core 2.5mm2
 4 off stranded 4mm2
Calculate the conduit size required to accommodate these cables.
Solution:
Factor for 2 off solid core
1.5mm2 from On-Site Guide ¿ 22 ×2
Table E3
¿ 44
Factor for 4 off solid core
2.5mm2 from On-Site Guide ¿ 30 × 4
Table E3
¿ 120
Factor for 4 off stranded 4mm2
¿ 43 × 4
from On-Site Guide Table E3
¿ 172
44 +120+172 ¿ 336
 From On-Site Guide
¿ 25 mm
Table E4, size required

Answer the following questions

 State three advantages of steel conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three disadvantages of steel conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 List four sizes (diameters) of steel conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 List three specialist tools needed to work on steel conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of PVC conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
 State three disadvantages of PVC conduit.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 The following cables are to be drawn into a 4m length of conduit with 1 bend:
 6 off solid core 1.5mm2
 6 off solid core 2.5mm2
 2 off stranded 4mm2.
Calculate the conduit size required to accommodate these cables.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
Trunking systems

Learning outcome
The learner will:
18. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments
3.6 calculate spacing factor of wiring enclosures.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.
 Wiring enclosures: Conduit, trunking.

Trunking systems
Trunking is used as a large-scale containment system for electrical cables in industrial and
commercial installations. There are three main types:
 metal (steel)
 PVC
 mini trunking.

Metal (steel) trunking
Cable trunking offers a highly versatile and adaptable
system of cable installation. It provides good
mechanical protection to cables so it is entirely suitable
for installations in workshops or industrial premises.
The standard trunking, with its removable lid, means
that circuits can be added or removed with relative ease
and – provided the regulations on segregation of
different types of circuit are complied with – the cables
need only be of the single PVC insulated type.
Advantages of steel trunking:
 affords conductors good mechanical protection
 can accommodate many cables of different sizes
 permits easy rewiring
 minimises fire risks
 can be utilised as the circuit protective conductor.
Disadvantages of steel trunking:
 expensive compared with some other systems
 requires skill to fabricate and install
 difficult to make it gas- and water-proof
 liable to corrosion when subject to acid, alkali and other fumes.
Types of steel conduit finish:
 galvanised for outdoors or situations where
steam or dampness is present.
 painted enamel for general work in dry
situations.
Typical sizes are 50mm by 50mm section to
300mm by 300mm section and are generally
supplied in 2.5m or 3m lengths.

Steel trunking accessories

A range of accessories are available and some are
shown in the picture on the right.
The working of steel trunking, ie cutting, forming,
etc, will be covered in Unit 204.
Lighting trunking
Without doubt, the biggest increase in recent times
in the use of cable trunking is the widespread use in
industrial and commercial premises of lighting
trunking.
Easy to install with the use of specially designed
hangers, it can span large distances between roof
supports of the modern prefabricated premises.
Not only does it give mechanical protection for the
cables, but it also provides a means of mounting
the luminaires in neat straight rows and reduces the
number of fixings required to the fabric of the
building.

Skirting trunking
As its name implies, skirting trunking is fixed in
place of the normal skirting board.
Its main use is confined to the outer perimeter of
rooms, where there is a call for a large number of
outlets for small power, telephone and computer
outlets.

Dado trunking
Where there is a need for multiple electrical service
outlet points at desk height, then this form of
trunking can be considered.
It is ideal for use in offices where outlets for various
voltages, telephones and computer networks are
required.
It comes in multi-compartment types to provide
segregation of the different services and can be
obtained in a number of attractive finishes and
styles.
Underfloor trunking
In some large buildings under construction, it is
sometimes found practical and economical to
provide a network of cable ducts or trunking in the
concrete floor or under a suspended floor.
One advantage of this is that in large commercial
buildings there are often changes of tenancy of
individual office suites that may entail alterations
of the layout of the areas.
These can be carried out more easily if there is a
system of ducts or trunking, particularly in the
large open plan offices favoured today.

Busbar trunking
The metal-clad overhead busbar system is often used for three
phase distribution in factories to feed a number of machines.
The usual arrangement consists of zinc-coated sheet steel
trunking finished in grey stove enamel, containing copper
busbars mounted on insulators.
At intervals – for instance, every metre – tapping off points are
provided, to which a fused unit can be fitted. The fused units
consist of some means of making contact with the busbars –
usually some type of socket or clamping arrangement.
Connection from the fused unit to the equipment is made by
flexible connections, cable in conduit, mineral insulated cables,
etc.
The initial cost of the overhead busbar trunking is high.
However, once installed, it provides a highly flexible system to
which additions and alterations can be carried out quickly and
easily.

Rising main trunking

For electrical installations in large multi-floor buildings, busbar trunking
is sometimes used for vertical rising mains.
It consists of a zinc-coated sheet steel case finished in grey stove
enamel. The sections are joined by the use of connectors, complete
with plated steel screws, copper earthing links and shake-proof washers
in much the same way as standard cable trunking.
The trunking contains copper busbars, often extruded in PVC insulation
and colour coded to help identification of the phases.
These are mounted on insulators made of laminated insulating material.
The sections of busbar are connected by solid copper links but, in
extremely long runs, joints consisting of flexible braided tape are
included at certain points to take up any variations in length due to
temperature change.
PVC trunking
Many of the trunking types mentioned above can be obtained
in high impact PVC.
These are suitable for many different applications in domestic,
commercial or industrial situations and have the added
advantage of being light in weight, easy to cut and
prefabricated.
The IET Regulation 521.6 requires that all trunking complies
with BS EN 50085. Additionally, PVC trunking is acid- and
corrosion-resistant, and can be obtained in more attractive
colours than the metallic types.

PVC mini trunking

Mini trunking comes in various sizes, including 16 x 16mm and
16 x 25mm.
Using mini trunking and surface mounted switch and socket
boxes, circuits can easily be extended and even complete
rewires are carried out without disturbing the underlying
decoration.
Consequently, it was favoured by councils and housing
associations as a quick and easy method of carrying out
domestic rewires without the need for expensive post-rewire
decorating. It is for this reason that they became colloquially
known in the trade as ‘council rewires’.

Sizing trunking
The size of trunking required is worked out by using Tables E5 and E6 of the IET On-Site
Guide; these are reproduced on the following pages of this Handout. For each of the cables
that are going to be installed, a term for that particular size of cable is given in Table E5. The
terms for all the cables are added together and compared to the factors for trunking given in
Table E6. The size of trunking that is most suitable for use with these cables is the one
whose factor is equal to or greater than the sum of the cable factors.

Table E5 – Cable factors for trunking

Conductor PVC Thermosetting
Type of conductor cross-sectional BS 6004 BS 7211
area (mm2) Cable factor Cable factor
Solid 1.5 8.0 8.6
2.5 11.9 11.9
Stranded 1.5 8.6 9.6
2.5 12.6 13.9
4 16.6 18.1
6 21.2 22.9
10 35.3 36.3
16 47.8 50.3
25 73.9 75.4
Notes:
1 These factors are for metal trunking and may be optimistic for plastic trunking, where the
cross-sectional area available may be significantly reduced from the nominal by the thickness of
the wall material.
2 The provision of spare space is advisable; however, any circuits added at a later date must take
into account grouping, Regulation 523.5.
Table E6 – Factors for trunking
Dimensions Dimensions
of trunking Factor of trunking Factor
(mm x mm) (mm x mm)
50 x 38 767 200 x 100 8572
50 x 50 1037 200 x 150 13001
75 x 25 738 200 x 200 17429
75 x 38 1146 225 x 38 3474
75 x 50 1555 225 x 50 4671
75 x 75 2371 225 x 75 7167
100 x 25 993 225 x 100 9662
100 x 38 1542 225 x 150 14652
100 x 50 2091 225 x 200 19643
100 x 75 3189 225 x 225 22138
100 x 100 4252 300 x 38 4648
150 x 38 2999 300 x 50 6251
150 x 50 3091 300 x 75 9590
150 x 75 4743 300 x 100 12929
150 x 100 6394 300 x 150 19607
150 x 150 9697 300 x 200 26285
200 x 38 3082 300 x 225 29624
200 x 50 4145 300 x 300 39428
200 x 75 6359
Notes:
Space factor is 45% with trunking thickness taken into account.

Example
The following PVC insulated cables are to be installed in steel cable trunking:
 10 off 4mm2 cables
 10 off 6mm2 cables
 10 off 10mm2 cables.
Calculate the size of cable trunking that would be suitable for this application.
Factor for 10 off solid core 4mm2
¿ 16.6 ×10
from On-Site Guide Table E5
¿ 166
Factor for 10 off solid core 6mm2
¿ 21.2 ×10
from On-Site Guide Table E5
¿ 212
Factor for 10 off solid core
10mm2 from On-Site Guide ¿ 35.3 ×10
Table E5
¿ 353
166+212+353 ¿ 731

From IET On-Site Guide, Table E6 a 75 x 25mm trunking with a term of 738 would be
suitable in this case.
However, in practice the electrician will use a larger size to allow for future extensions to the
installation and it is more likely that a 50 x 50mm trunking would be installed in this case.

For sizes of cables and trunking not given in the tables, the number of cables installed should
be such that the resulting spacing factor does not exceed 45%. The space factor in this case
is the ratio of the sum of the overall cross-sectional area (CSA) of the cables (including cable
and sheath) to the internal CSA of the trunking. This is calculated as follows:

Space factor ¿
∑ of overall CSA of cables × 100 %
Internal available CSA of trunking

Answer the following questions

.

 State three advantages of steel trunking.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three disadvantages of steel trunking.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 The following PVC (BS6004) cables are to be installed into trunking:

 15 off solid core 1.5mm2
 12 off solid core 2.5mm2
 18 off stranded 4mm2
 10 off stranded 6mm2
 9 off stranded 10mm2
 3 off stranded 25mm2.
Calculate the conduit size required to accommodate these cables.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Cable tray and ladder systems

Learning outcome
The learner will:
19. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.2 identify wiring systems for different environments
3.5 identify purpose of specialised equipment for installing wiring systems.

Range
 Wiring systems: Cable tray, cable trunking, cable conduit, ladder racking, thermoplastic
multi-core, flat profile, SWA, MICC, FP200, thermoplastic single-core, support methods
and requirements, component parts.
 Environments: Domestic, commercial, hazardous, industrial installation, agricultural.
 Specialised: Conduit and tray benders, stocks, dies, formers.

Cable tray and ladder systems

If it is required to run several sheathed cables, such as MIMC or
SWA, along a common route then the time spent clipping and
saddling the individual cables can be saved by the installation of
cable tray.
Cable tray is usually installed in commercial and industrial
installations.
Apart from carrying a large number of cables, cable tray can be
used as a means of clearing obstructions such as pipework, etc.
It consists of a perforated metal channel which, once installed, can
have cables fastened to it by means of cleats or cable ties.

Standard duty cable tray

Made from perforated sheet steel, the standard cable tray
consists of a simple flat tray with a turned up edge.
It is available in widths varying from 50mm to 900mm and is
most suitable for the installation of lightweight cables, such
as MIMC cables or the smaller sizes of SWA.

Heavy-duty cable tray

Like the standard cable tray, this is manufactured from
perforated sheet steel. However, this is of heavier gauge and
the flanged edge is deeper.
Heavy-duty trays, despite the name, are suitable for
medium-duty installation work. There is a full range of
accessories for this type of tray and it comes in widths
ranging from 150mm to 600mm.
 Return flange cable tray
There are a number of different patterns of this type
of cable tray, varying from a simple returned flange to
the heavy-duty types.
The returned flange gives the tray additional strength
and therefore it can span greater distances without
support, compared with the standard cable tray.
Types of tray finish:
 hot dipped galvanised
 unfinished sheet steel
 red oxide undercoat
 yellow chromate undercoat
 epoxy resin coated
 plastic coated.
Typical sizes available are 50mm to
900mm widths and it is generally supplied
in 3m lengths.

Tray accessories
A range of accessories are available and
some are shown in the picture on the right.
The working of cable tray, ie cutting,
forming, etc, will be covered in Unit 204.

Cable tray specialist tools

Tray bending machine
Cable ladder
This is used when a number of larger cables need to be carried
along the same route (generally in larger industrial premises).
It is so named because it resembles a ladder, where the ‘rungs’
provide the fixing points for the cable.
Since the cables installed on ladder rack are generally larger
ones, the gap between the rungs will not present a problem, as
the cable will self-support across the gaps.
Side wall heights available are generally between 50mm and
150mm, with various widths to suit a wide range of applications.
A range of accessories are available, including bends, reducers
and tees, as shown below:

Cable basket
When running large numbers of small cables
(eg data cable), cable basket can be used.
With this, the cables are simply laid into the
basket and no cable fixing is required.
It is generally used in large commercial
premises that have an extensive local area
network (LAN) system to interconnect all
computers and peripheral equipment.
 Answer the following questions
.

 State which types of installations would cable tray be most commonly used?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State three typical sizes for cable tray?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 Why would cable ladder would be used instead of cable tray?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

 State five of tray finish?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
Protective devices

Learning outcome
The learner will:
20. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.4 state applications of different types of protective devices.

Range
 Protective devices: Fuses (BS88 (gM, gG), BS3036, BS1362), circuit breaker
BSEN60898 types b, c and d, RCD BSEN61008, RCBO BSEN 61009 types b, c and d.

Protective devices
It is necessary to install protective devices in circuits for when faults occur, in order to provide
protection against electric shock and also to ensure that the premises and wiring systems are
not damaged as a result of, for example, fire.
Faults will generally cause one or both of the following to occur:
 overcurrent
 earth leakage.

Overcurrent
An overcurrent is defined in BS7671 as ‘a current exceeding the rated value. For
conductors the rated value is the current-carrying capacity’.
Protection against overcurrent can be provided by a fuse, circuit breaker or a residual current
operated circuit breaker with integral overcurrent protection (RCBO).
Overcurrent can be further subdivided into two categories:
 overload current
 fault current.
BS7671 defines an overload current as ‘an overcurrent occurring in a circuit which is
electrically sound’. This generally occurs when a circuit is abused, eg too many appliances
plugged into socket outlets, or it was badly designed or modified, or a machine is trying to
drive a mechanical load that is too much for it. An overload normally results in an overcurrent
up to two to three times the rated value of the circuit.
BS7671 defines a fault current as ‘a current resulting from a fault’. A fault is further defined
as ‘a circuit condition in which current flows through an abnormal or unintended path.
This may result from an insulation failure or a bridging of insulation. Conventionally,
the impedance between live conductors or between live conductors and exposed- or
extraneous-conductive-parts at the fault position is considered negligible.’ A fault
current can be many hundreds of times the rated current of the circuit.
In either case, the purpose of circuit protection is to interrupt the circuit quickly, before
damage is caused to the installation, as well as ensuring that the risk of electric shock is
removed. In order to achieve this, protective devices are placed in the line conductor(s).

Earth leakage
In BS7671, earth leakage is referred to as ‘protective conductor current’, as it is defined as
an ‘electric current appearing in a protective conductor, such as leakage current or
electric current resulting from an insulation fault’.
Protection against earth leakage can be provided by a fuse, circuit breaker, a residual current
operated circuit breaker with integral overcurrent protection (RCBO) or a residual current
device (RCD).
Whilst the most common cause of earth leakage is as a result of an insulation fault, it must
be remembered that some equipment, eg computer power supplies, are naturally ‘leaky’. If a
number of similar pieces of equipment are connected to the same circuit, the earth leakage
current could reach dangerously high levels, as their effect will be cumulative.
Some typical current levels (a.c.) and their effect on the average human body are given
below:
 1mA: perception level (you would start to feel a slight ‘tingle’)
 10–15mA: can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily
control muscles and cannot release an electrified object.
 >30mA: can cause ventricular fibrillation which can lead to cardiac arrest.

Fuses

BS3036 semi-enclosed fuse

Also referred to as a rewireable fuse, these were commonly
used but, due to their inferior protection characteristics
resulting in cables having to be de-rated, they are now very
rarely installed. However, there will still be numerous
installations that will be protected by these devices.
A fuse wire is connected between the two blades and provides
a ‘weak link’ in the circuit. When a certain current flows through
this wire, it will become hot, melt and break the circuit.

Available sizes are:

 5A (white)
 15A (blue)
 20A (yellow)
 30A (red)
 45A (green).

Advantages of BS3036 fuses: Disadvantages of BS3036 fuses:

 simple to check if blown  danger of being repaired with wrong size
 low cost to replace fuse element wire
 no moving parts.  deteriorate with age
 circuit cannot be quickly restored
 cannot break large fault currents
 danger if replaced on faulty circuit
(melting wire)
 fusing factor of around 1.8–2.0 means
that they cannot be guaranteed to operate
up to twice the rated current that is
flowing. As a result, cables protected by
them must have a larger current-carrying
capacity.
 BS88-3:2010 cartridge fuses (replacing
BS1361)
These cartridge fuses are for use by unskilled
persons, mainly for household and similar
applications.
The cartridge fuse breaks a faulty circuit in the
same way as a semi-enclosed fuse, but its
construction eliminates some of the disadvantages
experienced with an open fuse element.
The cartridges are manufactured in such a way
that higher rated fuses are physically larger in size;
this is done to minimise the risk of replacing a
blown fuse with an overrated cartridge.
Advantages of BS88-3:2010 fuses:
 small physical size
 no mechanical moving parts
 accurate current rating
 not liable to deterioration with age
 fusing factor 1.6–1.9.
Disadvantages of BS88-3:2010 fuses:
 more expensive than rewireable
 can be shorted by silver foil
 cannot break large fault currents.

BS88-2:2010 fuses (replacing BS88-2 and

BS88-2.1)
These cartridge fuses are for use by authorised
persons, mainly for industrial applications, and
include bolted and clip type.
These generally have a high current breaking
capacity and are often referred to as HBC fuses
(high breaking capacity), formerly HRC (high
rupturing capacity).
These fuses can be classified as either gG or gM,
depending on their intended usage.
The difference between the two is that gG fuses are general purpose and gM are motor
rated.
gG fuses have a single rating, eg 20A, which means it can carry 20 amperes indefinitely.
The gM fuses have a double rating, eg 20M32. The first figure indicates the continuous
current rating, whilst the second figure is a short-term characteristic that allows the motor
starting current to subside before the device operates.
Motor rated fuses are handy because you can use smaller rated cables/switchgear.
Advantages of BS88-2:2010 fuses: Disadvantages of BS88-2:2010 fuses:
 no mechanical moving parts  expensive.
 declared rating is very accurate
 operation is very quick
 with gM fuses you can distinguish
between a persistent fault and a transient
fault such as the large starting current
taken by motors
 reliable – it can break large current safely
 fusing factor 1.25–1.70.

BS1362 cartridge fuses

These cartridge fuses are especially for use in the
standard UK BS1363 13 ampere plug top.
This cartridge fuse breaks a faulty circuit in the same
way as other fuses, ie by the internal fuse wire melting
when current becomes excessive.
When the BS1363 plug was first introduced, there were
five fuses in the official BS1362 range (with their
specified colour): 2 (blue), 5 (grey), 7 (black),
10 (yellow) and 13 (brown) amps.
The current version, BS1362:1973, allows any fuse
rating up to 13A, with 3 amp (coloured red) and 13 amp
(coloured brown) as the preferred (but not mandated)
values when used in a plug. All other ratings are to be
coloured black (this is why 5 amp fuses are now black
instead of grey).
The purpose of the plug mounted fuse is to protect the
flexible cord, not the appliance itself.

Circuit breaker to BS EN 60898

With their continual reduction in cost, circuit breakers (CB) are for most
electricians the most common type of protective device installed.
BS EN 60898 includes ratings up to 100A and maximum fault
capacities of 9kA.
CBs provide much closer overcurrent protection compared to traditional
fuses and it is much easier to reset the circuit when the fault is cleared.
Formerly referred to as ‘miniature circuit breakers’ (MCB), they are now
simply referred to as ‘circuit breakers’ (CB).

Advantages of BS EN 60898 CBs: Disadvantages of BS EN 60898 CBs:

 tripping characteristics, and therefore  they contain mechanical moving parts.
circuit protection, are set by the installer
 circuit protection difficult to interfere with
 the circuit provides discrimination
 a faulty circuit may be easily and quickly
restored by an unskilled operator.
Circuit breakers’ two means of tripping:
 thermal trip that operates relatively slowly and is ideal for detecting overload currents
 magnetic tripping device that operates very quickly and is ideal for detecting fault
currents.
A typical circuit breaker is shown to the right:
1. Box terminal
2. Thermal element
3. Magnetic hammer action solenoid
4. Arc chamber
5. Trip bar
6. Moving contact
7. Fixed contact
8. DIN clip

Circuit breakers are graded according to their tolerance to overload and this is summarised
in the table below, which is Table 7.2.7(ii) from the IET On-Site Guide (BS7671:2011).
Table 7.2.7(ii) Application of circuit breakers
Circuit-breaker- Trip current Application
er type (0.1 s to 5 s)
1 2.7 to 4 In Domestic and commercial installations having little
B 3 to 5 In or no switching surge
2 4 to 7 In General use in commercial/industrial installations
C 5 to 10 In where the use of fluorescent lighting, small motors,
3 7 to 10 In etc, can produce switching surges that would operate a
Type 1 or B circuit breaker. Type C or 3 may be
necessary in highly inductive circuits such as banks
of fluorescent lighting.
4 10 to 50 In Not suitable for general use.
D 10 to 20 In Suitable for transformers, X-ray machines, industrial
welding equipment, etc, where high inrush currents
may occur.
Note: In is the nominal rating of the circuit-breaker.
Whilst you will encounter types 1, 2, 3 and 4 already installed, these types are now not
available. The recognised types readily available are types B, C and D.

Residual current device (RCD) BS EN 61008

All the devices mentioned so far will provide protection against both
overcurrent and earth leakage. However, providing earth leakage
protection with these devices requires a large current to flow to earth.
In order to detect much smaller leakage currents that could still be
lethal to life, an RCD must be used.
An RCD compares the current flowing out through the line conductor
with the current returning through the neutral; if the current exceeds a
predetermined value, the device will trip and disconnect the circuit.
The rated value is referred to as the IΔn and is usually rated in mA.
Until the introduction of the 17th Edition of BS 7671, the use of RCDs was generally limited to
protecting socket outlets feeding appliances used outside the premises.
However, it is now likely that most circuits will require RCD protection, including the following:
 locations containing a bath or shower (Regulation 701.411.3.3)
 socket circuits rated at less than 20A used by ordinary persons intended for general
use (Regulation 411.3.3)
 mobile equipment with a current rating not exceeding 32A for use
outdoors (Regulation 411.3.3)
 where cables are concealed in walls at a depth of less than 50mm without mechanical
protection (Regulation 522.6.102).
This list shows examples of use and is not exhaustive.
The diagram below shows the internal circuit arrangement which has been drawn to best
show the operation of the RCD.

IMPORTANT NOTE: An RCD does not provide overcurrent protection – it will only provide
earth leakage protection.

Residual current operated circuit breaker with integral overcurrent

protection (RCBO) BS EN 61009
An RCBO is a combination of a thermal-magnetic circuit breaker and
an RCD that enable both overcurrent protection and earth fault
protection to be provided in a single unit for individual circuits, usually
but not exclusively in domestic installations.
The major advantage is that this allows earth fault protection to be
restricted to a single circuit and therefore only the circuit with the fault is
interrupted, thus providing better discrimination.
With most devices, two additional wires must be connected in order for
this device to function. One wire connects to the neutral block, whilst
the other connects to the earth block. However, there are RCBOs on
the market that do not need an earth connection.
RCBOs are available in types B and C but not in type D.
 Answer the following questions

 What is meant by the term ‘overcurrent’?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 Overcurrent can be subdivided into two categories, which are:

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 What is meant by the term ‘overload current’?

_______________________________________________________________

 What is meant by the term ‘fault current’?

_______________________________________________________________

 What is meant by the term ‘protective conductor current’?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 List the five sizes of BS3036 fuses, including their colours.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of BS3036 fuses.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 State three disadvantages of BS3036 fuses.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of BS88-3:2010 fuses.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State three disadvantages of BS88 3:2010 fuses.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State three advantages of BS88-2:2010 fuses.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State a disadvantage of BS88-2:2010 fuses.

_______________________________________________________________
 State three advantages of BS EN 60898 circuit breakers.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 State a disadvantage of BS EN 60898 circuit breakers.

_______________________________________________________________

 State the three type classifications of circuit breakers currently available.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 State the general principle of operation of an RCD.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Cable selection
Learning outcome
The learner will:
21. know wiring systems of electrical installations.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
3.3 determine minimum current carrying capacity of live conductors for given installation
conditions.

Range
 Installation conditions: Ib In Iz It, Ca, Cc, Cf, Cg, Ci, voltage drop.

Cable selection
The size of a cable to be used for an installation depends upon:
 the current rating of a cable under defined installation conditions
 the maximum permitted drop in voltage, as defined by BS7671 Regulation 525.101
 satisfying earth fault loop impedance requirements specified in BS7671
Regulation Tables 41.2, 41.3 and 41.4.
The factors which influence the current rating are the:
 design current, Ib – the cable must carry the full load current
 type of cable – PVC, MIMS, copper conductors or aluminium conductors
 installed conditions – eg clipped to the surface or installed with other cables in
trunking
 surrounding temperature – cable resistance increases as temperature increases and
insulation may melt if the temperature is too high
 type and size of protection – for how long will the cable have to carry fault current?

Current carrying capacity

In order to comply with BS 7671, the following relationship must be complied with:
I b≤ I n≤ I z
where: Ib = design current of circuit
In = rated current or current setting of protective device
Iz = current carrying capacity of a cable for continuous service under the
particular installation conditions concerned
and It ≥ Iz
where: It = tabulated current carrying capacity of a cable.
Based on these relationships, the following steps should be taken when determining the
cable to be used for a particular situation with respect to current carrying capacity, which
must comply with BS 7671 Regulation 523.1.
 Determine the design current (Ib) of the circuit. This should be the value after applying
any applicable factors for diversity.
 Select the type and current rating of the protective device, which must be equal to or
larger than the design current.
 Determine the various correction factors applicable and apply them to the protective
rating.
 Determine the installation method to be used.
 Select the cable from the current carrying capacity tables in Appendix 4 of BS 7671.
A number of correction factors are available to take into account various installation
conditions. These are as follows:
Ca ambient or surrounding temperature correction factor which is given in Tables 4B1
and 4B2 of BS7671 Appendix 4.
Cc for circuits buried directly in the ground or in a duct in the ground
Cc = 0.9 (Appendix 4 section 5.1). For cables installed above ground Cc = 1.
Cd for depth of burial correction factor, which is given in Table 4B4 of BS7671
Appendix 4.
Cf where the protective device is a semi-enclosed fuse to BS3036, Cf = 0.725,
otherwise Cf = 1 (Appendix 4 section 5.1).
Cg grouping correction factor given in Tables 4C1 to 4C6 of BS7671 Appendix 4.
Ci correction factor to be used when cables are enclosed in thermal insulation.
BS7671 Regulation 523.9 gives three possible correction values:
 where a cable is installed in a thermally insulated wall or above a thermally
insulated ceiling, the cable being in contact with a thermally conductive surface
on one side, current carrying capacities are tabulated in Appendix 4
 where the cable is totally surrounded over a length greater than 0.5m, a factor
of 0.5 must be applied
 where the cable is totally surrounded over a short length less than 0.5m, the
appropriate factor given in Table 52.2 of BS7671 should be applied.
Cs for thermal resistivity of soil correction factor, which is given in Table 4B3 of
BS7671 Appendix 4.
These factors are to be divided into the rated current or current setting of protective
device (In).
If the factors occur at the same time, eg a certain number of cables grouped together in a
certain ambient temperature, then all the relevant factors are divided into the value of In.
However, if the factors occur at different points in the cable run, eg a certain number of
cables grouped together that separate before passing through an area of elevated ambient
temperature, then only the ‘worst case’ factor needs to be applied.
Dividing the value of In by all the appropriate factors will give use the current carrying
capacity of the cable for continuous service under the particular installation conditions
concerned (Iz).
Then the appropriate cable type table must be selected from those in Appendix 4 of BS
7671, as well as the appropriate installation reference method column in that table. A cable
with a tabulated current carrying capacity (It) greater than Iz is selected.

Example 1
A 6.5kW, 230V shower unit is to be wired in a domestic bathroom some 18m away from the
mains consumer unit. A general purpose thermoplastic PVC insulated and sheathed flat twin
with cpc cable will be clipped to the side of the 100mm ceiling joists over much of its length
with one other similar cable in a roof space which, it is anticipated, will reach 35°C in the
summer and where thermal insulation is installed up to the top of the joists. Assuming a TN-S
supply, calculate the minimum cable size to carry the current if the circuit is to be protected
by:
a) a semi-enclosed fuse to BS3036
b) a Type B CB to BS EN 60898.
Solution:
Power
Design current , I b ¿
Volts
6,500W
¿
230 V
¿ 28.26 amperes

a) Current setting of protection , I n ¿ 30 A (next ¿ ¿ 28.26 A)

The correction factors to be included in this calculation are:
Ca ambient temperature; the correction factor for 35C is 0.94 from Table 4B1 of
Appendix 4
Cc cable is installed above ground so Cc = 1
Cd as the cable is installed above ground, this factor does not apply
Cf the protection is by a semi-enclosed fuse and, therefore, a factor of 0.725
must be applied
Cg the cable is grouped with one similar cable so we have a factor of 0.8 from
Table 4C1 of Appendix 4
Ci thermal insulation is in contact with one side of the cable and therefore current
carrying capacities are tabulated in Appendix 4
Cs as the cable is installed above ground, this factor does not apply.
In
Cable rating , I z ¿
(C a × C c ×C f ×C g )
30
¿
(0.94 × 1× 0.725 ×0.8)
¿ 55 A
The installation method is from Table 4A2 Reference Method 100.
From Column 2 of Table 4D5 a 16mm2 cable, having a rating (It) of 57 amperes, is required
to carry this current.
We must now check that this cable complies with volt drop requirements. BS 7671
Regulation 525.101 refers to Appendix 4 section 6.4, stating that the drop in voltage between
the origin of an installation and any load point must not exceed 3% of the nominal supply
voltage for lighting circuits and 5% of the nominal supply voltage for other circuits for low
voltage installations supplied directly from a public low voltage distribution system.
The voltage drop for a particular cable may be found from:
Voltage drop=factor ×design current ×length of run
Now test for volt drop. The maximum permissible volt drop is 5% of the nominal supply
voltage:
Maximum voltage drop ¿ 5 % of nominal supply voltage
5× 230
¿
100
¿ 11.5 V

From Table 4D5 Column 8 the volt drop per ampere metre for a 16mm2 cable is 2.8mV.
Therefore, the volt drop for this cable length and load is equal to:
Voltage drop ¿ 2.8 ×10−3 × 28.26× 18
¿ 1.42 V
Since this is less than the maximum permissible value of 11.5 volts, a 16mm2 cable satisfies
the current carrying capacity and voltage drop requirements, and is therefore the chosen
cable when semi-enclosed fuse protection is used.

b) Current setting of protection , I n ¿ 32 A (next ¿ ¿28.26 A)

The correction factors to be included in this calculation are:
Ca ambient temperature; the correction factor for 35C is 0.94 from Table 4B1 of
Appendix 4
Cc cable is installed above ground so Cc = 1
Cd as the cable is installed above ground, this factor does not apply
Cf since protection is by a CB, the factor is 1
Cg the cable is grouped with one similar cable so we have a factor of 0.8 from
Table 4C1 of Appendix 4
Ci thermal insulation is in contact with one side of the cable and therefore current
carrying capacities are tabulated in Appendix 4
Cs as the cable is installed above ground, this factor does not apply.
In
Cable rating , I z ¿
(C a × C c ×C f ×C g )
32
¿
(0.94 × 1× 1× 0.8)
¿ 42.6 A
The installation method is from Table 4A2 Reference Method 100.
From Column 2 of Table 4D5 a 10mm2 cable, having a rating (It) of 45 amperes, is required
to carry this current.
Again, we test for volt drop. The maximum permissible volt drop is 5% of the nominal supply
voltage, which we calculated earlier is 11.5 volts.
From Table 4D5 Column 8 the volt drop per ampere metre for a 10mm2 cable is 4.4mV.
Therefore, the volt drop for this cable length and load is equal to:
Voltage drop ¿ 4.4 ×10−3 ×28.26 × 18
 ¿ 2.24 V
Since this is less than the maximum permissible value of 11.5 volts, a 10mm2 cable satisfies
the current carrying capacity and voltage drop requirements, and is therefore the chosen
cable when circuit breaker type B protection is used.
NB: A further step is necessary in the cable selection process. This is to check that the
chosen cable complies with the earth loop impedance requirements.
This will be covered later in your studies.
Answer the following question
A 230V 4kW load is to be wired in non-armoured single-core 70°C thermoplastic
insulated copper conductors wired in steel conduit installed on the surface some
25 metres from the distribution board. Three other similar circuits are installed in the
same conduit which passes through an area where the ambient temperature reaches
40°C. Calculate the cross-sectional area of cable required if protection is by a BS88-2
fuse. Show all working.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
Earthing systems

Learning outcome
The learner will:
22. know requirements of earthing systems.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
4.1 identify different types of earthing systems.

Range
 Earthing systems: TT, TN-S, TN-C-S.

Earthing systems

Purpose of earthing
The three main reasons for earthing electrical systems are as follows:
 to maintain the potential of any part of the system at a defined value with respect to
earth
 to allow current to flow to earth in the event of a fault, so that the protective equipment
will operate to isolate the faulty circuit
 to ensure that, in the event of a fault, apparatus normally ‘dead’ cannot reach a
dangerous potential with respect to earth (earth is normally taken as 0 volts,
‘no volts’).

Supply system earthing

Local distribution is normally undertaken with a three-phase three-wire system at 11kV. This
is then transformed down to 400V/230V four-wire system, as shown in the diagram below:

The primary is connected in delta, whilst the secondary is connected in star. The star point of
the secondary provides the neutral. Connecting between any two line conductors will give us
400 volts, whilst connecting between any line and neutral will give us 230 volts.
It is a legal requirement that all electrical systems connected to the public supply system
must be earthed. This is usually achieved by connecting the star point of the supply
transformer to earth using an earth electrode.
Electrical installations connected to the public supply system will also be earthed in some
way. The method of providing this earth will determine the earthing system used.
Earthing systems are distinguished by a series of letters that identify the nature of earthing
as follows.
 First letter – relationship of the power system to earth:
T = direct connection of one point to earth
I = all live parts are isolated from earth, or one point connected to earth through a
high impedance.
 Second letter – relationship of the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation
earth:
T = direct electrical connection of exposed-conductive-parts to earth, independently
of the earthing of any point of the power system
N = direct electrical connection of the exposed-conductive-parts to the earthed point
of the power system (in a.c. systems, the earthed point of the power system is
normally the neutral point or, if a neutral point is not available, a line conductor).
 Subsequent letter(s) (if any) – arrangement of neutral and protective conductors:
S = protective function provided by a conductor separate from the neutral conductor
or from the earthed line (or, in a.c. systems, earthed phase) conductor
C = neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN
conductor).
TN-S system
Neutral and protective conductors are separate throughout the system. The protective earth
conductor (PE) is generally the metal sheath and armour of the underground cable which this
is connected to the consumer’s main earthing terminal. All exposed and extraneous
conductive parts of the installation, including gas pipes, water pipes and any lightning
protective system are connected to the protective conductor via the main earthing terminal of
the installation. The arrangement is shown in the diagram below:

The layout of a typical TN-S domestic service position is shown in the following diagram:
TN-C-S system
The supply cable uses a combined protective earth and neutral conductor (PEN conductor).
At the supply intake point a consumer’s main earthing terminal is formed by connecting the
earthing terminal to the neutral conductor. All exposed and extraneous conductive parts of
the installation, including gas pipes, water pipes and any lightning protective system, are
connected to the main earthing terminal. Line to earth faults are effectively converted into line
to neutral faults, which give a lower value of Ze. This system is frequently referred to as
protective multiple earthing (PME). The arrangement for a TN-C-S is shown in the diagram
below:

The layout of a typical TN-C-S domestic service position is shown in the following diagram:
TT system
Often, TT systems are fed to the installation via overhead cables and the regional electricity
company (REC) do not provide an earth. The installation’s circuit protective conductors must
be connected to earth via an earth electrode provided by the consumer. An effective earth
connection is sometimes difficult to obtain and in most cases a residual current device is
provided when this type of supply is used. The arrangement for a TT is shown in the diagram
below:

The layout of a typical TT domestic service position is shown in the following diagram:

Answer the following questions

 What does TN-C-S stand for?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 What is the maximum ZE for a TN-S system

_______________________________________________________________

 What does M.E.T stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of earthing system has to be protected by an RCD?

_______________________________________________________________

 What does size is the earthing conductor?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of earthing system has the earthing conductor connected to the SWA
of the supplier’s cable?

_______________________________________________________________

 What does size is the main bonding conductor?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of earthing system is also known as a two wire system?

_______________________________________________________________

 What does REC stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

 What type of earthing system has the earthing conductor connected to the
neutral terminal at the service head?

_______________________________________________________________

Equipotential bonding
Learning outcome
The learner will:
23. know requirements of earthing systems.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
4.2 identify component parts of Automatic Disconnection of Supply (ADS)
4.3 identify exposed conductive parts
4.4 identify extraneous conductive parts.

Range
 Component parts: CPC, main protective bonding conductor, supplementary
equipotential bonding conductor, earthing conductor, protective devices, earth electrode.
 Exposed conductive parts: Steel conduit, steel trunking, steel tray, steel enclosures of
wiring systems, metal accessories, metallic equipment.
 Extraneous conductive parts: Metallic service pipes (gas, oil, water), steel duct work,
structural steel.

Equipotential bonding
BS 7671 defines ‘equipotential bonding’ as:
Electrical connection maintaining various exposed-conductive-parts and
extraneous-conductive-parts at substantially the same potential.
When used (as it usually is) for the purpose of safety, it is referred to as ‘protective
equipotential bonding’, which is defined as ‘equipotential bonding for the purpose of
safety’.
BS 7671 further defines ‘exposed-conductive-parts’ as:
Conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which is not
normally live, but which can become live under fault conditions.
This includes:
 steel conduit
 steel trunking
 steel tray
 steel enclosures of wiring systems
 metal accessories
 metallic equipment.
BS 7671 defines ‘extraneous-conductive-parts’ as:
A conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally earth potential,
and not forming part of the electrical installation.
This will include:
 metallic service pipes (gas, oil, water)
 steel duct work
 structural steel.
If all conductive parts within an installation are electrically connected together then they will
be at the same electrical potential. If two separate parts that are at the same potential are
touched simultaneously then the potential difference between them will be 0 volts and no
current will flow. This will apply even if the parts are at, say, 230 volts as a result of a fault.
Since the supply system is earthed, generally at the star point of the supply transformer,
when a fault to the equipotential bonding occurs and its potential rises, then current will flow
to earth and this current will cause the protective device(s) to operate and disconnect the
supply.
These are the principles of equipotential bonding and protective equipotential bonding.

Main protective bonding

BS 7671 Regulation 411.3.1.2 states that, in each installation main protective bonding
conductors complying with Chapter 54 shall connect to the main earthing terminal
extraneous-conductive-parts, including the following:
(i) water installation pipes
(ii) gas installation pipes
(iii) other installation pipework and ducting
(iv) central heating and air conditioning systems
(v) exposed metallic structural parts of the building.
The diagram below shows how this is applied:

Supplementary equipotential bonding

The IET ON-Site Guide (Section 4.6) states that: ‘The purpose of supplementary
equipotential bonding is to reduce the voltage between the various exposed-conductive-parts
and extraneous-conductive-parts of a location during a fault to earth.’
If the required disconnection time cannot be achieved, supplementary bonding shall be
applied (Regulation 411.3.2.6) in accordance with Regulation 415.2.
The sizing of supplementary bonding conductors is dealt with in Regulation 544.2 (1-5).
Table 4.6 of the IET On-Site Guide gives clearer guidance on this.
There are many myths relating to where and when supplementary equipotential bonding
should be used and Section 4.7 of the IET ON-Site Guide dispels some of these myths and
is reproduced in full below.
Supplementary equipotential bonding is required in some of the locations and installations
falling within the scope of Part 7 of BS 7671.
If the installation meets the requirements for BS 7671:2008 (2011) for earthing and bonding,
there is no specific requirement for supplementary equipotential bonding of:
 kitchen pipes, sinks or draining boards
 metallic boiler pipework
 metal furniture in kitchens
 metallic pipes to wash hand basins and WCs
 locations containing a bath or shower, providing the requirements of 701.415.2 are
met.
Note: Metallic waste pipes deemed to be extraneous-conductive-parts must be connected by
main protective bonding conductors to the main earthing terminal; see also 4.3.

Automatic disconnection of supply (ADS)

With all the main and supplementary bonding in place, in the event of a fault to earth
occurring, current will flow to earth and bring about a rapid disconnection of the supply from
the faulty circuit by operation of the protective device. This could be a fuse, circuit breaker or
RCD.
Important component parts relating to the automatic disconnection of supply to be
remembered include:
 CPC
 main protective bonding conductor
 supplementary equipotential bonding conductor
 earthing conductor
 protective devices
 earth electrode.

For further information refer to Section 4 (Earthing and Bonding) of the IET On-Site Guide.
 Answer the following questions using your IET On-site Guide for reference.

 The line conductor tails feeding an installation connected to a TN-S system have
a cross-sectional area of 25mm2.

What is the minimum size earthing conductor that must be used (assuming it is
not buried)?

_______________________________________________________________

What is the minimum size of the main protective bonding conductors that must
be used?

_______________________________________________________________

 The neutral conductor tails feeding an installation connected to a TN-C-S system

have a cross-sectional area of 4mm2.

What is the minimum size earthing conductor that must be used (assuming it is
not buried)?

_______________________________________________________________

What is the minimum size of the main protective bonding conductors that must
be used?

_______________________________________________________________

 Supplementary equipotential bonding is to be installed in a room containing a

bath. This will bond the cpc terminal of a lighting point to the
extraneous-conductive-parts (water pipes, radiator, etc) within the room. The cpc
feeding the lighting point has a cross-sectional area of 1.5mm2. Determine the
size of supplementary bonding conductor if it has mechanical protections.

_______________________________________________________________
Earth loop impedance

Learning outcome
The learner will:
24. know requirements of earthing systems.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
4.5 identify component parts of an earth loop impedance path.

Range
 Component parts: Zs, Ze, R1, R2, main earthing terminal (MET), supplier’s earth return
path.

Earth loop impedance

If a fault of negligible resistance occurs between line and earth then an earth fault current will
flow. The magnitude of current that flows will depend upon the resistance or impedance of
the earth fault path. This fault path is shown below for a TN-S system:

The loop comprises the following parts, starting at the point of the fault:
 circuit protective conductor
 the main earthing terminal (MET) and earthing conductor
 for TN-S systems, the supply earth
 the path through the earthed neutral point of the supply transformer
 the source line winding
 the line conductor from the source to the point of the fault.
The impedance of this fault path, ie the ‘earth fault loop impedance’, is denoted by the
symbol Zs and is measured in ohms (Ω).
The fault path is broken into two parts:
 the external impedance (Ze) comprises combined resistances/impedances of the fault
path on regional supply company’s (REC) side of the supply intake
 the combined resistance of the consumers’ line conductor (R1) and the consumers’
cpc conductor (R2). This combined resistance is referred to as (R1 + R2).
Both of these value combined is the earth loop impedance (Zs) and is measured in ohms (Ω).
The previous diagram showed the earth loop impedance path for a TN-S system; the
following two diagrams show the earth loop impedance path for a TN-C-S system and TT
system, respectively:

TN-C-S system

TT system
 Answer the following questions

 List the typical components that make up the earth loop impedance path.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 Draw a labelled circuit diagram showing the earth loop impedance path for a
TN-C-S system.
Electricity generation
Learning outcome
The learner will:
25. know how electricity is supplied.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
5.1 identify methods of generating electricity for distribution.
.
Range
 Methods: Coal, oil, biomass, wind, wave, hydro, nuclear, photo-voltaic, gas,
micro-generation.

Electricity generation
Electricity is a vital part of our everyday lives in the United Kingdom and, compared with the
rest of the world, we are large consumers. For example, although the UK accounts for less
than 1% of the global population, in 2008 it used 2% of the total electrical energy generated
in the world.
There are many means available to generate electricity, including the following:
 coal
 oil
 biomass
 wind
 wave
 hydro
 nuclear
 photo-voltaic
 gas
 micro-generation.
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. We generally cannot choose where the
electricity that comes from the supply company is generated; this will be a combination of the
methods listed above.
However, we need to be able to give advice to customers who may want to install their own
small-scale generation systems in their premises, such as biomass, wind or photo-voltaic,
which can all fall under the category of micro-generation.

Coal
During the 1940s some 90% of the UK
generating capacity was fired by coal, with oil
providing most of the remainder. By 2004 the
use of coal-fired power stations had dropped to
about 40% of the total generating capacity.
Coal-fired power stations burn coal that heats
water and produces steam which powers
turbines connected to generators.
The biggest problems with the use of coal are:
 it uses non-renewable fossil fuels
  it produces a lot of air pollution
 it requires large quantities of cooling water.

Oil
The use of oil to generate electricity has
dropped considerably and by 2004 had dropped
to just over 1% of the total generating capacity.
Larger oil-fired power stations produce electricity
in a similar manner to coal but instead they burn
oil to heat water that produces steam, which
powers turbines connected to generators.
On a smaller scale, generators can be powered by internal combustion engines (petrol or
diesel) and these are used frequently on-site. Alternatively, some power stations that can be
run-up quickly to meet transient demand are powered by aero gas turbines driving
generators.
The biggest problems with the use of oil are:
 it uses non-renewable fossil fuels
 it produces air pollution
 larger stations require large quantities of cooling water.

Biomass
Biomass is biological material derived from living or
recently living organisms. In the context of biomass
for energy this is often used to mean plant-based
material, but biomass can equally apply to both
animal- and vegetable-derived material.
It usually involves the burning of organic material to
heat water for local hot water supplies (hot water
and central heating) or to produce steam to power
generators.
These can be either small scale ‘micro-generation’
or much larger plants feeding into the National Grid.
It is also possible to produce ‘bio-fuel’ for use in
internal combustion engines to power generators.
Biomass is currently the largest source of
renewable energy in the UK.

Wind
Wind power currently constitutes the second largest source of
renewable energy in the UK with over 5 gigawatts capacity in 2010
and still increasing.
Whilst generating, the turbines produce no pollution. However,
provision must be made for ‘windless’ days when the turbines will
not be generating.
The installation and maintenance costs are quite high and the
turbines will require replacing after 20–25 years.
There are aesthetic implications of land-based wind turbines, with a
large number of the population objecting to them being built near
 their homes.
Individual consumers can supplement their electrical supply by
installing small scale wind generators (C.1-2kW).

Wave
Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface
waves, and the capture of that energy to do useful work,
such as electricity generation, water desalination, or the
pumping of water (into reservoirs). Machinery able to
exploit wave power is generally known as a wave
energy converter (WEC).
Wave-power generation is not currently a widely
employed commercial technology, although there have
been attempts to use it since at least 1890. In 2008, the
first experimental wave farm was opened in Portugal, at
the Aguçadoura Wave Park. The major competitor of
wave power is off-shore wind power.

Hydro
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity
generated by hydropower: the production of
electrical power through the use of the
gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
It is the most widely used form of renewable
energy, accounting for 16% of global electricity
generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity
production in 2010 – and is expected to
increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25
years.
Despite being one of the cheapest forms of renewable energy, it has limited applications in
England and Wales due to the limited locations that are suitable for this type of project.
However, pumped-storage systems have been used, eg Dinorwig, to store energy generated
during off-peak periods, which can be utilised during periods of high electricity demand.
Nuclear
A nuclear power station is a thermal power station in
which the heat source is a nuclear reactor.
As in a conventional thermal power station, the heat
is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine
connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
Nuclear power plants are usually considered to be
base-load stations, since large quantities of energy
generation can be sustained to meet the regular
demand of the nation.
In the UK approximately one sixth of electricity
generation is from 16 operational nuclear reactors.
The biggest problems with the use of nuclear are:
 it uses non-renewable fuels
 radioactive material is highly dangerous
 safe disposal of spent radioactive fuel is very difficult.
 Photo-voltaic
Solar panel electricity systems, also known as
solar photo-voltaics (PV), capture the sun’s
energy using photo-voltaic cells. These cells
don’t need direct sunlight to work – they can still
generate some electricity on a cloudy day.
The cells convert the sunlight into electricity,
which can be used to run household appliances
and lighting.
These are gaining widespread popularity in the UK thanks to incentive schemes for
consumers to have them installed.
Apart from reducing the consumers’ electricity bill by supplementing the electricity supply, the
customer can ‘sell back’ surplus electricity to the electricity supplier via a ‘smart meter’, using
a feed-in tariff.
Whilst the equipment is relatively expensive to install initially, the payback over a number of
years will benefit the consumer. Additionally, as photo-voltaic is another example of a
renewable energy source, the consumer’s carbon footprint is greatly reduced.

Gas
A gas-powered station is a thermal power station in which the heat source is obtained by
burning natural gas.
As in a conventional thermal power station, the heat is used to generate steam that drives a
steam turbine connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
In 1990 only 0.05% of electricity in the UK was produced using gas but this had risen to
39.93% by 2004.
The biggest problems with the use of gas are:
 it uses non-renewable fossil fuels
 it produces air pollution
 larger stations require large quantities of cooling water.
Micro-generation
Micro-generation is the small-scale generation of heat and
electric power by individuals, small businesses and
communities to meet their own needs, as alternatives or
supplements to traditional centralised grid-connected
power.
Although this may be motivated by practical
considerations, such as unreliable grid power or long
distance from the electrical grid, the term is mainly used
currently for environmentally conscious approaches that
aspire to zero or low-carbon footprints.
Examples include:
 solar thermal (hot water)  micro-wind
 ground source heat pump  micro-hydro
 air source heat pump  micro-combined heat and power
 biomass (heat led)
 solar photo-voltaic  rainwater harvesting
 greywater re-use.
 Answer the following questions.

 List three means of generating electricity using fossil fuels.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 List six means of generating electricity using renewable sources.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 Give three problems linked to using nuclear power stations.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 Give the three generally used ways of producing electricity with an example of
each.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Electricity supply

Learning outcome
The learner will:
26. know how electricity is supplied.

Assessment criteria
The learner can:
5.2 identify transmission voltages
5.3 identify distribution voltages
5.4 state the component parts of the electrical distribution network.

Range
 Transmission voltages: 400kV, 275kV, 132kV.
 Distribution voltages: 33KV, 11KV, 400/230V.
 Component parts: Sub-stations, pylons, power stations, cables, insulators,
transformers.

Electricity supply
The electricity supply industry comprises:
 generation
 transmission
 distribution.

Generation
In the UK, power stations are often sited close to the fuel source and other important
resources required for generation, eg a large source of cooling water. Most base-load power
stations produce electricity at around 25,000 volts (25kV).

Transmission
This electricity needs to be transmitted around the country to the load centres. These
transmission lines form the basis of the National Grid. The National Grid is the high-voltage
electric power transmission network in Great Britain, connecting power stations and major
sub-stations, and ensuring that electricity generated anywhere in England, Scotland and
Wales can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere.
By connecting the power stations and load centres in the form of a grid, greater security of
supplies can be ensured. Additionally, during periods of light loading, eg in the summer,
individual power stations can be shut down to enable maintenance operations to be carried
out, whilst maintaining supply to consumers.
Using a step-up transformer, the output from the power station is then stepped up to the
transmission voltage. The reason why transmission is carried out at high voltages is to
reduce the I2R losses across the system.
Three transmission voltages are used:
 400kV
 275kV
  132kV.

The original Grid that came into operation in 1933 operated at 132kV. In 1949, the British
Electricity Authority decided to upgrade the grid by adding 275kV links. From 1965, the Grid
was partly upgraded to 400kV to become the supergrid, defined as referring to those parts of
the British electricity transmission system that are connected at voltages in excess of 200kV.
Most of the grid is formed by overhead
power lines, with cables suspended
from insulators mounted on metal
pylons or – to give them their proper
name – transmission towers.
Normally, there are two off three phase
circuits on each pylon. One or two
earth wires, also called ‘guard’ wires,
are placed on top to intercept lightning
and harmlessly divert it to ground.
The conductors are generally made of
a steel inner core for strength,
surrounded by aluminium conductors
around the outside; the cable has no
insulation applied.

Distribution
When these transmission lines are in the vicinity of the load centres, using a step-down
transformer, the voltage is stepped down for secondary transmission (132kV; 66kV). When
the load centre is reached, it is stepped down again for local distribution at 33kV and 11kV.
Supplies to individual users will see a further step-down to 400V for commercial and
industrial users (heavy industry will be supplied at 33kV or 11kV, depending on demand) and
230V for domestic users.
Three distribution voltages are used:
 33kV
 11kV
 400/230V
Component parts of the electrical distribution network include:
 sub-stations
 pylons
 power stations
 cables
 insulators
 transformers.
See the diagram on the following page for the transmission and distribution supply system.
 Answer the following questions

 List three transmission voltages.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 List three distribution voltages.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 List four component parts of the electrical distribution network.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 What is the normal power station generation voltage

_______________________________________________________________
Micro-renewable energies
Learning outcome
The learner will:
27. know requirements for different types of micro-renewable energies.
Assessment criteria
The learner can:
6.1 describe types of micro-renewable energies
6.2 identify requirements for installation of micro-renewable energies
6.3 identify advantages and disadvantages of micro-renewable energies.
Range
 Micro-renewable energies: Solar thermal (hot water), ground source heat pump, air
source heat pump, biomass, solar photo-voltaic, micro-wind, micro-hydro, micro-
combined heat and power (heat led), rainwater harvesting, greywater re-use.
 Requirements: Legal, regulatory, building location, building fabric.

Micro-renewable energies
So far we have discussed large-scale electricity generation. However, there are many means
of generating electricity and energy conservation for individual consumers. This is referred to
as micro-generation or micro-renewable energies.
Most of these are relatively new technologies and it is important to determine the specific
requirements for each one. These requirements include:
 legal
 regulatory
 building location
 building fabric.

Solar thermal (hot water)

Solar thermal (hot water) is a renewable energy
system for generating domestic hot water by using
solar panels (known as ‘collectors’) fitted at an optimal
angle on a south-facing roof or other suitable surface.
Solar heat warms fluid, usually anti-freeze, in the
collectors and this is then pumped to heat water
stored in a hot water cylinder.
A boiler or immersion heater tops up the water to the temperature set by the cylinder’s
thermostat (>60°C).
In England, Wales and Scotland, planning permission is not needed for most home solar
water heating systems, as long as they are below a certain size, but you should check with
your local planning officer, especially if the premise is a listed building, or in a conservation
area or World Heritage Site.
Here are the benefits of solar thermal.
 It should work all year round during the day but consumers will probably need to heat
the water further in winter months, using a boiler or immersion heater.
 It can save on fuel bills.
 It should be eligible for renewable heat incentives.
 It can cost a lot less to install than other micro-generation technologies.
 It does not cost more than £5,000.
 Ground source heat pump (GSHP)
Ground source heat pumps use pipes which are
buried in the garden to extract heat from the
ground. This heat can then be used to heat
radiators and underfloor or warm air heating
systems and hot water in your home.
A ground source heat pump circulates a mixture
of water and anti-freeze around a loop of pipe –
called a ground loop – which is buried in the
garden.
Heat from the ground is absorbed into the fluid
and then passes through a heat exchanger into
the heat pump.
The ground stays at a fairly constant temperature under the surface, so the heat pump can
be used throughout the year – even in the middle of winter.
The length of the ground loop depends on the size of the premises and the amount of heat
needed. Longer loops can draw more heat from the ground but need more space to be
buried in. If space is limited, a vertical borehole can be drilled instead.
In England, Scotland and Wales, domestic ground source heat pumps are generally allowed
as Permitted Developments but check with your local authority to find out whether you need
planning permission or not.
In Northern Ireland you must consult with your local authority regarding planning permission
for ground source heat pumps.
Here are the benefits of GSHP.
 It could lower fuel bills, especially if replacing conventional electric heating.
 It could provide an income through the government’s Renewable Heat Incentive
(RHI).
 It could lower the premises’ carbon emissions, depending on which fuel is being
replaced.
 It doesn’t need fuel deliveries.
 It can heat the premises and provide hot water.
 It needs little maintenance – they are called ‘fit and forget’ technology.

Air source heat pump (ASHP)

Air source heat pumps absorb heat from the
outside air. This heat can then be used to heat
radiators, underfloor heating systems or warm air
convectors and hot water in the home.
An air source heat pump extracts heat from the
outside air in the same way that a fridge extracts
heat from inside itself. It can get heat from the air
even when the temperature is as low as –15° C.
Heat pumps have some impact on the
environment, as they need electricity to run, but
the heat they extract from the ground, air or water
is constantly being renewed naturally.
Air source heat pump installations in Wales and Northern Ireland require planning
permission.
In England and Scotland they may be considered Permitted Developments, in which case
planning permission is not required, but the criteria are complex so it is always a good idea to
check with your local planning office.
Here are the benefits of ASHP.
 It could lower fuel bills, especially if replacing conventional electric heating.
 It could provide an income through the government’s Renewable Heat Incentive
(RHI).
 It could lower the premises’ carbon emissions, depending on which fuel is being
replaced.
 It doesn’t need fuel deliveries.
 It can heat the home and provide hot water.
 It needs little maintenance – they are called ‘fit and forget’ technology.
 It can be easier to install than a ground source heat pump, though efficiencies may be
lower.
Unlike gas and oil boilers, heat pumps deliver heat at lower temperatures over much longer
periods. During the winter it generally needs to be on constantly to heat the home efficiently.
The radiators won’t feel as hot to the touch as they might do when using a gas or oil boiler.

Wood-fuelled heating
Wood-fuelled heating systems – also called
biomass systems – burn wood pellets, chips or
logs to provide warmth in a single room or to
power central heating and hot water boilers.
A stove burns logs or pellets to heat a single
room and may be fitted with a back boiler to
provide water heating as well.
A boiler burns logs, pellets or chips and is
connected to a central heating and hot water
system. A wood-fuelled boiler could save nearly
£600 a year compared to electric heating.
Here are the benefits of wood-fuelled heating.
 Affordable heating fuel: although the price of wood fuel varies considerably, it is
often cheaper than other heating options.
 Financial support: wood-fuelled boiler systems could benefit from the Renewable
Heat Premium Payment and the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI).
 A low-carbon option: the carbon dioxide emitted when wood is burned is the same
amount that was absorbed over the months and years during which the plant was
growing. The process is sustainable, as long as new plants continue to grow in place
of those used for fuel. There are some carbon emissions caused by the cultivation,
manufacture and transportation of the fuel but, as long as the fuel is sourced locally,
these are much lower than the emissions from fossil fuels.
A flue which meets the regulations for wood-burning appliances will be needed: a new
insulated stainless steel flue pipe or an existing chimney – although chimneys normally need
lining to make them safe and legal.
You may not need planning permission, but you should always check. All new wood heating
systems have to comply with building regulations.
 Photo-voltaic (PV)
These are gaining widespread popularity in
the UK with incentive schemes for
consumers to have them installed.
Solar panel electricity systems – also known
as solar photo-voltaics (PV) – capture the
sun’s energy using photo-voltaic cells. These
cells don’t need direct sunlight to work – they
can still generate some electricity on a
cloudy day.
The cells convert the sunlight into electricity,
which can be used to run household
appliances and lighting.
Apart from reducing the consumer’s electricity bill by supplementing the electricity supply, the
customer can ‘sell back’ surplus electricity to the electricity supplier via a ‘smart meter’ using
a feed-in tariff.
Whilst the equipment is relatively expensive to install initially, the payback over a number of
years will benefit the consumer. Additionally, as photo-voltaic is another example of
renewable energy source, the consumer’s carbon footprint is greatly reduced.
In England, Wales and Scotland, planning permission is not required for most home photo-
voltaic systems – as long as they are below a certain size – but you should check with your
local planning officer, especially if the premises are a listed building, or in a conservation
area or World Heritage Site.
Here are the benefits of photo-voltaic.
 Sunlight is free so, after the initial installation, electricity costs will be reduced.
 The government’s feed-in tariffs pay the consumer for electricity generated, even if
they use it.
 If the system is producing more electricity than needed by the consumer, or when
they can’t use it, the surplus can be sold back to the Grid.
 You will cut your carbon footprint. Solar electricity is green, renewable energy and
doesn’t release any harmful carbon dioxide or other pollutants. A typical home solar
PV system could save over a tonne of carbon dioxide per year – that’s more than
30 tonnes over its lifetime.
 Micro-wind
Wind turbines harness the power of the wind
and use it to generate electricity.
The UK is an ideal country for domestic turbines
(known as ‘micro-wind’ or ‘small-wind’ turbines),
as 40% of all the wind energy in Europe blows
over it.
A typical system in an exposed site could easily
generate more power than your lights and
electrical appliances use.

Wind turbines use large blades to catch the wind. When the wind blows, the blades are
forced round, driving a turbine which generates electricity. The stronger the wind, the more
electricity produced.
There are two types of domestic-sized wind turbine.
 Pole mounted: these are free-standing and are erected in a suitably exposed position,
Often these are around 5kW to 6kW in size.
 Building mounted: these are smaller than mast mounted systems and can be installed
on the roof of a home where there is a suitable wind resource. Often these are around
1kW to 2kW in size.
Wind turbines are eligible for the UK government’s feed-in-tariffs, which means that the
consumer can earn money from the electricity generated by the turbine. Payments can also
be received for the electricity not used by the consumer and exported to the local grid.
In order to be eligible, the installer and wind turbine product must be certified under the
Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS).
If the turbine is not connected to the local electricity grid (known as off grid), unused
electricity can be stored in a battery for use when there is no wind. NB: the feed-in tariffs
scheme is not available in Northern Ireland.
Planning permission is required to install a wind turbine in Wales or Northern Ireland; contact
your local authority for details.
In England and Scotland, a domestic wind turbine may be classified as Permitted
Development, in which case planning permission will not be needed. However, the criteria
are complex – and very different in England and Scotland – so we recommend that you
contact your local planning office at an early stage to check whether planning is required.
For building-mounted turbines, the criteria include:
 the house is detached
 the top of the turbine blades is no more than three metres above the top of the house,
or 15 metres above the ground
 all of the turbine is at least five metres from the edge of the householder’s property.
For pole-mounted turbines, the criteria include:
 the top of the turbine is no more than 11.1 metres above ground
 all of the turbine is at least 1.1 times the height of the turbine away from the edge of
the householder’s property.
And for both types of turbine:
 there is no other wind turbine and no air source heat pump on the site
 the bottom of the blades is at least five metres above ground
 the turbine’s swept area is no more than 3.8m2
 the site is not on land safeguarded for aviation or defence purpose.
 Micro-hydro
Running water can be used to
generate electricity, whether it’s a
small stream or a larger river.
Small or micro-hydroelectricity
systems – also called hydropower
systems or just hydro systems – can
produce enough electricity for lighting
and electrical appliances in an
average home.
All streams and rivers flow downhill. Before the water flows down the hill, it has potential
energy because of its height. Hydropower systems convert this potential energy into kinetic
energy in a turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity. The greater the height
and the more water there is flowing through the turbine, the more electricity can be
generated.
The amount of electricity that a system actually generates also depends on how efficiently it
converts the power of the moving water into electrical power.
Here are the benefits of micro-hydro.
 A hydro system can generate 24 hours a day, often generating all the electricity the
consumer needs and more.
 If eligible, the consumer will get payments from the feed-in tariff for all the electricity
generated, as well as for any surplus electricity sold back to the Grid.
 A hydro system may generate more electricity than needed for lighting the home and
powering the electrical appliances – so the excess electricity can be used to heat the
home and hot water too.
 Installing a hydro system can be expensive but in many cases it’s less than the cost
of getting a connection to the National Grid if the premises do not already have one.
 Hydroelectricity is green, renewable energy and doesn’t release any harmful carbon
dioxide or other pollutants.
Hydropower is very site specific. Most homes will not have access to a suitable resource
even if they have a water course running nearby. Assessing a hydro site properly is a job for
a professional.
In order to be suitable for electricity generation, a river needs to have a combination of:
 flow – how much water is flowing down the river per second, and
 head – a difference in height over a reasonably short distance.
Developing a hydroelectric system can take a long time, mainly because of the need to
obtain planning permission and an abstraction licence, and because of the number of
organisations that may need to be involved in giving consent.
All new hydroelectric systems require planning permission and an abstraction licence.
Micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP)
This technology generates heat and electricity
simultaneously, from the same energy source,
in individual homes or buildings. The main
output of a micro-CHP system is heat, with
some electricity generation, at a typical ratio of
about 6:1 for domestic appliances.
A typical domestic system will generate up to
1kW of electricity once warmed up; the amount
of electricity generated over a year depends on
how long the system is able to run. Any
electricity you generate and don’t use can be
sold back to the Grid.
Domestic micro-CHP systems are currently powered by mains gas or LPG; in the future
there may be models powered by oil or bio-liquids. Although gas and LPG are fossil fuels
rather than renewable energy sources, the technology is still considered to be a ‘low carbon
technology’ because it can be more efficient than just burning a fossil fuel for heat and
getting electricity from the National Grid.
Micro-CHP systems are similar in size and shape to ordinary, domestic boilers and like them
can be wall-hung or floor standing. The only difference to a standard boiler is that they are
able to generate electricity while they are heating water.
Here are the benefits of micro-CHP.
 When the micro-CHP is generating heat, the unit will also generate electricity to be
used in the home (or exported).
 By generating electricity on-site, the consumer could be saving carbon dioxide
compared with using Grid electricity and a standard heating boiler.
 Micro-CHP is eligible for feed-in tariffs. Please note that the feed-in tariff is not
available in Northern Ireland. 
 For the householder, there is very little difference between a micro-CHP installation
and a standard boiler. If the consumer already has a conventional boiler then a micro-
CHP unit should be able to replace it, as it’s roughly the same size. However, the
installer must be approved under the Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS).
 Servicing costs and maintenance are estimated to be similar to those of a standard
boiler, although a specialist will be required.

Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a practice of growing importance in the UK, particularly in the
South-east of England where there is less water available per person than in many
Mediterranean countries.
Rainwater harvesting in the UK is both a traditional and reviving technique for collecting
water for domestic uses. This water is generally used for non-hygienic purposes, such as
watering gardens, flushing toilets and washing clothes.
There is a growing demand for larger tank systems collecting between 1,000–7,500 litres of
water. The two main uses for harvested rainwater are botanical uses (in gardening for plant
irrigation) and domestic uses (flushing toilets and running washing machines).
Rainwater is almost always collected strictly from the roof and then heavily filtered by using
either a filter attached to the down pipe, a fine basket filter or, for more expensive systems
like self-cleaning ones, filters placed in an underground tank.
The velodrome of the London Olympic Park is designed to harvest rainwater.
 Greywater re-use
Greywater, or sullage, is wastewater
generated from domestic activities, such
as laundry, dishwashing and bathing,
which can be recycled on-site for uses
such as landscape irrigation and
constructed wetlands.
Greywater differs from water from the
toilets, which is designated sewage or
blackwater to indicate that it contains
human waste.
Most greywater is easier to treat and
recycle than blackwater, because of lower
levels of contaminants.
If collected using a separate plumbing
system from blackwater, domestic
greywater can be recycled directly within
the home, garden or company and used
either immediately or processed and
stored.
If stored, it must be used within a very short time or it will begin to putrefy, due to the organic
solids in the water.
Recycled greywater of this kind is never safe to drink, but a number of stages of filtration and
microbial digestion can be used to provide water for washing or flushing toilets.
 Answer the following questions

 List four requirements that must be taken into consideration when planning to
install a micro-renewable system.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 Is planning permission required to install a micro-hydro system?

_______________________________________________________________

 What licence is required for a micro-hydro system?

_______________________________________________________________

 List four benefits of a micro photo-voltaic system.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

 List five requirements for a building-mounted wind turbine.

______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Sample questions
There are 40 multiple choice questions. Answer them all, selecting the correct answer
out of the four provided.
1. Which one of the following directly affects all persons working with
electricity in a working environment?
a) Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations
b) BS 7671
c) Electricity at Work Regulations
d) Construction design and management Regulations

2. Which one of the following are non-statutory regulations?

a) Electricity at Work Regulation
b) Manual Handling Regulation
c) BS 7671
d) Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations

3. Which one of the following is a direct implication of not complying with

statutory regulations?
a) Loss of earnings
b) Lost clients
c) Dismissal
d) Prosecution

4. The document showing the location of electrical equipment in an electrical

installation is a:
a) specification
b) drawing
c) variation order
d) Gannt chart

5. Which one of the following diagram types does not show individual
conductors or cables but shows the sequence of equipment?
a) Block
b) Circuit
c) Schematic
d) Bar chart

6. The symbol shown represents:

a) one-way switch
b) two-way switch
c) intermediate switch
d) pull switch

7. Which one of the following is the correct drawing scale where a wall, 4m in
length, measures 8cm on a drawing?
a) 1:50
b) 1:100
c) 1:200
d) 1:500
8. A drawing is produced to a scale of 1:50 showing a socket outlet installed
3.5cm from the corner of a room. Which one of the following is the actual
distance from the corner in the room?
a) 0.875m
b) 1.75m
c) 3.5m
d) 7m

9. A circuit installed to supply a fire panel would be identified as:

a) power and heating
b) data communication
c) control circuit
d) alarm and emergency system

10. The type of trunking that can be used as a circuit protective conductor is:
a) mini
b) PVC dado
c) steel
d) plastic

11. The insulation material of mineral insulated metal sheathed cables is

absorbent; therefore the terminations must be:
a) watertight
b) correctly identified
c) fitted with a gland
d) fitted with a shroud

12. Additional cable supports should be provided in trunking where:

a) segregation is required
b) there are long vertical runs
c) trunking is made of plastic
d) the walls are made of lightweight block

13. Band I and Band II circuits can be enclosed in the same enclosure,
provided that:
a) the current rating of all circuits does not exceed 10A
b) they are twisted around each other along the trunking length
c) every cable or conductor is insulated for the highest voltage
present
d) there are the same number of Band I and Band II circuits

14. Which one of the following is the type of conduit

fixing shown?
a) Cleat
b) Clip
c) Crampet
d) Saddle

15. Which one of the following symbols represents the rating factor for thermal
insulation?
a) Ci
b) Ca
c) Cf
d) Cg
16. Which one of the following is the value of voltage drop, per ampere, per
metre, for a 10mm2 multi-core flat thermoplastic 70°C cable, intended to
supply a single-phase circuit?
a) 44 mV/A/m
b) 11 mV/A/m
c) 4.4 mV/A/m
d) 2.8 mV/A/m

17. Which one of the following is the maximum current carrying capacity for a
single-core 6mm2 70°C thermoplastic insulated non-armoured cable,
enclosed in conduit on a wall installed for a single-phase circuit?
a) 31A
b) 32A
c) 36A
d) 41A

18. Which one of the following is the value of voltage drop, in millivolts per
ampere per metre, for a 4mm2 multi-core thermosetting non-armoured
cable, intended to supply a single-phase circuit?
a) 29 mV/A/m
b) 18 mV/A/m
c) 11 mV/A/m
d) 7.3 mV/A/m

19. Which one of the following devices is suitable for an installation supplying
an X-ray machine in a hospital?
a) BS 3036 rewireable fuse
b) BS EN 60898 Type D
c) BS EN 60898 Type C
d) BS EN 60898 Type B

20. Which one of the following devices will disconnect in the fastest time if a
short circuit current of approximately 400A occurred on a circuit?
a) 32A/30mA Type C RCBO
b) 32A Type B circuit breaker
c) 32A Type C circuit breaker
d) 32A Type D circuit breaker

21. Which one of the following is the minimum conduit size suitable for a short
straight run containing the following stranded cables:
 4 x 1.5mm2
 3 x 2.5mm2?
a) 16mm
b) 20mm
c) 25mm
d) 32mm
22. Which one of the following is the minimum conduit size suitable for a short
straight run containing the following stranded cables:
 8 x 1.5mm2
 2 x 2.5mm2
 2 x 4.0mm2?
a) 16mm
b) 20mm
c) 25mm
d) 32mm

23. Which one of the following is the conduit capacity factor to be used where
a 25mm conduit has 2 bend in a 6m run?
a) 111
b) 182
c) 333
d) 600

24. The electrical system in which the connection to earth is by an earth

electrode is:
a) TT
b) TN-S
c) TN-C
d) TN-C-S

25. Which one of the following earthing

arrangements is shown in the diagram?
a) TN-C-S
b) TT
c) TN-C
d) TN-S

26. Which one of the following is the correct name of the component which
links the main earthing terminal of an installation to the means of
earthing?
a) Main protective bonding conductor
b) Supplementary equipotential bond
c) Earthing conductor
d) Functional earth

27. What is represented by Zs in the following formula:

Zs=Ze+(R1+R2)?
a) Total earth fault loop impedance
b) External earth fault loop impedance
c) Final circuit earth fault loop impedance
d) Combined resistance of the earth path

28. Which one of the following defines the term ‘main protective bonding
conductor’?
a) the conductor which links the MET to an earth electrode
b) the conductor which links the MET to extraneous conductive parts
c) the conductor which links the MET to exposed conductive parts
d) the conductor which links the MET to the means of earthing
29. Which one of the following is the purpose of the main protective bonding
conductor?
a) To raise extraneous conductive parts to the same voltage as the
supply under overload
b) To raise extraneous conductive parts to the same voltage as the
supply under earth fault conditions
c) To raise extraneous conductive parts to the same voltage as the
supply under normal conditions
d) To raise extraneous conductive parts to the same voltage as the
supply under transient fault conditions

30. Which one of the following is an exposed conductive part?

a) Metal-clad switch
b) Structural steelwork
c) Air conditioning ducting
d) Metallic oil service pipe

31. Which one of the following is metal cable trunking?

a) Earthed conductive part
b) Extraneous conductive part
c) Insulated part
d) Exposed conductive part

32. Which one of the following is an extraneous conductive part?

a) Metallic gas service pipe
b) Metal-clad twin socket outlet
c) Heavy duty steel conduit
d) PVC mini-trunking

33. Which one of the following methods of generating electricity uses fossil
fuels?
a) Wave power
b) Solar
c) Gas
d) Wind

34. Which one of the following uses sunlight to generate electricity?

a) Photo-voltaic
b) Biomass
c) Wind
d) Air source heat pump

35. Which one of the following is a transmission voltage?

a) 400kV
b) 33kV
c) 11kV
d) 400V

36. Which one of the following is a typical distribution voltage for a medium-
sized factory where a private sub-station is located?
a) 230V
b) 400V
c) 5kV
d) 11kV
37. In which of the following parts of the electrical distribution network would a
step-down transformer be located?
a) Power station
b) Pylon
c) Local distribution sub-station
d) Inverter

38. Which one of the following describes the process of a solar photo-voltaic
system?
a) Solar power is used to ignite a biomass which heats up water
b) Solar power is collected by a solar panel which provides
electricity
c) Solar power is collected by a solar panel which provides hot
water
d) Solar power causes hot air to rise, rotating a generator that
produces electricity

39. Which one of the following is a suitable use for rainwater harvesting?
a) Baths/showers
b) Toilet flushing
c) Drinking water
d) Cooking water

40. Which one of the following micro-generation systems requires the least
maintenance once installed?
a) Micro-combined heat and power
b) Air source heat pump
c) Biomass
d) Solar thermal
NOTES