THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA

MINISTRY OF WORKS AND TRANSPORT

ROAD AND BRIDGE WORKS

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

Volume 2: Drainage Design

January 2010
Drainage Design Manual

PREAMBLE
This Road Design Manual Volume II: Drainage Design is one of a series of Engineering Specifications,
Standards, Manuals and Guidelines issued by Ministry of Works and Transport. The Manual is part of
the revised Road Design Manual, November 1994.
The Parts of the Road Design Manual include:

a) Road Design Manual: Vol. I Geometric Design;

b) Road Design Manual: Vol. II Drainage Design;
c) Road Design Manual: Vol. III Pavement Design; and
d) Road Design Manual: Vol. IV Bridge Design.
The Manual gives guidance and recommendations to the Engineers responsible for the design of
roads in Uganda. It complements the Ministry’s efforts in providing guidance to the construction
industry by setting uniform standards to be used in the construction of infrastructure facilities that
meet the needs of the users.
It provides guidance for the planning and design of storm drainage systems which collect, convey,
and discharge storm water flowing within and along a road. It guides professionals in the planning
and design procedures by discussing the various options followed in design. A number of illustrative
examples are presented in the Manual to assist the user is in determining the appropriate steps to be
followed in design of the different storm water drainage components. However, this does not exclude
the extra effort to be applied by the users of this manual to make full-fledged studies and designs
as the options available to the designer are largely dependent upon the types of water courses
encountered which, in turn, are functions of the local conditions.
The Manual is divided into ten sections. The basic principles and concepts for both the hydrologic
and hydraulic planning and design are dealt with in Section 1. System design is looked into in
Section 2 while design flood considerations are covered under Section 3. Estimation of design
flow for un-gauged catchments is covered under Section 4. Section 5 covers the unit hydrograph
method. Frequency analysis of gauged data is addressed in the sixth Section while procedures for
the planning and design of detention facilities are covered in section 7. The pavement drainage is
presented in Section 8. Hydraulics of culverts, channel hydraulics and scour protection are treated in
Section 9 and Section 10 covers the hydraulic design of bridges.
Further, this Manual is a technical document, which, by its very nature, requires periodic updating
from time to time arising from the dynamic technological developments and changes. The Ministry,
therefore, welcomes proposals on areas for further development and revision stemming from the
actual field experience and practice. It is hoped that the comments will contribute to future revisions
of the Manual expected to lead to better and more economical designs.

Ministry of Works and Transport

P.O. Box 10
Entebbe
January 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

1.1 Road Drainage Needs and Requirements..............................................................................1
1.2 Principles and Concepts.........................................................................................................1
1.3 Economics of Storm Drainage................................................................................................2
1.3.1 Cost Considerations................................................................................................2

SECTION 2: STORM WATER SYSTEM DESIGN..............................................................................4

2.1 Steps in Planning of Storm Water Management Studies.......................................................4
2.1.1 General ................................................................................................................4
2.1.2 Preparing Concept Plans.........................................................................................4
2.1.3 System Planning and Design...................................................................................5
2.1.4 Review of System Plan and Design.........................................................................7
2.1.5 Re-Evaluation..........................................................................................................7
2.1.6 Final Design Detailing..............................................................................................7
2.1.7 Implementation........................................................................................................7
2.1.8 Plan Components....................................................................................................8

SECTION 3: DESIGN FLOW CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................9
3.1.1 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)..........................................................................9
3.1.2 Exceedence Probability...........................................................................................9
3.2 Design Flows ..............................................................................................................10
3.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................10
3.2.2 Minor and Major Drainage Systems......................................................................11
3.3.3 Selection of Design Average Recurrence Interval.................................................11
3.2.4 Environmental Impact............................................................................................12

SECTION 4: ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOW FOR UNGAGED CATCHMENTS

4.1 General ..............................................................................................................14

4.2 Design Flow ..............................................................................................................14
4.2.1 Time of Concentration............................................................................................14
4.3 Design Rainfall Intensity.......................................................................................................21
4.3.1 Areal Reduction Factor..........................................................................................25
4.3.2 Rainfall Excess......................................................................................................25

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4.3.3 Runoff Coefficient Rational Method.......................................................................26

4.3.4 Modified Rational Method (storage coefficient).....................................................28
4.3.5 Time Area Method..................................................................................................29
4.3.6 Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff............................................................31
4.4 Estimation of Runoff.............................................................................................................32
4.4.1 General .............................................................................................................32
4.4.2 Rational Method.....................................................................................................33
4.4.3 Modified Rational Method......................................................................................35
4.4.4 SCS Rainfall Runoff Relation.................................................................................36
4.4.4.1 Limitations of the SCS Runoff Curve Number Method (SCS, 1986)....................................40
4.4.5 Design of Drainage in Built up Areras....................................................................40
4.5 Local Flood Observation Flood History................................................................................41

SECTION 5: UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD

5.1 General ..............................................................................................................42
5.2 SCS Unit Hydrograph Method..............................................................................................42
5.2.1 SCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph..................................................................412
5.2.2 Peak Discharge of the Unit Hydrograph................................................................43
5.2.3 Convolution............................................................................................................45
5.3 TRRL East African Flood Model...........................................................................................49
5.3.1 Form of Model........................................................................................................49
5.3.2 Initial Retention (Y)................................................................................................50
5.3.3 Contributing Area Coefficient (CA).........................................................................50
5.3.4 Catchment lag Time (K).........................................................................................51
5.3.5 Base Time..............................................................................................................51

SECTION 6: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF GAUGED DATA

6.1 General ..............................................................................................................54
6.2 Analysis of Annual and Partial-Duration Series....................................................................54
6.3 Frequency Analysis Concepts..............................................................................................55
6.3.1 Plotting Position Formulas.....................................................................................55
6.3.2 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution..........................................................................55
6.3.3 Outliers ..............................................................................................................60
6.6.4 Incomplete Records and Zero Flows.....................................................................61

SECTION 7: DESIGN AND USE OF DETENTION BASIN

7.1 General ..............................................................................................................64
7.2 Retention Facilities ..............................................................................................................64

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7.3 Detention Facilities ..............................................................................................................64

7.4 Storage Location and Size...................................................................................................65
7.4.1 Location ..............................................................................................................65
7.4.2 Size ..............................................................................................................65
7.5 Triangular Hydrograph Method.............................................................................................65
7.6 Stage Discharge Relationship..............................................................................................67
7.7 Estimating Peak Flow Reduction (Routing Procedure)........................................................67
7.8 Muskingum-Cunge Flood Routing Method...........................................................................68

SECTION 8: PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

8.1 General ..............................................................................................................72

8.2 Design Frequency and Spread.............................................................................................72
8.2.1 Selection of Design Frequency and Design Spread..............................................72
8.2.2 Selection of Check Storm and Spread...................................................................73
8.3 Surface Drainage ..............................................................................................................74
8.3.1 Hydroplaning..........................................................................................................74
8.3.2 Longitudinal Slope.................................................................................................74
8.3.3 Cross (transverse) Slope.......................................................................................75
8.3.4 Kerb and Gutter.....................................................................................................75
8.4 Flow in Gutters ..............................................................................................................77
8.4.1 Capacity Relationship............................................................................................77
8.4.2 Relative Flow Capacities.......................................................................................79
8.4.3 Bridge Decks.........................................................................................................80
8.5 Inlets .............................................................................................................80
8.5.1 Grate Inlets............................................................................................................81
8.5.2 Slotted Inlets..........................................................................................................81
8.5.3 Kerb-opening.........................................................................................................81
8.5.4 Combination Inlets.................................................................................................81
8.6 Drainage Inlet Design...........................................................................................................81
8.6.1 Kerb-Opening Inlets...............................................................................................81
8.7 Subsurface Drainage............................................................................................................84
8.7.1 General .............................................................................................................84
8.7.2 Ground Water........................................................................................................84
8.7.3 Subsurface Drain Types........................................................................................84
8.7.4 Design Criteria.......................................................................................................84
8.7.5 Materials 8.15......................................................................................................85

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SECTION 9: DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC CULVERTS

9.1 General ..............................................................................................................86

9.1.1 Rural Road Drainage.............................................................................................86
9.1.2 Urban Road Drainage............................................................................................86
9.2 Culvert Type and Class........................................................................................................87
9.2.1 Culvert Types.........................................................................................................87
9.2.2 Culvert Loading......................................................................................................87
9.3 Headwater-Depth Relationship.............................................................................................87
9.4 Inlet and Outlet Control.........................................................................................................88
9.4.1 Inlet Control...........................................................................................................88
9.4.2 Outlet Control.........................................................................................................89
9.5 Hydraulic Design Procedures...............................................................................................93
9.5.1 Design Procedure According to AASHTO..............................................................93
9.5.2 Approximate Procedures.....................................................................................100
9.6 Freeboard Requirements....................................................................................................104
9.7 Limitations on Outlet Velocity.............................................................................................104
9.8 Culvert Alignment ..........................................................................................................104
Culvert Gradients ...........................................................................................................105
9.9.1 Minimum Gradients............................................................................................. 105
9.9.2 Steep Gradients.................................................................................................. 105
9.10 Minimum Size of Culvert.................................................................................................... 105
9.11 End Structure ...........................................................................................................105
9.12 Types of End Structures.................................................................................................... 106
9.13 Flare Angle of Wing walls.................................................................................................. 106
9.14 Effects of Scour ...........................................................................................................106
9.14.1 Effects on Culverts.............................................................................................. 106
9.14.2 Effects at Bridge Sites........................................................................................ 106
9.15 Protection of Culverts Against Scour................................................................................. 107
9.16 Topographic Survey Requirements................................................................................... 107

SECTION 10: HYDRAULIC DESIGN ASPECTS OF BRIDGES

10.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................108

10.2 Design Principles ...........................................................................................................108
10.3 Design Criteria ...........................................................................................................108
10.3.1 General Criteria...................................................................................................108

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10.3.2 Specific Criteria................................................................................................... 109

10.4 Investigation and Design Procedure...................................................................................112
10.4.1 Physical Survey...................................................................................................112
10.4.2 Design Procedure Outline....................................................................................112
10.4.3 Hydraulic Performance of Bridges..................................................................... .114
10.4.4 The Region of Influence.......................................................................................114
10.5 Bridge Scour and Aggradations..........................................................................................115
10.5.1 Scour Types.........................................................................................................116
10.5.2 Plan Form Changes.............................................................................................116
10.5.3 Contraction..........................................................................................................117
10.5.4 Local Scour..........................................................................................................117
10.6 Natural Armoring ............................................................................................................117
10.7 Naturally Occurring Scour Resistant Materials...................................................................117
10.8 Methods of Computation of Extent of Scour.......................................................................117
10.8.1 Live-Bed Contraction Scour.................................................................................118
10.8.2 Clear water Contraction Scour.............................................................................119
10.8.3 Local Scour at Pier..............................................................................................119
10.9 Required Data for Scour Assessment................................................................................120
10.9.1 Bed Material.........................................................................................................120
10.9.2 Geometry . ..........................................................................................................120
10.9.3 Hydrology . ..........................................................................................................120
10.9.4 Geomorphology...................................................................................................120
10.10 River Training and Stabilization..........................................................................................120
10.10.1 Guide Banks........................................................................................................121
10.10.2 Spurs . ..........................................................................................................122
10.10.3 Rock Protection...................................................................................................122

APPENDIX
List of Appendices (Section 4)

Appendix 4.1 Example on Development of IDF Equations/Curves for a “Demonstration Rainfall

Station”
Appendix 4.2 Design Table for Network of Drainage Lines
Appendix 4.3 Two Years 24 hours Rainfall (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 623)

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Appendix 4.4 Ten Year to Two year Ratio

Appendix 4.5 Flood Factors
List of Appendices (Section 5)
Appendix 5.1 Rainfall Time (TP) Zones (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)

List of Appendices (Section 6)

Appendix 6.1 Frequency Factor (K) for the Log-Pearson Type III Distribution (Source: HDS 2)
Appendix 6.2 Outliers Test Deviates (KN) at 10 Percent Significance Level (Source: Bulletin 17B,
Referred in HDS 2)

List of Appendices (Section 8)

Appendix 8.1 A Nomogram to Compute flow in Triangular Gutter Sections
Appendix 8.2 A Nomogram to Compute Curb Opening Drain Inlet Length for Total Interception
Appendix 8.3 A Nomogram to Compute Curb Opening Inlet Interception Efficiency

List of Appendices (Section 9)

Appendix 9.1 Different Shapes of Culverts
Appendix 9.2 Submerged, unsubmerged and transition zones
Appendix 9.3 Nomograph for the calculation of headwater depth (concrete pipe culverts)
Appendix 9.4 Nomograph for the calculation of headwater depth (C.M. pipe culverts)
Appendix 9.5 Nomograph for the determination of headwater depth (box culverts)
Appendix 9.6 Entrance Loss Coefficients (Outlet Control, Full or partially Full)
Appendix 9.7 Recommended Manning’s n values for pipes
Appendix 9.8 Flow-chart summarizing the calculation procedure for design of culverts
Appendix 9.9 Form for entering data for culvert design
Appendix 9.10 Critical Depth for Circular Pipe
Appendix 9.11 Critical Depth for Rectangular Sections
Appendix 9.12 Head losses for concrete pipe culvert
Appendix 9.13 Head losses for C.M. pipe culvert
Appendix 9.14 Head losses for concrete box culverts
Appendix 9.15 Type A End Walls
Appendix 9.16 Type B End Walls
Appendix 9.17 Type A Inlets
Appendix 9.18 Curb Drop Inlet
Appendix 9.19 Capacity for Concrete Pipe Culverts for Approximate Estimate
Appendix 9.20 Capacity of Box Culverts for Different Slopes for Approximate Estimate
Appendix 9.21 Capacity of Slab Culverts for Approximate Estimate

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List of Appendices (Section 10)

Appendix 10.1 Bridge Hydraulics Definition Sketch
Appendix 10.2 Bridge Flow Types
Appendix 10.3 Cross-section Locations for Stream Crossing with a Single Waterway
Opening
Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure for Stage-Discharge Relationship at a Bridge Site
Appendix 10.5 Normal Crossing: Spillthrough Abutments
Appendix 10.6 Guide Bank Details
Appendix 10.7 Nomograph for determining length of guide bank
Appendix 10.8 Rock Slope Protection
Appendix 10.9 Approximate Length of Embankment Protected by Spurs
REFERENCE

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SECTION 1

1.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

1.1 Road Drainage Needs and Requirements

Traffic and structural safeties of roadways and their surroundings are intimately related to
surface and subsurface drainage. Rapid collection of stormwater from the pavement minimizes
the conditions that can result in the hazardous phenomenon of hydroplaning. The strength of
substructures and hence the service period of roads is highly influenced by intrusion of water.
In these regards, provision of well-planned and designed storm water management facilities is
a basic requirement in almost all road projects.
On the other hand, the high share of cost that the hydraulic and drainage structures associated
with road works may account (up to 20 per cent of the total cost of the road work) in Uganda
signifies the attention to be given to drainage studies and designs.
In light of the aforementioned points, this portion of the manual covers the principles and
guidelines to be adopted in the hydrological analysis of a storm water management in
general and road drainage design in particular including rainfall, and methods of design flow
determination.
1.2 Principles and Concepts
The principles and design considerations in the current approaches to stormwater management
involve a variety of basic concepts the major ones of which are highlighted below.
Stormwater is a component of the total water resources of an area and should not be
casually discarded but rather, where feasible, should be used to replenish that resource.
In many instances, stormwater problems signal either misuse of a resource or unwise land
occupancy.
There should, therefore, be an increasing awareness for reiteration of approaches to basin-
wide management. Traditional drainage concepts of the past, allow upstream development to
increase runoff. As a consequence, downstream development relying on new concepts might
be unable to accommodate, without significant additional cost, the upstream excess runoff. For
design rainfall frequencies (up to 10 years), the peak runoff should not be significantly different
after development of an area than it would be if such development had not taken place.
Improvement of the effectiveness of natural systems rather than replacing, downgrading or
ignoring them is an objective of current engineering design. In this regards, the basic principles
followed in the design of road drainage includes the following:
a) In areas, where soil and physical conditions permit, the road shall be drained directly
into the road reserve.
b) Where natural watercourse and drainage channels exists the road reserve shall be
drained directly into them.
c) Where conditions necessitate drainage beyond the reserve, additional land shall be
acquired for the necessary drainage channels, but this should be the exception rather
than the rule.
Two principal systems for handling surface water runoff are recognized. The one on which
engineering planning, design and operations have been almost wholly concentrated (the “Minor
System”, equally called the “Convenience System”) and the larger major storm drainage system
which includes all the natural and man-made drainage facilities in an entire watershed.
The “Minor System” is the scheme of curbs, gutters, inlets, pipes or other conveyances, swales,
and appurtenant facilities all designed to minimize nuisance, inconvenience and hazard to
persons and property from storm runoffs which occur at relatively frequent intervals. Currently

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more detailed attention is also being given to the planning and design of the supplementary
aspects of the overall “major system” which carry the excess flow over and above the hydraulic
capacity of the various components of the minor system.
The increased use of storage to balance out handling or treatment of peak flows; use of land
treatment systems for handling and “disposal” of stormwater; and perhaps most important,
a recognition of detention at various points in a system, are potential design solutions rather
than problems in many situations.
Another basic reality is that every site or situation presents a unique array of physical resources,
land use conditions and environmental values. Variations of such factors generally require
variation in planning of approaches and standards for optimal achievement of stormwater
management objectives.
Since many communities and urban areas use less than a 10 years frequency value for their
storm drainage facilities, coordination of the highway drainage with that of the local urban area
is a primary factor requiring very careful consideration. Location studies of a highway through
a built up area require close attention to how the proposed highway’s drainage requirements
can be satisfactorily coordinated with those of the community. Necessarily, both horizontal and
vertical location of the proposed highway improvements are of great significance since most
major city streets are likely to have existing storm sewers and underground utilities.
1.3 Economics of Storm Drainage
Various types of drainage facility area employed to protect the road against damage by surface
and subsurface water. Drainage facilities must be designed as simply as possible to convey
the storm water along or away from the road in the most economic, efficient and practical
manner with out damaging the road or adjacent properties.
The economics of storm drainage is concerned principally with the costs associated with proper
handling of runoffs of various frequencies versus the associated inconveniences or damages.
The higher the design return period, the larger are the design capacities of the storm drainage
facilities which lead to larger first cost.
It has generally been impractical to develop a realistic evaluation of damages associated
with each of several alternative stormwater systems and its cost. This is because stormwater
damages related to rainfall events of known frequency of recurrence are difficult to measure
and evaluate; and the collection of suitable data is costly. Usually such studies are not made
for all types of storm drainage projects. Judgment based upon performance experience in
similar developed areas is generally the basis for selecting a design frequency.
The relative hazards to persons, property and traffic associated with each of the runoffs
related to rainfalls of several selected frequencies should be used in storm drainage design.
Mitigation of drainage-related damages or losses is theoretically balanced as a benefit against
the associated drainage costs. In practice, judgment has largely been relied upon to choose
the design rainfall frequency.
Recent storm drainage cost studies (taking principally the construction cost) show that
irrespective of the degree of development (per cent of imperviousness), there was a rapid
increase in the cost per hectare of storm drainage facilities for the 10 years average recurrence
interval as compared to a slow increase in unit cost between the 10 to 100 years average
recurrence intervals.
1.3.1 Cost Considerations
The design cost objectives are to minimize the total annual cost of the stormwater drainage
facilities (capital costs, maintenance and operating costs, etc.). An associated objective is
the reduction in average annual costs of damages by overflow or other aspects associated
with lack of capacity in the system. Where overflows are evidences of incapacity of the storm
system, investment to reduce the frequency of such overflows is more likely to be justified.

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The basic factors making up the total costs of a drainage system are:
i. Capital costs;
ii. Right-of-way or land acquisition costs;
iii. Construction costs;
iv. Traffic delays;
v. Maintenance;
vi. Operation and administration;
Existing serviceable facilities including natural drainage swales, ditches, creeks, detention
areas, etc. should be used wherever possible to reduce initial costs. For highways in urban
areas, keeping the drainage facilities underground is of great help in minimizing the cost of
land.
An overall consideration of optimum design of stormwater collection, storage and treatment
facilities indicates that at least a balance should be struck among the capital costs, operation
and maintenance costs, public convenience, environmental enhancement and other design
objectives. Such an optimum balance is dynamic, changing over time with changing physical
conditions and value perceptions.

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SECTION 2
2.0 STORM WATER SYSTEM DESIGN
2.1 Steps in Planning of Storm Water Management Studies
2.1.1 General
A storm water management plan is prepared to consider what storm water management
practices and measures are to be provided for large public works project, an urban estate
and other developments. These plans will have a local focus responsive to specific functions
(drainage provision, open space provision, etc.). They prescribe individual area management
techniques and practices. If a storm water strategy plan is available for a catchment, each
local area storm water management plan will be required to accommodate the principles and
directions identified in the broader strategic plan.
Ideally, a storm water management plan should be prepared for a local area prior to implementing
structural and non-structural management measures identified in the strategy plan for the
catchment. That is, detailed planning should precede the design, construction, and operation
phases of a development project.
2.1.2 Preparing Concept Plans
The following tasks should be carried out for the preparation of a storm water management
plan.
Step 1: Establishing Objectives and Standards - Objectives and standards should be established
to guide the planning process. These may be obtained from the strategy plan for the
catchment (if available). The objectives and standards should provide the basis for and
give direction to the planning process and should be used to determine the expected
outputs of the recommended plan.
Step 2: Data Collection - Data collected for the planning process provides the factual basis
for the plan and allows an appreciation of past and an understanding of present
conditions within the catchment. The extent of data collection would be the reflection
of the objective/s and standard/s set. The data collected for the development of the
strategy plan for the catchment should be used if available. This data may need to be
supplemented with additional data necessary to further define the characteristics of the
area under investigation.
2.1: Base Map - The base map should identify the watershed areas and sub areas, land
use and cover types, soil types, existing drainage patterns, and other topographic
features. This base information is then supplemented with underground utility
locations (and elevations if available), a preliminary roadway plan and profile,
and locations of existing and proposed structures.
2.2: Hydro meteorological Data - Hydro meteorological data gives information mainly on
the rainfall, and for gauged areas, the runoff.
Step 3: Analysing Existing Conditions - The main purposes of this phase is to use the data and
information collected under the data collection phase to understand the present state of
storm water management related conditions in the catchment.
The water quantity and/or quality characteristics for the existing catchment conditions
must be determined.
For existing developments, models are required to:
• determine the capacity of existing major and minor conveyance systems;
• determine the location and extent of any flooding under major and minor system;
• determine the pollutant loads for existing land uses within the catchment; and,
• determine the performance of any existing water quality control structures.

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For proposed developments, models are required to:

• determine natural flows within the catchment which may be used as flow limits for
development proposals; and,
• determine natural pollutant loadings within the catchment which may be used as
pollutant load limits for development proposals.
Step 4: Formulating Alternatives - Formulation of alternatives is the most important part
of the storm water management planning process because the substance of the
recommended plan originates from this step. Formulation of alternatives is creative and
systematic effort where alternatives are conceptualised, screened, and if promising,
further developed and consolidated. The essential conceptual, technical, economic,
environmental, financial, legal, administrative, political, and other features of each
alternative should be examined before finalization. In formulating alternative proposals,
the water quantity and quality characteristics must be determined.
Step 5: Comparing Alternatives and Selecting the most Viable One/s - Having formulated a set
of possible alternative solutions for managing storm water, the alternatives should be
compared. The essential features of each alternative such as size, costs, benefits, and
positive and negative attributes should be compared in summary form for presentation
to decision-makers and the community when required. Alternatives should be compared
on the basis of how well they achieve the established objectives.
As the positive and negative features of each alternative are considered and compared
with features of other alternatives, the possibility of hybrid alternatives may arise.
Hybrid alternatives might achieve a technically improved solution or might be a means
of obtaining support among decision-makers.
Step 6: Preliminary Concept Development - Layout and design of a storm drainage system
begins with the development of sketches identifying the basic components of the
intended design. This section provides an overview of the concepts involved in the
development of a preliminary concept plan.
Concept plan is usually done on a base map that shows the roadway, location of bridge
points; land use and land cover conditions of the catchment. Other utility locations and
situations should also be identified and shown, including surface and underground ones
and any other storm drain systems.
Storm drain alignment within the road right-of-way is usually influenced, if not dictated,
by the location of other utilities. These other utilities, which may be public or private,
may cause interference with the alignment or elevation of the proposed storm drain.
Generally, a storm drain should be kept as close to the surface as minimum to minimize
excavation costs. Another location control is the demand of traffic and the need to
provide for traffic flow during construction including the possible use of detours.
2.1.3 System Planning and Design
For this chosen mode of study through the aforementioned steps, system planning and
design is the next phase to go into. Planning and design of an integrated urban storm water
management development requires data base on the following area:
• boundary and natural drainage directions of a catchment and sub catchments;
• runoff outlet or “disposal” points;
• locations where flows, flood levels, and water quality are to be assessed; and,
• the layout (network) of surface channels which convey runoff.
System planning and design is to follow the following procedure.
i. Catchment definition and descritization:- Catchment definition and descritization is
generally based on drainage patterns, surface slopes and land use patterns. It is usually
preferable if sub-catchments are chosen in such a way that they have homogenous
physical characteristics.

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a) Defining flow paths

Identify watershed from base maps. Classify existing and future developments in accordance
with their effect on hydrology, hydraulics and storm water quality. Identify locations of
discharge points along with their capacity and downstream effects.
b) Formulating conceptual alternatives
The storm water drainage system is to be developed in conjunction with overall
development plans.
ii. Flow estimation and check:- Flow estimation could be done by establishing a hydrologic
model by using design rainfall data and the estimation of hydrologic parameters such as
runoff coefficient.
iii. Initial assessment of minor systems:- Existing drainage alignments, clearly defined
channels or suitable swales should normally be set aside as major drainage lines.
Starting from extreme upstream of the catchment, an initial assessment calculation is
carried out.
iv. Checking flows in the Major system:- After the initial minor system is developed, flows
in the major design system is checked.
v. Preliminary design:- Using the initial analyses, preliminary design is made for the major
and minor systems. Consideration is also to be given to alternatives which may result in
a more economic design.
In the investigation of an individual scheme, the full range of design alternatives should
be considered to determine the best alternative.
Each alternative in the preliminary design involves:
a) Defining alignments and grades for storm water drainage channels. Factors that will
influence alignment and grades include utility lines, embankments, buildings, etc. Other
factors that influence channel grade include existing slope, erodiblity, available right-of-
way and channel lining. Open drains (covered as required) or engineered waterways will
be required when pipe sizes become so large as to become uneconomical. In existing
built up urban areas, the available land for open drain may be insufficient in which case
larger pipe diameters, multiple pipes or box culverts will be required.
The major system should use open space reserves to convey surface flows and
land for this purpose is to be set aside as perpetual reserve. In the upper most area of
a drainage catchment, major drainage ways may not consist of readily distinguishable
channels. The designer should determine the path that the major system design runoff
event will consider.
b) Locating and sizing inlets with possibility of pipe inlets for open drains in mind.
c) Computation of water surface profile and energy grade line based on storm water
drainage system alignment, grades and inflows so that the alignments and grades are
adjusted to comply with freeboard criteria.
d) Evaluating how topography must be adjusted to ensure that the flows are conveyed
safely down gradient without threatening lives, safety or property.
e) Evaluating behaviour of detention facilities during the major system design condition and
assuring that detention dams, which could pose a threat to human safety or property if
they fail, are designed to handle extreme flows.
f) Evaluating culverts and bridges to assure that applicable criteria are not violated and the
size and characteristics of conveyances are adjusted till the level of backwater during
the major system design runoff event meets target levels. The backwater computation
is also used to define the area affected by backwater flooding during the major events
and to effect the necessary measures.

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2.1.4 Review of System Plan and Design

• Prepare preliminary level capital and operation/maintenance cost for the alternatives. If
feasible and appropriate, use life cycle cost theory for economic evaluation. The design
cost objective should be to minimize the total annual costs of the drainage facilities and
flood-related damage/s.
• Evaluate the alternatives with important qualitative criteria such as preservation of open
space, water quality benefits.
• Prepare a preliminary design report that contrasts the alternatives quantitatively and
qualitatively in a form suitable for submission to the regulators.
2.1.5 Re-Evaluation
The preliminary drainage network developed in previous sections and adjusted, as a result
of review, should be re-evaluated. This involves repeating the preliminary calculation for the
adopted design to verify that it meets the designed targets.
Hydrologic assumptions, catchment boundaries, sub-catchment delineation, street classification,
pollutant load estimates, assumed removal efficiencies and many other preliminary design
values that will be used subsequently in final design should be reviewed for accuracy and
applicability to final design.
2.1.6 Final Design Detailing
The following steps will complete the process.
a) Obtain final street grades, geometry, elevations, etc..
Often it will be necessary to revise street construction details to facilitate drainage. This
may include adjusting cross fall on streets, rising required ground elevation at buildings
adjacent to streets to accommodate major drainage, or increasing street gradient to
achieve sufficient capacity within the street. It is important to assure that floor elevations
of buildings are well above streets crown elevations to prevent repeated flooding.
b) Hydraulic Design of the Open Channels and Pipe Drainage Systems
A realistic Manning roughness value for final design should be determined and applied,
treating the conduits as either open channels or pipes flowing full, as appropriate. For
open channel flow, the energy grade line should be used.
For pipe storm water drains, the hydraulic grade lines must be reviewed for various
runoff conditions to ensure that the hydraulic grade line is consistent with desired system
performance.
2.1.7 Implementation
i. Preparing Plan Implementation Program: - The questions of when the plan elements
are to be implemented, who has the primary responsibility for implementing them, and
how the implementation is to be carried out should be addressed. The number of
implementers can vary widely depending on the size and complexity of the storm water
management plan.
The elements of the recommended plan should be prioritised and scheduled. The
following factors may be used to set the prioritisation.
• The operation of certain components of the storm water management system
may be dependent on the existence of other components.
• Higher priority should be given to those elements of the recommended plan that
are likely to provide the greatest benefit in relation to the stated objectives.
• Some elements may not be implemented if action is not taken immediately
or at some other appropriate time to capitalise on special circumstances or
opportunities.

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Drainage Design Manual Section 2

Special opportunities that could have a bearing on the implementation of a plan, such
as possible sources of financing, should be identified. Other aspects of implementation
programme include clear identification of desired endorsements, agreements, and
required approvals and permits
ii. Plan Implementation - Of all the steps in the planning process, plan implementation is the
most unpredictable. The extent to which a comprehensive storm water management
plan is accepted and the enthusiasm with which the public and private sectors will push
for its implementation will depend, among others, on the following factors:
• the credibility of the plan as determined by the quality of the technical work and
the thoroughness of the community involvement carried out during the planning
process; and,
• the frequency and severity of storm water-related problems and the level of
concern that past problems will occur again.
The ultimate test of a storm water management plan is the degree to which
storm water problems have been mitigated and the degree to which potential
storm water problems have been prevented from occurring.
2.1.8 Plan Components
Storm water management plans should consist of two major components: a technical report,
and supporting plans.
i. Technical Report - This report should provide a comprehensive analysis of existing and
proposed storm water quantity and quality conditions for the catchment. The report
should provide narrative descriptions of existing conditions and how the proposed
system will meet objectives of the plan, and contain all necessary technical data for
both existing and proposed conditions.
ii. Supporting Plans - A conceptual or preliminary plan of the proposed storm water
conveyance, runoff quantity control, and water quality control systems, based upon
accurate field topographic mapping should be provided along with sufficient details to
identify systems elements. Plans should be of adequate scale and detail for accurate
definition and location of all system elements.

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Drainage Design Manual Section 3

SECTION 3
3.0 DESIGN FLOW CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 Introduction
Design of a drainage system involves determination of flow magnitudes which every line in
the system is to be designed for. Hydrologic considerations determine the flow magnitudes or
flow hydrographs, as the case may be, at each point in the drainage system. The resulting flow
hydrographs are then routed downstream according to hydraulic principles.
Design flow is determined based on the statistical (frequency) analysis on historic records of
flow for gauged sites or rainfall and the associated hydrologic parameters for un-gauged sites.
Generally, the longer the length of data, the more reliable the estimation of design flow will
be.
3.1.1 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)
As all magnitudes of flow have some chance of occurrence, the design flow is decided by
attaching an average recurrence interval. Average recurrence interval is defined as the average
interval in years between the occurrence of a flow of specified magnitude or larger flow. It is the
long term average of the intervals between successive exceedences of a flow magnitude.
The word “average” is the important part of the definition of recurrence interval. As hydrological
events are generally random in their occurrences, it can not be inferred that a flow of particular
average recurrence interval is equaled or exceeded at regular interval. This important point is
also to be explained to decision makers and to the public at large who are affected by them.
3.1.2 Exceedence Probability
Exceedence probability is the probability that an event of a given average recurrence interval
will be equaled or exceeded during a given period of time. Consideration of the probability of
exceedence during a given span of time, particularly the design life of a structure can be used
as an aid in the selection of the level of serviceability to be provided.
Equation 3.1 is used to compute the probability that at least one event which equals or exceeds
the -yr event will occur in any series of years

Equation 3.1 is used to compute the probability J that at least one event which equals
or exceeds the t p -yr event will occur in any series of N years

J  1  (1  P ) N Eqn. 3.1
Where: 1
P
tp

The probability that an event of a given recurrence interval will be equaled or exceeded
during periods of various lengths is depicted in Table 3.1

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Drainage Design
Design Manual
Manual Section
Section 3 3

Table 3.1 : Probability That An Event of a Given Recurrence Interval will be Equaled or
Exceeded during Periods of Various Lengths (Computed Employing Eqn. 3.1)

Period, yr 1 5 10 25 50 100 200 500

tp, yr Probability of being equaled or exceeded

1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1

2 0.5 0.97 0.999 * * * * *
5 0.2 0.67 0.89 0.996 * * * *
10 0.1 0.41 0.65 0.93 0.995 * * *
50 0.02 0.1 0.18 0.40 0.64 0.87 0.98 *
100 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.22 0.4 0.63 0.87 0.993
200 0.005 0.02 0.05 0.12 0.22 0.39 0.63 0.92

*In this case the probability can never be 1, but for practical purposes its value may be
taken as unity

3.2
3.2 Design
DesignFlows
Flows
3.2.1 General
3.2.1 General
Design flow is defined as discharge that may be expected from the sever combination
of meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably considered to reflect
Design flow is defined as discharge that may be expected from the sever combination
characteristics of the area involved, excluding extremely rare combinations.
of meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably considered to reflect
Adequate stormofwater
characteristics drainage
the area system
involved, or adequate
excluding extremelywaterway is a system or a waterway
rare combinations.
which has the hydraulic characteristics to accommodate the maximum expected flow (design
Adequate
flow) of stormstorm
waterwater
for a drainage systemorora portion/s
given watershed adequatethereof.
waterway is a system
Adequate system/s:or a
waterway which has the hydraulic characteristics to accommodate the maximum
1) should
expected flowbe designed
(design flow)toof
account for both
storm water foroff-site
a givenand on-site storm
watershed water, including
or a portion/s thereof.storm
water coming
Adequate system/s: into a given tract of land from upstream;
2) should discharge the flow in to natural drainage line or other appropriate outlets; and
1) should be designed to account for both off-site and on-site storm water, including
3) should carry water to a point where it should flow downstream into a stream channel or
storm water coming into a given tract of land from upstream;
water way.
2) should discharge the flow in to natural drainage line or other appropriate outlets;
Designandflood standards are influenced by many factors including:
3) should
• safety;carry water to a point where it should flow downstream into a stream
channel or water way.
• the level of hydraulic performance required;
Design• flood
environmental impact;
standards are influenced by many factors including:
• construction and operation costs;

safety;
• maintenance requirements;
 the level of hydraulic performance required;
• serviceability; and,
 environmental impact;
 construction
• Legal andandstatutory requirements.
operation costs;
The
 maintenance requirements; average recurrence intervals adopted. These measures
standards are expressed by
determine the magnitude
 serviceability; and, of a design rainfall or runoff event with which the system can cope.
Past practice has often been based on one level of operation. But it is usually appropriate to
 Legal
design and statutory
for several requirements.
performance levels which include:
• A maintenance
The standards requirement
are expressed by (frequent
average event), related
recurrence to a short
intervals design
adopted. average
These
recurrence interval;
measures determine the magnitude of a design rainfall or runoff event with which the
systemAcan
• cope. Past
convenience orpractice
nuisancehas often been
reduction based on (infrequent
requirement one level ofevent),
operation.
one But it isyears
to five
usuallyofappropriate to design for several
average recurrence interval; performance levels which include:

 A maintenance requirement (frequent event), related to a short design average

10 recurrence interval;
Ministry of Works and Transport
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Drainage Design Manual Section 3

• A flood damage prevention requirement (sever or rare event), 50 to 100 years of average
recurrence interval; and,
• A disaster management requirement (extreme event), related to extreme events such
as probable maximum floods.
The first two are relevant to minor drains, and all but the second to major drains discussed
under 3.3.2.
Assigning an average recurrence interval takes into account the level of safety (standard)
required. The required level of safety in turn depends upon potential losses to occur following
the probable failure (both structural and serviceability) of an element of a drainage system or
a combination thereof. Generally, the longer the average recurrence interval, the higher the
magnitude of flow will be and the safer the level of protection.
3.2.2 Minor and Major Drainage Systems
a. Minor Drainage System (span < 6.0 meters)
The minor system, sometimes referred to as the “Convenience” system, consists of the
components that have been historically considered as part of the “storm drainage system”.
These components include curbs, gutters, ditches, inlets, access holes, pipes and other
conduits, open channels, pumps, detention basins, water quality control facilities, etc.
The minor drainage systems are part of the total drainage system which are intended to collect
the maximum run off from the initial storm and convey runoff from frequent storm events such
that nuisance is minimised, while the major systems are intended to safely convey runoff not
collected by the minor drainage system to receiving waters.
b. Major Drainage System (span > 6.0 meters)
The major system provides overland relief for storm water flows exceeding the capacity of the
minor system. This usually occurs during more infrequent storm events. The major system is
composed of pathways that are provided for the runoff to flow to natural or manmade receiving
channels such as streams, creeks, or rivers.
The major system typically consists of a network of overland flow paths including roads, natural
channels and streams, engineered waterways, culverts, and detention basins which ultimately
discharge into receiving waters.
3.2.3 Selection of Design Average Recurrence Interval
The selection of design average recurrence interval values must be made by the designer
in relation to the cost of a facility, amount of traffic and expected level of service; potential
flood hazard to property; the magnitude and risk associated with damages from larger flood
events; and conditions for practical detour during probable failure. In selecting a design
frequency, all potential upstream land use for the anticipated life of the drainage facility must
be considered.
Review of existing drainage system should be carried out using the same general sequence
as planning and design of new drainage projects. The first step will take into account the
existing (constructed) drainage system. It is often found that older existing systems are lacking
considerations of the major system flows. Minor system is normally designed to carry runoff
from up to 10 year frequency storm events. Major systems are designed for floods of average
recurrence intervals 25, 50, and 100-year.
The design frequency value depends on particular site and catchment conditions. This being
the case, the values rendered in Table 3.2 which is based on geometric design criteria could
be used for initial planning, design and analysis.

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Table 3.2: Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Flood/Storm (Yrs) by Geometric Design
Criteria (Source: ERA Drainage Design Manual, 2002)

Geometric Design Standard

Structure Type
PIa, PIb PIII Gravel A PIII, Gravel B Gravel C
Gutters and Inlets* 10/5 2 2 -
Side Ditches 10 10 5 5
Ford/Low-Water Bridge - - - 5
Culvert, pipe (see Note) 25 10 5 5
Span < 2m
Culvert, 2m < span < 6m 50 25 10 10
Short Span Bridges 50 50 25 25
6m < span < 15m
Medium Span Bridges 100 50 50 50
15m < span < 50m
Long Span Bridges 100 100 100 100
spans > 50m
Check/Review Flood 200 200 100 100
PIa = Paved Ia
PIb = Paved Ib
PII = Paved II
PIII = Paved III

Note 1: Span in the above table is the total clear-opening length of a structure. For
example, the span for a double 1.2-meter diameter pipe is 2.4 meters, and
the design storm frequency is therefore “culvert, 2m < span < 6m.” Similarly
a double box culvert having two 4.5-meter barrels should use the applicable
design storm frequency for a short span bridge and a bridge having two 10-
meter spans is a medium span bridge.

All bridges and major culverts shall be checked for performance under a storm event less
frequent than the design storm event shown in the table as the Check/Review Flood. All other
drainage structures shall be checked for the storm having the next lower frequency than the
design storm event. For example, minor culverts designed for a 10-year storm shall be checked
for adequate performance with a 25-year interval storm event.
3.2.4 Environmental Impact
a. Physical
There is no published information available on the average recurrence interval of the flow
that should be used for assessing and minimizing possible environmental damage. Each site
should be investigated for possible environmental impact that might occur with a range of flow
events, with emphasis on the more frequent ones. The following factors need be considered
when assessing any potential environmental damage.
• Selection of suitable site;
• Provision of adequate opening to limit backwater effects and excessive localized bed
scour;
• Protection of banks from erosion that comes as a result of redirection of flow, turbulence
or excessive increase in velocity;
• Protection of natural vegetation, especially where it protects or stabilizes; and,
• Control of road side drainage where it enters streams, to limit bank erosion.
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b. Water Quality
When runoff flows, it collects pollutant loads. The variation of pollutants with time results in
pollutant-load graphs. The pollutant-load graphs are then routed downstream according to
hydraulic principles. Water quality may then be improved by natural process or introduction
of treatment devices. Because of the interaction between hydrology, hydraulics, and water
quality, all aspects need to be considered in an integrated manner.

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Drainage Design Manual Section 4

SECTION 4
4.0 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOW FOR UNGAGED CATCHMENTS
4.1 General
A major objective in storm water management is to see that excess water flow is controlled so
as to minimize nuisance and hardship to traffic, residents and damage to properties and the
environment. This could be achieved by:
• minimizing the overflowing of drainage lines;
• containing the rivers in their channels for their possible exploitation;
• introducing methods to reduce the amount of surface runoff in general the peak discharge
in particular; and,
• providing proper drainage system and outfalls.
The degree of protection is highly dependant on the magnitude of the design flow. The method
to be used to estimate the design flood depends upon the type and quality of data. For gauged
sites, flood frequency analysis may be employed to determine the design flow. For this a
reasonably long record of annual maximum flows may suffice. If the coverage of flow data
is short, it may be complemented with results of regional flood frequency analysis. Design
discharges for un-gauged sites could either be estimated by transforming, discharges from
gauge sites or by using models that synthesize storm data in to discharge magnitude.
4.2 Design Flow
The process of design flow estimation for a watershed from rainfall data generally involves the
following main steps.
1. Determination of time of concentration
2. Design rainfall estimation
3. Estimation of rainfall excess
4. Estimation of runoff
4.2.1 Time of Concentration
For any particular locality and return period there is statistical relationship between storm
duration and intensity. Analysis of storms through the world indicates that the storm intensity
could be predicted with reasonable accuracy with an equation of the form:
a
i Eqn. 4.1
(b  t d ) c

Where: a , b , and c are constants that depend on regional characteristics

and average recurrence interval and

t d is duration of storm.
For a given return period and locality, the intensity solely depends on the rainfall duration, td ,
as the rest of the parameters are constants. Maximum peak runoff for any return period occurs
if the storm last as long as it takes to reach equilibrium condition. A longer duration storm will be
of lesser intensity and shorter duration storm will not reach equilibrium. The duration of rainfall
that gives maximum peak runoff for a given watershed is termed as time of concentration.
It is defined as the time required by a drop of water to travel from the hydraulically remotest
point to the point of interest. A drop of rain within a catchment joins different modes of flow
with different travel speeds and hence with different travel times. The significant ones are
discussed here under.

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a) Overland (sheet) Flow Time

There are many empirical and semi-empirical methods that are in frequent application to
estimate the time of concentration. Table 4.1 gives a number of them. The user of the manual
is to choose the appropriate one/s for the case/s under consideration taking in to account
the physical characteristics, hydro meteorological conditions and the dominant parameters of
each formula.
All the relationships in the Table except Kinematics and HEC 22, sheet flow time consider that
each point in the catchment has a unique travel time irrespective of the rainfall. The gradual
increase in depth of overland flow time at any point on the watershed suggests that the time
of concentration is also a function of excess rate of precipitation. The aforementioned three
formulae account for these factors. They also accounts for catchment slope and roughness.
Based on the required accuracy and data availability, the appropriate formula may be adopted.
In many cases of overland flow, it is assumed that energy line is parallel to the bed of the
terrain.
b) Shallow Concentrated Flow
After a maximum of 100 meters, sheet flow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow.
Average velocity of shallow concentrated flow is a function of watercourse, slope and type of
surface (channel). For surface of slope less than 0.5 per cent, equations 4.2 and 4.3 may be
used to get velocities to estimate travel time for shallow concentrated flow.

For unpaved surfaces, V  16.13( s) 0.5 Eqn. 4.2

For paved surfaces, V  20.33(s ) 0.5 Eqn.4.3

Where: V = average velocity (m/s)

s = Slope of hydraulic grade line (m/m)
Open channels are assumed to begin where surveyed cross section information has
been obtained, where channels are visible on aerial photographs or where lines indicating
concentrated flow appear on topographic maps. Manning’s equation may also be used to
estimate the average flow velocity and hence the channel travel time.
After determining the travel times for the different modes of flow for different alternative routes,
the travel time are summed up and the route with higher value is selected (without disregarding
investigating the partial area effect).
c) Flow over Varying Surfaces and Terrain Characteristics
Where the characteristics of surfaces of a sub-catchment are different in terms of land use and
land cover or surface slope, the sub-catchment should be split in to these surfaces and the
calculated travel times for each surfaces are to be combined.
While determining the time of concentration, the other point that needs serious attention is
terrain configuration of the watershed. As both overland and channel flows are highly dependent
on the slope, computation of time of concentration should not aggregate the watershed
based on the slope. The watershed is to be examined for sharp fall. Whenever a sharp fall
is encountered, care must be taken not to consider the concentrated elevation difference as
distributed. Such consideration shortens the time of concentration, inflates the design intensity
and hence the design discharge.

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Table 4.1: Formulae for Estimation of Time of Concentration

(Source: HDS2, HEC and others)

No. Name Formula for Tc Def. of Symbols Recommendation

N = Manning's roughness Tc is dependent on the

Kinematics
58 N 0 .6
L 0 .9
L = Length of catchment (km) intensity and hence shall be
1 Tc= determined by iteration. Tc
(overland sheet ie
0 .4
H 0 .3 H =elevation difference (m)
is in hrs.
flow) ie=net rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

Air Port Tc= C = Rational coefficient Applicable for built up areas.

2 (overland sheet 3 . 64 (1 .1  C ) L0 .83 L = flow path (km) Tc is in hrs.
flow) H 0 .33 H = elevation difference (m)
Recommended with SCS
SCS L = flow path (km) method of discharge
Tc= (
0.87 L3 0.385
3 (overland sheet ) H = elevation difference (m) computation.
flow) H Tc is in hrs.

L (flow path) < 0.4km Recommended where r

r = 0.02 smooth pavement values for the surfaces
(bare packed soil) encountered are available.
Kerby rL1.5 0.467 Tc is in hrs.
0.3 (poor grass of rough
4 (overland sheet Tc= 3.03( 0.5 ) bare)
flow) H
0.4 (average grass)
0.8 (dense grass, timber)
H = elevation difference (m)
Bransby- L= Length of catchment (km) Recommended for the case
0.96 L0.2
Williams Tc= H= elevation difference (m) where it is difficult to
5 H 0.2 A 0.1 2
(overland sheet A = area of catchment (km ) characteristics hydraulic
flow) conditions surfaces
L =overland sheet flow path Recommended for surfaces
(m) with known Manning's
n =Manning's roughness value roughness coefficient and
Friend 107 nL0.333 for the surface good topographic map to
6 (overland sheet Tc= S = surface slope (%) estimate the slope. It is
flow) S 0.2 recommended to use before
flow starts to concentrate
into gully flows. Tc is in
minute
Tt = travel time (min) Good for periphery areas
Velocity L
Tt  and after concentrated
Method 60V L = flow length (m)
(gully) flow starts. Tc is in
7 (HDS2) V = velocity (m/s) minute
(concentrated 0.5 k = see Table 4-2
flow)
V  kS p
S = slope (%)
Tti = sheet flow travel time Recommended before flow
Sheet Flow starts to concentrate in to
(min)
Travel Time gully flows. Tc is in minute
0.6 n = roughness coefficient (see
(HEC 22) 6.943  nL 
8 Tti  0.4   Table 4-3)
(overland sheet i  S i = mm/hr
flow)
L = flow length (m)
S = surface slope (m/m)

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Table 4-2: Intercept Coefficients for Velocity vs. Slope Relationship of (Source: HDS 2)

k Land cover / flow regime

0.076 Forest with heavy ground litter; hay meadow (overland flow)

0.152 Trash fallow or minimum tillage cultivation; contour or strip cropped; woodland
(overland flow)

0.213 Short grass pasture (overland flow)

0.274 Cultivated straight row (overland flow)

0.305 Nearly bare and untilled (overland flow)

0.457 Grassed waterway (shallow concentrated flow)

0.491 Unpaved (shallow concentrated flow)

0.619 Paved area (shallow concentrated flow); small upland gullies

Table 4-3: Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) for Overland Sheet Flow
(Source HEC 22)

Surface Description n
Smooth asphalt 0.011
Smooth concrete 0.012
Ordinary concrete lining 0.013
Good wood 0.014
Brick with cement mortar 0.014
Vitrified clay 0.015
Cast iron 0.015
Corrugated metal pipe 0.024
Cement rubble surface 0.024
Fallow (no residue) 0.05
Cultivated soils

Residue cover < 20% 0.06

Residue cover > 20% 0.17

Range (natural) 0.13

Grass

Short grass prairie 0.15

Dense grasses 0.24

Bermuda grass 0.41

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Surface Description n
Woods*

Light underbrush 0.40

Dense underbrush 0.80

* When selecting n, consider cover to a height of about 30 mm. This is only part of
the plant cover that will obstruct sheet flow.

d) Open Channel and Pipe Flow Time

The time storm water takes to flow in open ditch and closed conduit could be estimated by
dividing the length of channel or closed conduit by the velocity of flow. The average flow in
open channels and closed conduits could be estimated employing Manning’s equation.
e) Standard Time of Concentration for Small Catchments
Although travel time for individual elements of a system may be very short, the total nominal
flow travel time to be adopted for all individual elements within any catchment to its point of
entry into the storm water drainage network shall not less than 5 minutes. For small catchments
up to 0.4 hectare, it is generally acceptable to use minimum time of concentration depicted in
Table 4.4

Table 4.4 Standard Minimum Times of Concentration (Source UNCHS, 1991)

Location Standard t c (minutes)

Road inlet pits 5
Small areas less than 0.4 hectare 10

f) Partial Area Effect

Generally speaking, tc for computation of the peak flow at any point in a catchment is the
longest time of flow to the point under consideration. However, in some cases, the peak flow
may occur when only part of the upstream area is contributing. This happens when there is
a portion along the periphery of a watershed with flat slope that highly influence (elongate)
the time of concentration (and hence reduce the design intensity) of the watershed with out
much contribution to the area to compensate the reduction in the design intensity. In this case,
the area excluding such portion results in higher design discharge as the reduction in area is
outweighed by the higher storm intensity resulting from shorter time of concentration. Such a
situation is known as a partial area effect and need be checked at:
i. the junction of two main drains;
ii. the out let of a large sub area with a relatively short time of concentration; and
iii. the out let of small area with a relatively long time of concentration.
It is important to note that particular sub-catchments may not produce partial area effects
when considered individually, but when combined with some downstream point with other
sub-catchments. The peak discharge may result when only parts of these sub-catchment are
contributing.

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Example 4-1 (Adopted from HEC 22)

Given: The following flow path characteristics:

Table Example 4.1.1

Segment
Flow Segment Length (m) Slope (m/m)
Description

1 25 0.005 Short grass pasture

2 43 0.005 Short grass pasture

3 79 0.006 Grassed waterway

4 146 0.008 380 mm concrete pipe

Find: Using a rainfall intensity, i , = 60 mm/hr, the time of concentration, t c , for the
area.

Solution:

Step 1. Calculate time of concentration for each segment.

Segment 1
Obtain Manning's n roughness coefficient from Table 4.3:
n = 0.15
Determine the sheet flow travel time using Equation HEC (Table 4.1)

Tti = (6.943/ i 0.4 ) ( nL S 0.5 )0.6 = [6.943/(60)0.4] [(0.15)(25)/(0.005)0.5] 0.6 = 14.6 min.

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Segment 2
Obtain intercept coefficient, k , from Table 4.2:
k = 0.213
Determine the concentrated flow velocity from Equation HDS2 (Table 4.1):
0.5
V  kS P = (0.213)(0.5)0.5= 0.15 m/s
Determine the travel time from Equation HDS2 (Table 4.1):

Tt 2  L 60V = 43/[(60)(0.15)] = 4.8 min

Segment 3
Obtain intercept coefficient, k, from Table 4.2:
k =0.457
Determine the concentrated flow velocity from Equation HDS2 (Table 4.1):
0.5
V  kS P = (0.457)(0.6)0.5= 0.35 m/s

Determine the travel time from Equation HDS2 (Table 4.1):

Tt 3  L 60V = 79/[(60)(0.35)] = 3.7 min

Segment 4
Obtain Manning's n roughness coefficient from Table 4.3:
n = 0.011
Determine the pipe flow velocity employing Manning’s Equation:
V = (1.0/0.011)(0.38/4)0.67 (0.008)0.5 = 1.7 m/s
Determine the travel time from Equation HDS2 (Table 4.1):

Tt 4  L 60V = 146/[(60)(1.7)] = 1.4 min

Step 2. Determine the total travel time by summing the individual travel times:

t c  Tt1  Tt 2  Tt 3  Tt 4  14.6 + 4.8 + 3.7 + 1.4 = 24.5 min; use 25 minutes

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4.3 Design Rainfall Intensity

Rainfall is the critical variable for all storm water studies and designs. Understanding of
rainfall process and the significance of the variables used to arrive at the design rainfall is
very important to prepare reasonable drainage and other storm water management designs.
Design rainfall intensity represents the average rainfall intensity of a duration equal to the time
of concentration for the catchment.
The total storm rainfall depth at a point, for a given rainfall duration and Average Recurrence
Interval, ARI, is a function of the local climate. Rainfall depths can be further processed
and converted into rainfall intensities (intensity = depth/duration), which are then presented
in the form of IDF curves. Such curves are particularly useful in storm water drainage design
because many computational procedures require rainfall input in the form of average rainfall
intensity.
The three variables, intensity duration and frequency are all related to each other. The data
are normally presented as curves displaying two of the variables, intensity and duration, for a
range of frequencies. Following are the major steps to develop Intensity Duration Frequency
Equations (Curves).
Step 1. Compile Maximum Annual Precipitation Data of the available shorter durations.
Step 2. Compute the mean and standard deviations of precipitation records of each
duration.
Step 3. For precipitation records of each duration, apply Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type 1
(EV1) distribution to compute values of different average recurrence intervals (AVI’s).
Step 4. Employ bi-variate linear regression model on the standard IDF equation (for trial
values of ) on the standard IDF equation converted in to linear form by taking logarisms
of both sides to get ‘b‘ and ‘c‘ values. The trial value of ‘b‘ that results in the highest
correlation coefficient remains the ‘b‘ value of the equation.
An illustrative example on the derivation of IDF equation/curve employing the aforementioned
steps for a “Demonstration Station” is given in Appendix 4.1.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Department of the Environment (TRRL Laboratory
Report 623), divided the stations in East Africa (Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya) in to two groups
(Group I and Group II) and to estimate the different constants of the model given by Equation
4.1 for different average recurrence intervals. The group I data were fitted to the model for a
number of alternative values of the constant ‘b’ between 0.2 and 1hrs. The optimum Value
varied between stations but as no regional pattern to this variation could be found it was
assumed to be due to random errors in the data and an average value of b = 0.33 hrs. was
selected. The derived relationships with b = 0.33 hrs. are given in Table 4.5.

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Table 4.5: Values of Constants in Intensity - Duration - Frequency Relationships for

Group I Stations (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 623, 1974)
a
i
(b  t d ) c

2 Years 5 Years 10 Years

Station
a c a c a c

BUSIA 74.62 1.00 94.88 0.97 105.19 0.96

MUGUGA 40.18 0.83 54.86 0.84 63.75 0.85

ATUMATAK 51.06 1.01 61.33 0.99 68.74 0.97

SAMBRET 56.61 1.00 70.34 0.97 77. 98 0.96

SAOSA 56.55 0.98 69.35 0.92 81.39 0.90

KASESE 54.95 1.09 66.65 1.04 73.81 1.01

WADELAI 57.87 0.98 72.24 0.82 81.69 0.75

EQUATOR 40.03 0.99 48.53 1.02 54.90 1.03

KABETE 42.17 0.78 50.24 0.83 59.64 0.84

KISUMU 72.15 1.01 86.39 0.99 96.36 0.98

KITALE 49.90 0.99 62.90 1.01 70.79 1.01

MOMBASA 49.49 0.78 65.88 0.77 74.48 0.83

NANYUKI 44.34 0.92 57.81 0.81 65.09 0.80

VOI 53.39 0.84 79.04 0.57 95.34 0.48

DAR ES SALAAM 57.83 0.91 68.83 0.86 77.41 0.84

DODOMA 55.35 0.95 71.28 0.91 82.43 0.88

KIGOMA 58.51 0.97 74.79 0.88 83.89 0.86

MBEYA 42.20 0.97 55.62 0.97 64.16 0.98

TABORA 55.20 1.00 70.84 1.02 82.52 1.03

ZANZIBAR 59.83 0.81 76.06 0.72 86.29 0.69

ENTEBBE 63.16 0.88 82.70 0.89 92.85 0.88

KAMPALA 58.52 0.97 73.24 0.95 83.36 0.94

GULU 70.06 1.01 87.96 0.98 100.83 0.96

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Table 4.6: Values of Constants in Intensity - Duration - Frequency Relationships for

Group I Stations (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 623, 1974)
a
i
(b  t d ) c
2 Years 5 Years 10 Years
Station
a c a c a c

KITALE 51.50 0.97 65.41 0.94 74.52 0.93

MOLO 34.38 0.89 51.11 0.94 62.38 0.96

LAMU 47.04 0.77 61.08 0.70 70.84 0.67

LODWAR 47.35 1.02 58.36 0.97 65.89 0.95

GARISSA 55.33 1.00 81.42 0.99 99.19 0.98

NARKURU 46.06 0.97 60.63 0.99 71.21 0.99

KISUMU 70.49 0.97 84.95 0.97 95.26 0.96

MOMBASA 46.14 0.84 57.85 0.80 65.02 0.79

NANYUKI 43.13 1.00 60.96 1.05 73.20 1.07

VOI 53.76 0.94 83.36 0.96 103.10 0.97

JINJA 65.43 1.00 73.28 0.96 78.80 0.94

FORTPORTAL 49.24 0.98 65.26 0.99 76.30 0.99

MBARARA 51.27 0.96 69.94 0.95 81.99 0.95

TORORO 71.97 1.01 89.00 0.98 99.80 0.97

ENTEBBE 76.04 0.96 97.09 0.88 112.12 0.86

KAMPALA 60.80 1.00 76.59 1.01 87.52 1.01

GULU 60.84 0.97 84.12 1.00 97.75 1.01

NAIROBI 50.07 0.86 92.26 0.88 70.79 0.87

In practice the daily rainfall for appropriate recurrence interval is determined using Appendices
4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 and Eqn. 4.5. The required design rainfall is then obtained by employing the
relevant intensity - duration - frequency model. The form of the above model are, therefore,
adjusted as follows to simplify this operation.

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a
i
(b  t d ) c

aT
Rainfall in time T  RT
(b  T ) c

24a
The daily total R D 
(b  24) c

c
T  24  b 
Eliminating 'a' RT    * RD Eqn.4.4
24  b  T 

With b = 0.33, a unique set of curves can be developed for converting daily rainfall to rainfall
of any given duration.
Example 4-2 (Adopted from TRRL Laboratory Report 623)
Calculate the design storm of 25 years average recurrence interval on a 20 square kilometer
catchment of grid reference 32o E 1o N.
Solution:
Locate the catchment on Appendix 4.3
The 2 year 24hr rainfall = 70 mm
Locate catchment on Appendix 4.4
10 year: 2 year ratio (Group 6 Inland) = 1.49
From Appendix 4.5 for a 10 year: 2 year ratio of 1.49 and average recurrence interval of 25
years, the flood factor is 1.74
The 25 year 24 hour point rainfall = 1.74 x 70 mm = 121.8 (say 122)
From Eqn 4.5 calculate the area reduction factor for a 20 square kilometer = 0.9
The aerial rainfall for the catchment is 122 x 0.9 = 109.8 (say 110)
From Tables 4.5 or 4.6 select a suitable ‘c’ value = 0.96
Using ‘n’ = 0.96, select rainfall ratios for 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours and
multiply by 110 mm to obtain RT for each period. These are then plotted as a symmetrical
histogram RT being shown in units of (mm of rain in 15 minutes)
15 min. 0.36 x 110 RT = 39.6 RT = 39.6
30 min. 0.51 x 110 RT = 56.1 RT = 56.1 - 39.6 = 16.5
1 hr. 0.655 x 110 RT = 72.05 RT = (72.1- 56.1)/2 = 8.0
2 hr. 0.825 x 110 RT = 90.75 RT = (90.8 - 72.1)/4 = 4.7
4 hr. 0.855 x 110 RT = 94.05 RT = (94.1 - 90.8)/8 = 0.4

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These values are plotted as design storm in Figure 4.1

Rainfall (mm/0.25h

Time (h)

Figure 4.1: Design Storm for Example 4.2

4.3.1 Areal Reduction Factor
It is important to understand that IDF curves give the rainfall intensity at a point. Spatial
characteristics storms are important for larger catchments. In general, the larger the
catchment and the longer the rainfall duration, the less uniformly the rainfall is distributed over
a catchment. Generally, for any specified ARI and duration, the average rainfall depth over an
area is less than the point rainfall depth. The ratio of the areal average rainfall with a specified
duration and ARI to the point rainfall with the same duration and ARI is termed as the areal
reduction factor.
Areal reduction factors are applied to only design point rainfall intensities, to account for the
fact that it is not likely that rainfall will occur at the same intensity over the entire area of
a storm (the principle of design storms assumes that the design storm is centred over the
catchment). The areal reduction is expressed as a factor less than 1.0. No areal reduction
factor is to be used for catchment areas of up to 10 km2. For larger catchments, the following
areal reduction factor equation developed for East Africa by Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Department of the Environment (TRRL Laboratory Report 623) could be used.

ARF  1  0.044 A 0.275 Eqn.4.5

Where: ARF = Areal Reduction Factor

A = Area of catchment (km2)

Storm direction and movement can have marked effects, particularly in areas with predominating
weather patterns and are particularly relevant to the case of operation and/or control of a large
system of storm water drainage networks. However it is common practice to neglect such
effects on small catchments.
4.3.2 Rainfall Excess
There is a time gap between the beginning of rainfall and commencement of runoff. This is
mainly because of initial abstraction. Any type of urban land and land cover has some abstraction
capacity. The magnitude depends on the surface characteristics and the antecedent moisture
content. Filling of depressions is the other requirement. It is after filling all these volumes that
runoff commences.

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Even after rainfall commences, some amount infiltrates at a rate that again depends on surface
and soil characteristics. The infiltration rate is nil for impervious surfaces. A rainfall, therefore,
whose magnitude does not exceed the volume of initial abstraction and depression storage
and whose intensity does not override the infiltration rate of the watershed will not produce
runoff. From the above statements, it is seen that the actual rainfall duration needs to be
longer than the computed time of concentration by the time require to fill the initial abstraction
and depression storage.
There are three models used to determine the pattern of loss.
a. Constant loss rate:- In this model, the rainfall excess is the residual left after a selected
constant rate of infiltration.
b. Initial loss and continuing loss:- This model is similar to (a) except that no runoff is
assumed to occur until a given initial loss capacity has been satisfied, regardless of the
intensity of rainfall. The continuing loss is at a constant rate. A variation of this model is
to have an initial loss followed a loss consisting of a constant fraction of the rainfall in
the remaining time.
c. Infiltration Curve:- In this model, the basic assumption is the reduction of infiltration with
time.
Loss values are derived by analyzing observed rainfall and runoff data. For design an average
value is usually needed and since there is no reason for expecting loss rate values for a
catchment to conform to a particular distribution, the median of the derived values is probably
the most appropriate for design.
4.3.3 Runoff Coefficient Rational Method
The estimation of rainfall excess depends on the method used to estimate the discharge.
In Rational Method, the amount of excess rainfall is determined through an appropriate
determination of the Rational Coefficient. Representative values of rational coefficients for
urban and rural areas are depicted in Table 4.7 (a) and (b).
The runoff coefficient (rational coefficient) is difficult to determine precisely and can be
interpreted in different ways. Engineering judgment is necessary in selecting the appropriate
procedure. Selection of coefficients should be based on ultimate catchment development and
weighted average (calculated through equation 4.6) need be computed where more than one
land use is encountered in a catchment.

( A1C1  A2 C 2  ...  An C n ) Eqn.4.6

CW 
A

Where: A1 ., A2 , An = areas of relatively uniform land use or surface character each

compromising the total area A .

C1 , C 2 , C n = the corresponding runoff coefficients

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Example 4.2
Given: The following existing and proposed land uses with unimproved existing conditions:
Table Example 4.2.1: Existing Conditions (unimproved):

Land Use Area, ha (ac) Runoff Coefficient, C

Unimproved Grass 8.95 0.25
Grass 8.60 0.22
Total = 17.55
Table Example 4.2.1: Proposed Conditions (improved):

Land Use Area, ha (ac) Runoff Coefficient, C

Paved 2.20 0.90
Lawn 0.66 0.15
Unimproved Grass 7.52 0.25
Grass 7.17 0.22
Total = 17.55

Find: Weighted runoff coefficient, C , for existing and proposed conditions.

Solution:

Step 1: Determine Weighted C for existing (unimproved) conditions using Equation

4.6.

Weighted C   (C x Ax ) / A  (8.95)(0.25)  (8.60)(0.22) /(17.55)

Weighted C = 0.235

Step 2: Determine Weighted C for proposed (improved) conditions using Equation

4.6.

Weighted
C  (2.22)(0.90)  (0.66)(0.15)  (7.52)(0.25)  (7.17)(0.22) /(17.55)

Weighted C = 0.315

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Table 4.7- (a): Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Urban Areas

Land use Condition Range of C values

sandy soil, flat<2% 0.05-0.10
sandy soil, steep>7% 0.15-0.20
Lawns
Heavy soil, flat<2% 0.13-0.17
Heavy soil, steep>7% 0.25-0.35
single family areas 0.30-0.50
Residential
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50-0.70
Light areas 0.50-0.80
Industrial
Heavy areas 0.60-0.90
Downtown areas 0.70-0.95
Business
Neighborhood areas 0.50-0.70
Asphaltic 0.70-0.95
Streets Concrete 0.80-0.95
Bricks 0.70-0.85
Roofs 0.75-0.95

Table 4.7 - (b): Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Rural Areas

MAP (mm)
Factor Component
<300 300- 600 >600
3.5% flat 0.01 0.02 0.03
average slope of
3.5%-11% soft to moderate 0.04 0.06 0.08
Cs hillsides in
11%-35% steep 0.09 0.12 0.16
catchment
>35% very steep 0.18 0.22 0.26
very permeable 0.02 0.03 0.04
permeable 0.04 0.06 0.08
Ck Permeability of soil semi-permeable 0.08 0.12 0.16
impermeable 0.15 0.21 0.26

Dense forest or very loose deposits 0.02 0.03 0.04

Cultivated land or thin forest 0.04 0.07 0.11
Cv Vegetation Grassland 0.13 0.17 0.21
bare rock 0.24 0.26 0.28

Note: 1. For contour cultivated lands C = 0.80 x (Cs +Ck +Cv)

2. 100% dense wood : flat<3.5% C = 0.60 x (Cs + Ck + Cv)
steep>11% C = 0.80 x (Cs + Ck + Cv)
3. For lakes, swamps and dams C = 1.00 x (Cs + Ck + Cv)

4.3.4 Modified Rational Method (storage coefficient)

As the catchment area gets larger, the effect of storage on the attenuation of the flood waves
becomes more pronounced. To allow for this effect, the peak discharge calculated by the basic
Rational Formula should be multiplied by a storage coefficient factor for modification.
Two approaches are known to determine such effects. The runoff from larger catchments stays
longer than a duration equal to time of concentration after stoppage of rainfall. This is attributed
to the cumulative effect of micro storages of and gradual release from the catchment. The
effect of such storage is estimated to prolong the duration of flow for as long as 1.67tc after

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stoppage of rainfall. For the maximum prolongation Tc + Td = 1.67t (refer Fig. 4.2) the peak flow
by Basic Rational Method is reduced by 25 per cent.

Figure 4.2: Modified Rational Method (Adopted from UNCHS, 1991)

The reduction in flow could also be estimated by equation Eqn. 4.7.

2t c
Cs  Eqn. 4.7
2t c  t d
where: C s = a reduction factor of the discharge estimated by the Rational
Method

t c = time of concentration

t d = time of flow in the drain

For design purposes the lesser of the two could be adopted.

4.3.5 Time AreaTime

4.3.5 Method
Area Method

The time area method of obtaining runoff or discharge from rainfall can be considered
as an extension and improvement of the rational method. It is usually used for sensitive
quantification works as it is rather rigorous. The peak discharge is the sum of flow
contributed from sub divisions of the catchment defined by time contours (called
isochrones) which are lines of equal flow time to the point where the discharge is
required. In this method flow from each contributing area bounded by two isochrones
(T  T , T ) is obtained from the product of the mean intensity of effective rainfall, i,
from time T  T to time T and the area A . For instance the flow at time at X at time
4h is given by:

Q4  i3 A1  i2 A2  i1A3  i0 A4

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Section

T
i.e: Q p  i
k 1
( n k ) A( k ) Eqn. 4.8

As before, the whole catchment is taken to be contributing to the flow after time equals
Tc.

Using the above nomenclature, it is seen that the peak flow at X when the whole
catchment is contributing to the flow, a period Tc after commencement of rainfall, is:

n
Q p   i( n k ) A( k ) Eqn. 4.9
k 1

Where: n, the number of incremental areas between successive isochrones, is given by

Tc
T , and k is a counter.

Isochrones

A4
Tc
T

T Rainfall intensity

T
A5

A3
A2 io
i1
i3

5 A1 X
i2 i4

T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T

4 T
T Time, T
3 T 2 T

Figure 4.3: Rainfall Bar Graph and Catchment Showing Isochrones of Travel Time
(Adopted from Shaw, 1981)

The crude assumption made in the Rational method of uniform rainfall intensity over the
whole catchment and during the whole Tc is avoided in the time - area method, where
the catchment contributions are subdivided in time. The varying intensities within a
storm are averaged over discrete period according to the isochrone time interval
selected. Hence in deriving flood peaks for design purposes, a design storm with critical
sequence of intensities can be used for the maximum intensities applied to the
contributing areas of the catchment that have most rapid runoff.

To fix isochrones, a considerable knowledge of the catchment is required. Isochrones

for urban areas are more readily obtained by direct observation during storm periods
and are more simply determined for small catchments. The simple discrete form of time
– area method can be generalized by making T very small and considering increases in
contributing area to be continuous with time.

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4.3.6 Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff

The spatial and temporal variations of precipitation and the concurrent variations of the
individual abstraction processes determine the characteristics of the runoff from a given storm.
These are not the only factors involved, however. Once the local abstractions have been
satisfied for a small area of the watershed, water begins to flow overland and eventually into
a natural drainage channel such as a gully or a stream valley. At this point, the hydraulics of
the natural drainage channels have a large influence on the character of the total runoff from
the watershed.
A few of the many factors that determine the hydraulic character of the natural drainage system
are drainage area, slope, hydraulic roughness, natural and channel storage, drainage density,
channel length, antecedent moisture conditions, and other factors. The effect that each of
these factors has on the important characteristics of runoff is often not simple to quantify.
a) Drainage Area
Drainage area is the most important watershed characteristic that affects runoff. The larger the
contributing drainage area, the larger will be the flood runoff. Regardless of the method utilized
to evaluate flood flows, peak flow is directly related to the drainage area.
b) Slope
Steep slopes tend to result in rapid runoff responses to local rainfall excess and consequently
higher peak discharges. The runoff is quickly removed from the watershed, so the hydrograph
assumes short duration with a high peak. The total volume of runoff is also affected by slope.
If the slope is very flat, the rainfall will not be removed rapidly. The process of infiltration will
have more time to affect the rainfall excess, thereby increasing the abstractions and resulting
in a reduction of the total volume of rainfall that appears directly as runoff.
Slope is very important in how quickly a drainage channel will convey water, and therefore,
it influences the sensitivity of a watershed to precipitation events of various time durations.
Watersheds with steep slopes will rapidly convey incoming rainfall, and if the rainfall is
characterized by high intensity and relatively short duration, the watershed will respond very
quickly with the peak flow occurring shortly after commencement of precipitation. If these
convective storms occur with a given frequency, then the resulting runoff can be expected
to occur with a similar frequency. On the other hand, for a watershed with a flat slope, the
response to the same storm will not be as rapid, and depending on a number of other factors,
the frequency of the resulting discharge may be dissimilar to the storm frequency.
c) Hydraulic Roughness
Hydraulic roughness is a composite of the physical characteristics that influence the depth
and speed of water flowing across the surface, whether natural or channelized. It affects both
the time response of a drainage channel and the channel storage characteristics. Hydraulic
roughness has a marked effect on the characteristics of the runoff resulting from a given
storm. The peak rate of discharge is usually inversely proportional to hydraulic roughness.
Roughness affects the runoff hydrograph in a manner opposite of slope.
Roughness also has an influence on the frequency of discharges of certain magnitudes by
affecting the response time of the watershed to precipitation events of specified frequencies.
d) Storage
It is common for a watershed to have natural or manmade storage that greatly affects the
response to a given precipitation event. Common features that contribute to storage within
a watershed are lakes, marshes, heavily vegetated over-bank areas, and the storage in the
floodplains of large, wide rivers. Storage can have a significant effect in reducing the peak rate
of discharge, although this reduction is not necessarily universal.
Storage will redistribute the volume over time, but will not directly change the volume. By
redistributing the runoff over time, storage may allow other abstraction processes to decrease
the runoff as was the case with slope and roughness.

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Storage tends to dampen the response of a watershed to very short events and to accentuate
the response to very long events. This alters the relationship between frequency of precipitation
and the frequency of the resultant runoff.
e) Drainage Density
Drainage density can be defined as the ratio between the number of well defined drainage
channels and the total drainage area in a given watershed. Drainage density is usually
assumed to equal the total length of continuously flowing streams (km) divided by the drainage
area (km2).
Drainage density has a strong influence on both the spatial and temporal response of a watershed
to a given precipitation event. If a watershed is well covered by a pattern of interconnected
drainage channels, and the overland flow time is relatively short, the watershed will respond
more rapidly than if it were sparsely drained and overland flow time was relatively long.
Drainage density has impact on the total volume of runoff since some of the abstraction
processes are directly related to how long the rainfall excess exists as overland flow.
Therefore, the lower the density of drainage, the lower will be the volume of runoff from a
given precipitation event.
f) Channel Length
Channel length is an important watershed characteristic. The longer the channel, the more
time it takes for water to be conveyed from the headwaters of the watershed to the outlet.
Consequently, if all other factors are the same, a watershed with a longer channel length will
usually have a slower response to a given precipitation input than a watershed with a shorter
channel length. As the hydrograph travels along a channel, it is attenuated and extended in
time due to the effects of channel storage and hydraulic roughness.
g) Antecedent Moisture Conditions
Antecedent moisture conditions, which are the soil moisture conditions of the watershed at the
beginning of a storm, affect the volume of runoff generated by a particular storm event. Runoff
volumes are related directly to antecedent moisture levels. The smaller the moisture in the
ground at the beginning of precipitation, the lower will be the runoff. Conversely, the larger the
moisture content of the soil, the higher the runoff attributable to a particular storm.
h) Other Factors
There can be other factors within the watershed that determine the characteristics of runoff,
including the extent and type of vegetation, the presence of channel modifications, and flood
control structures. These factors modify the runoff by either augmenting or negating some of
the basin characteristics described above.
4.4 Estimation of Runoff
4.4.1 General
Design methods determine the arrangement of a drainage system and the characteristics and
sizes of its components. They can involve full analysis or simplified procedures. Generally,
the larger, more complex and expensive the project, the more elaborate the method to be
used. Consequences of failure which involve an assessment of the resulting risk should also
influence the choice of the method.
There are two basic approaches to estimate discharges from rainfall. The first approach relates
peak runoff to rainfall intensity through a proportionality factor. The second approach starts
with a rainfall intensity hyetograph, accounts the losses and temporary storage effects and
yields a discharge hydrograph. Strictly speaking, the approach adopted by the first method
could also be interpreted in such a way that it results in a simplified hydrograph. Classified
under the first approach are Rational and Modified Rational Models. Numerous methods are
available under the second approach

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For larger developments and for schemes which can have implication for the drainage system
into which the outfall discharges or the receiving water, time-varying design precipitation and
computer-based flow simulation models are recommended. For any application, it is necessary
to select a method where the appropriate balance between cost, complexity and required
accuracy is achieved.
Many methods, that are based on mathematical models of the physical process involved, are
available. These are expressed as a set of computations performed by hand, programmable
calculator or computer program. They include:
• hydrological models which calculate peak flow rates, storage volumes or flow hydrographs
for system components; and,
• other models and computations concerning water quality, maintenance requirements
and economics.
4.4.2 Rational Method
Rainfall, which can be either an observed storm or a synthesized one, is entered in the form
of an intensity hyetograph. The volume of runoff is determined by assuming an appropriate
rational coefficient that represents the ratio of peak discharge to the rate of rainfall given a
hydraulic balance of the watershed. The Rational Method has been the most frequently used
model. The primary attraction of the Rational Model is its simplicity and its relative tolerance
for data scarcity. Rational Method can provide satisfactory estimates of peak discharge for
small catchments. For larger catchments, storage and timing effects can become significant
and, therefore, a hydrograph method is required. Some methods have been devised to form
hydrographs based on the Rational Formula. Their applicability is, however, to be limited to the
preliminary design of on-site detention and retention facilities.
Rational method of determining peak runoff is mainly based on the following assumptions.
1. The peak flow occurs when the entire area contributes to the flow.
2. The rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire area.
3. The rainfall intensity is uniform over the duration of the rainfall.
4. The return period of the runoff is assumed to match with the return period of the
rainfall.
The model is expressed by the mathematical relationship of the following form

CiA
Q Eqn. 4.10
360

Where:

3
Q is the discharge magnitude for an adopted return period ( m )
s
C is the (dimensionless)rational coefficient
i is the design rainfall intensity ( mm )
hr
A is the area to be drained (ha)

In Rational Method, the parameter C is a dimension less fraction. It shows the proportion of
precipitation rate that contributes to the peak discharge. Although it may appear that C is the
ratio of volume of runoff to volume of precipitation, the rational equation is not intended so. The
ratio of the total loss to total depth of precipitation is not necessarily
1- . Strictly speaking C is the ratio of peak discharge to the rate of rainfall given a hydraulic
balance of the watershed. It accounts for the aggregate effects of the interception, infiltration,
depression storage, etc.. When estimating a value for the Rational Coefficient, the effects of
such hydrologic variables should be taken in to account.

33
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 4

Similar to the time of concentration, the rational coefficient C also depends, on catchment
characteristics and intensity of rainfall. Among the catchment characteristics, surface cover
and slope are the important ones. Tables 4.7 (a) and (b) provides typical values of rational
coefficient for some land uses.
As the rate of precipitation increases, the proportion of run-off and velocity of overland flow
generally tend to increase. Both the increase in the proportion of runoff and velocity of overland
flow have impacts on the peak discharge. The effects of the aforementioned variables are
usually taken care of by frequency factors. Some of these factors are depicted on Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Multipliers for Higher Recurrence Interval (Source: UNCHS,1991)

Recurrence interval (years) Multiplier

2-10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25
Application of the Rational Method is recommended for cases where:
1. the catchment area is not greater than 80 hectares;
2. the distributed storage is insignificant;
3. the critical storm duration is not much longer than 20 minutes so that the assumption of
uniform intensity throughout the duration of storm may be practical;
Example 4.3 (Adopted from HDS 2)
A flooding problem exists along a farm road. A low-water crossing is to be replaced by a culvert
installation to improve road safety during rainstorms. The drainage area above the crossing is
43.7 hectares. The return period of the design storm is to be 25 years as determined by local
authorities. The engineer must determine the maximum discharge that the culvert must pass
for the indicated design storm.
The current land use consists of 21.8 ha of parkland, 1.5 ha of commercial property that is 100
percent impervious, and 20.4 ha of single-family residential housing. The principal flow path
includes 30 m of short grass at 2 percent slope, 300 m of grassed waterway at 2 percent slope,
and 650 m of grassed waterway at 1 percent slope. The following steps are used to compute
the peak discharge with the rational method:
Step 1. Computation of a Weighted Runoff Coefficient:
The tabular summary below shows the runoff coefficients selected for the land uses and land
cover of the area under consideration. The average value is used for the parkland and the
residential areas, but the highest value is used for the commercial property because it is
completely impervious.
Table: Example 4.3.1

Description C Value Area (hectares) CiAi

Park 0.20 21.8 4.36
Commercial (100% Impervious) 0.95 1.5 1.43
Single-Family 0.40 (20.4/43.7) (8.16/13.95)
Equation 4.6 is used to compute the weighted C:

Weighted C 
C A i i

13.95
 0.32
A 43.7

34
Ministry of Works and Transport
 Drainage Design Manual Section 4

Step 2. Computation of Intensity:

The 25-year intensity shall be taken from an intensity-duration-frequency curve. To obtain the
intensity, the time of concentration, Tc, must first be estimated. In this example the velocity
method for Tc is used.
Table: Example 4.3.2

Flow Path Slope (%) Length (m) Velocity (m/s)

Overland(short grass) 2 90 0.30
Grassed Waterway 2 300 0.65
Drainage Design Manual Section 4
Grassed Waterway 1 650 0.46

The time of concentration is estimated as:

L 90m 300m 650m

Tc       
 V  0.3m / s 0.65m / s 0.46m / s

= 2175 s = 36.2 min = 0.60 h

The intensity is obtained from the IDF curve for the locality using a duration equal to
the time of concentration:

i = 85 mm/hr

Step 3. Area (A):

Total area of drainage basin, A = 43.7 hectares

Step 4. Peak Discharge (Q):

1 (0.32)(85)(43.7)
Q CIA 
360 360

= 3.3 m3/sec

4.4.34.4.3
Modified Rational
Modified Method
Rational Method

Modified Rational Method, as the name implies, is a modified version of the Rational
Method. To take care of the rise in significance of the routing effect of catchments, the
Rational Formula is multiplied by a factor the magnitude of which is determined based
on the discussions made under sub Section 4.3.5.
CiA
Q  Cs Eqn. 4.11
360

Where:

3
Q is the discharge magnitude for an adopted return period ( m )
s
C s is peak reduction factor
C is the rational coefficient (dimensionless)
i is the design rainfall intensity ( mm ) 35
hr
MinistryAof is
Works and Transport
the area to be drained (ha)

Modified Rational Method is recommended when the catchment area exceeds 80

hectares. It could safely be applied up to 120 hectares. For areas that exceed 120
 Method. To take care of the rise in significance of the routing effect of catchments, the
Rational Formula is multiplied by a factor the magnitude of which is determined based
on the discussions made under sub Section 4.3.5.
CiA
Q Design
Drainage Cs Manual Eqn. 4.11
Section 4
360

Where:

3
Q is the discharge magnitude for an adopted return period ( m )
s
C s is peak reduction factor
C is the rational coefficient (dimensionless)
i is the design rainfall intensity ( mm )
hr
A is the area to be drained (ha)
Modified Rational Method is recommended when the catchment area exceeds 80
hectares. It could safely be applied up to 120 hectares. For areas that exceed 120
hectares, it should be employed with caution.

4.4.4 4.4.4
SCS Rainfall Runoff Relation
SCS Rainfall Runoff Relation

The Design
Drainage of runoff ( Q ) depends on the volume of precipitation ( P ) and the
volume Manual volume
Section 4
of runoff that is available for retention. The actual retention ( P ) is the difference
between the volume of precipitation and runoff. Further more, a certain volume of
precipitation at the beginning of the storm which is called the initial abstraction ( I a ), will
not appear as runoff. The SCS assumes the following rainfall runoff relations.
4.23
F Works Q and Transport

Ministry of Eqn. 4.12
S P  Ia

Where: S is the potential maximum retention

The actual retention, when the initial abstraction is considered, is:

F  (P  I a )  Q
Eqn. 4.13

Substituting Eqn. 4.11 into Eqn. 4.10 results in the following

(P  Ia )  Q Q
 Eqn. 4.14
S P  Ia

Rearranging yields

(P  I a )2
Q
(P  I a )  S Eqn. 4.15

The initial abstraction is a function of land use, treatment and condition; interception;
infiltration; depression storage; and antecedent soil moisture. Initial abstraction could
best be estimated by the following relationship.

I a  0.2 S Eqn. 4.16

Substituting and rearranging yields:

36
( P  0.2 S ) 2
MinistryQofWorks and Transport
P  0.8S Eqn. 4.17

Empirical studies indicate that S can be estimated by:

 (P  I a )  S Eqn. 4.15

The initial abstraction is a function of land use, treatment and condition; interception;
Drainage Design Manual
infiltration; Section
depression storage; and antecedent soil moisture. Initial abstraction 4
could
best be estimated by the following relationship.

I a  0.2 S Eqn. 4.16

Substituting and rearranging yields:

( P  0.2 S ) 2
Q
P  0.8S Eqn. 4.17

Empirical studies indicate that S can be estimated by:

25400
S  254 Eqn. 4.18
CN

Where: CN is runoff curve number and S is in millimeter

a) Curve Number Estimation

The volume and rate of runoff depends on both meteorology and watershed
characteristics, and the estimation of runoff requires an index to represent these two
factors. The precipitation volume is probably the single most important meteorological
characteristic in estimating the volume of runoff. The soil type, land use and the
hydrologic conditions of the cover are the watershed factors that will have the most
significant impact in estimating the volume of runoff. The antecedent soil moisture will
also be an important determinant of runoff volume.
The SCS developed an index, which was called the runoff curve number (CN), to represent
the combined hydrologic effect of soil, land use, agricultural land treatment class, hydrologic
4.24
condition, and antecedent soil moisture. Curve Numbers for different soil groups are depicted
Ministry of Works
in Table 4.9. and Transport
b) Soil Group Classification
SCS developed a soil classification system that consists of four groups, which are identified
by the letters A, B, C, and D. Soil characteristics that are associated with each group are as
follows.
Group A: Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated silts
Group B: Shallow loess, sandy loam
Group C: Clay loams, shallow sand loam, soils low in organic content, and soils usually high
in clay
Group D: Soils that swell significantly when wet, heavy plastic clays, and certain saline
soils

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Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 4

Table. 4.9: Runoff Curve Numbers for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes (Antecedent
Moisture Condition II, and Ia = 0.2S (Source: HEC 22)
Land Use Description /Treatment/
Hydrologic Soil Group
Hydrologic Condition
Residential I
Average lot Average A B C D
size Impervious (%)
1/8acre or less 65 77 85 90 92
1/4acre or less 38 61 75 83 87
1/3acre or less 30 57 72 81 86
1/2acre or less 25 54 70 80 85
1acre or less 20 51 68 79 84
Paved Parking Lots, roofs, drive
98 98 98 98
ways, etc.
Streets and roads
Paved with curbs and storm sewers 98 98 98 98
Gravel 76 85 89 91
Dirt 72 82 87 89
Commercial and business areas (85
89 92 94 95
%) impervious
Industrial districts (72 %
81 88 91 93
impervious)
Open spaces, lawns, parks, cemeteries, etc..
good condition: grass cover on 75
39 61 74 80
% or more of the area
fair condition: grass cover on 50 %
49 69 79 84
to 75 % of the area

Note: 1 acre = 0.405 ha

Table 4.9 continued
Curve Numbers for
Hydrologic Soil
Land Use Description /Treatment/ Hydrologic Condition
Group
A B C D
Cultivated Agricultural Land: Fallow
Straight row Poor 65 76 84 88
Good 63 75 83 87
Conservation tillage Poor 64 75 83 86
Good 60 72 80 84
Contoured Poor 63 74 82 85
Good 61 73 81 84
Small grain Contoured and tillage Poor 62 73 81 84
Good 60 72 80 83
Contoured and terraces Poor 61 72 79 82
Good 59 70 78 81
Contoured and terraces and Poor 60 71 78 81
conservation tillage
Good 58 69 77 80
Straight row Poor 66 77 85 89
Close-seeded or Good 58 72 81 85
broadcast Contoured Poor 64 75 83 85
legumes or
Good 55 69 78 83
rotation
meadows Contoured and terraces Poor 63 73 80 83
Good 57 67 76 80

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Drainage Design Manual Section 4

Table 4.9 continued

Cultivated Agricultural Land: Fallow

Straight row or bare soil 77 86 91 94
Conservation tillage Poor 76 85 90 93
Good 74 83 88 90
Straight row Poor 72 81 88 91
Good 67 78 85 89
Conservation tillage Poor 71 80 87 90
Good 64 75 82 85
Contoured Poor 70 79 84 88
Good 65 75 82 86
Row crops Contoured and tillage Poor 69 78 83 87
Good 64 74 81 85
Contoured and terraces Poor 66 74 80 82
Good 62 71 78 81
Contoured and terraces and Poor 65 73 79 81
conservation tillage
Good 61 70 77 80

Table 4.9 continued

Curve Numbers for
Hydrologic
Cover Type Hydrologic Soil
Condition
Group
Farmsteads 59 74 82 86
Forest-range
Herbaceous - mixture of grass, weeds, and Poor 80 87 93
low-growing brush, with brush the minor Fair 71 81 89
element Good 62 74 85
Oak-aspen - mountain brush mixture of oak Poor 66 74 79
brush, aspen, mountain mahogany, bitter Fair 48 57 63
brush, maple and other brush
Good 30 41 48
Poor 75 85 89
Pinyon - juniper - pinyon, juniper, or both
Fair 58 73 80
(grass understory)
Good 41 61 71
Poor 67 80 85
Sage-grass Fair 51 63 70
Good 35 47 55
Poor 63 77 85 88
Desert shrub - major plants include saltbush,
greasewood, creosotebush, blackbrush, Fair 55 72 81 86
bursage, palo verde, mesquite, and cactus Good 49 68 79 84

39
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 4

Non-cultivated agricultural land

No Mechanical treatment Poor 68 79 86 89
Fair 49 69 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80
Pasture or range
Contoured Poor 47 67 81 88
Fair 25 59 75 83
Good 6 35 70 79
Meadow - continuous grass, protected from grazing and generally 30 58 71 78
mowed for hay
Poor 55 73 82 86
Forestland - grass or orchards - Fair 44 65 76 82
evergreen or deciduous
Good 32 58 72 79
Poor 48 67 77 83
Brush - brush-weed-grass mixture with Fair 35 56 70 77
brush the major element
Good 30 48 65 73
Poor 45 66 77 83
Woods Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 30 55 70 77
Poor 57 73 82 86
Woods - grass combination (orchard or Fair 43 65 76 82
tree farm)
Good 32 58 72 79

4.4.4.1 Limitations of the SCS Runoff Curve Number Method (SCS, 1986)
SCS could be used for larger catchments with due consideration for the following
limitations it has:
• Curve numbers describe average conditions that are useful for design purposes. If
the rainfall event used is a historical storm, the modeling accuracy decreases.
• Use the runoff curve number equation with caution when recreating specific
features of an actual storm. The equation does not contain an expression for
time and, therefore, does not account for rainfall duration or intensity.
• The user should understand the assumption reflected in the initial abstraction
term ( ) and should ascertain that the assumption that applies to the situation.
, which consists of interception, initial infiltration, depression storage,
evapotranspiration, and other factors, was generalized as 0.2S based on data
from agricultural watersheds (S is the potential maximum retention after runoff
begins). This approximation can be especially important in urban areas because
the combination of impervious areas with pervious areas can imply a significant
initial loss that may not take place. The opposite effect, a greater initial loss, can
occur if impervious areas have surface depressions that store some runoff.
• The CN procedure is less accurate when runoff is less than 12 mm. As a check,
use another procedure to determine runoff.
• When the weighted CN is less than 40, use another procedure to determine
runoff.
4.4.5 Design of Drainage Network in Built up Areas
The design of a drainage line in built up areas could be effected employing the design methods
discussed in the different sections of this manual. The design of a network of drainage lines
which is usually encountered in built up portions of urban areas requires systematic handling
of the design procedure. This could be facilitated using Design Formats. The design format
adopted for the Manual is given in Appendix 4.2.

40
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Drainage Design Manual Section 4

4.5 Local Flood Observation Flood History

The history of past floods and their effect on existing structures is of paramount importance in
making flood hazard evaluation studies, and for sizing of structures. A helpful and necessary
information in determining the peak runoff is flood mark observation. Vital information could be
obtained from the local residents in the vicinity of the site or flood marks at the site. Information
may be also be obtained from road maintenance authorities and newspaper accounts. The
flood marks could be employed in methods such as Slope Area for estimation of peak floods
in the past.
When the duration and intensity of the relevant rainstorm are known values, storm losses can
be calculated and a more accurate discharge computed. Changes in channel and catchment
conditions since the occurrence of the flood shall be evaluated in relating historical floods to
present conditions.

41
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 5

SECTION 5
5.0 UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD
5.1 General
A hydrograph is a graph of discharge rate, which passes a particular point, verses time.
It reflects both precipitation and watershed characteristics. The slope of the rising limb
is specially sensitive to rainfall characteristic while the shape of the recession limb is
more sensitive to characteristics of the watershed. The crest segment is sensitive to both
rainfall and watershed characteristic.
A unit hydrograph is a special case of flood hydrograph. Specifically a unit hydrograph is
the hydrograph that results from 1 millimeter of excess rainfall generated uniformly over
the watershed at a uniform rate during a specified period of time. While discussing unit
hydrographs, the following five points warrant emphasis.
1) The rainfall occurs from excess rainfall.
2) The volume of runoff is 1 millimeter.
3) The excess rainfall is applied at a uniform rate.
4) The excess is applied with uniform spatial distribution.
5) The intensity of rainfall excess is constant over a specified period of time, which is
termed as the duration of the rainfall.

5.2 SCS Unit Hydrograph Method

There are several types of unit hydrographs. The ones of interest herein are the
dimensionless and D-hour unit hydrograph in which case the duration of excess rainfall
is D-hours. A dimensionless unit hydrograph is a hydrograph the ordinates of which are
given as a ratio of the time to peak discharge ( q p ) and the time axis of which is
q
measured as a ratio of the time to peak ( t p ); that is, it is a graph of qp versus t
tp ,
where q is the discharge at any time t .

Two steps are employed to calculate the hydrograph, the runoff Curve Number method
and the Tabular Hydrograph Method. The Runoff Curve Number method is used to
determine the runoff and the Tabular Hydrograph method is used to calculate the
composite hydrograph at the watershed outlet.
To calculate a hydrograph the simplified method known as TR-55 methodology begins with
imposing a specific time distribution of rainfall uniformly in space over the watershed.
The rainfall is converted to runoff with the Runoff Curve Number method. A unit hydrograph
is obtained based on sub-area and event specific variables. The unit hydrograph is then
scaled by the rainfall to obtain the hydrograph using the Tabular Hydrograph method.
5.2.1 SCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph
The SCS methods use dimensionless unit hydrographs that are based on an extensive
analysis of measured data. Unit hydrographs were evaluated for a large number of actual
watersheds and then made dimensionless. An average of these dimensionless unit
hydrographs was developed. The time base of unit hydrograph was approximately five
times the time-to-peak and approximately 3/8 of the total volume accrued before the time-
to-peak. The inflection point on the recession limb occurs at approximately 1.7 times the
time-to-peak and the unit hydrograph has a curvilinear shape. The average dimensionless
unit hydrograph is shown in Fig. 5.1 and the discharge ratios for selected values of the
time ratio are given in Table 5.1.

42
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 5

The curvilinear hydrograph can be approximated by a triangular unit hydrograph that has more
or less similar characteristics. Fig 5.2 shows the comparison of the two unit hydrographs. While
the time base of the triangular unit hydrograph is only 8/3 of the time-to-peak (compared to 5
for the curvilinear unit hydrograph, the area under the rising limbs of the two unit hydrographs
are the same (~37.5 per cent)
5.2.2 Peak Discharge of the Unit Hydrograph
The area under the unit hydrograph equals the volume of direct runoff, which was estimated
by Eqn 5.1.
1
Q q p (t p  t r ) Eqn. 5.1
2
Where:
t p is time-to-peak
t r is the recession time
t p is the peak discharge.

Solving Eq 5.1 for q p and rearranging yields:

 
 
Q 2 
qp  Eqn. 5.2
t p  tr 
1  t 
 p 
Letting K replace the contents within the bracket yields:

KQ
qp  Eqn. 5.3
tp
Considering area to be measured in km2, t p to be measured in hours, and the
discharge to be obtained in m3/s, the formula could be rearranged as:

0.208 AQ
qp  Eqn. 5.4
tp
ForFor
mountainous
mountainouswatershed, thethe
watershed, constant may
constant go go
may as as
high as as
high 0.258 andand
0.258 for for
flat flat
swampy areas
swampy
it may come down as low as 0.129.
areas it may come down as low as 0.129.
The time-to-peak in the peak discharge equation may be expressed in terms of the duration
of unit precipitation excess and the time of concentration. Fig. 5.2 provides the following
relationships

1.7t p  t c  D Eqn. 5.5

D
tp   0.6t c Eqn. 5.6
2
Solving for D (rainfall duration) yields

D  0.133t c Eqn. 5.7 43

From
Ministry of Figure
Works and5.2 it can be found out that:
Transport
tb  t p  t r  t p  1.67t p  8 3 t p
Drainage Design Manual Section 5

Table 5.1: Ratio of Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph and Mass Curve

(Source: H.McLVEN, 1982)
Time Ratios Discharge Ratios ( Mass Curve

( t ) q ) Qa
tp qp Ratios ( )
Q
0 .000 .000
.1 .030 .001
.2 .100 .006
.3 .190 .012
.4 .310 .035
.5 .470 .065
.6 .660 .107
.7 .820 .163
.8 .930 .228
.9 .990 .300
1.0 1.000 .375
1.1 .990 .450
1.2 .930 .522
1.3 .860 .589
1.4 .780 .650
1.5 .680 .700
1.6 .560 .751
1.7 .460 .790
1.8 .390 .822
1.9 .330 .849
2.0 .280 .871
2.2 .207 .908
2.4 .147 .934
2.6 .107 .953
2.8 .077 .961
3.0 .055 .977
3.2 .040 .984
3.4 .029 .989
3.6 .021 .993
3.8 .015 .995
4.0 .011 .997
4.5 .005 .999
5.0 .000 1.000

44
Ministry of Works and Transport
 Drainage Design Manual Section 5

1.2

1
Discharge Ratio (q/qp)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Time Ratio (t/tp)

Fig. 5.1: Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph and Mass Curve (Computed from Table 5.1)
5.2.3 Convolution

Drainage Design Manual

The dimensionless unit hydrograph is made dimensional by computing the peak discharge Section 5
and time-to-peak. The design hydrograph is computed by translating the excess precipitation
employing the unit hydrograph by a process named as convolution. Analytically speaking,
convolution is referred to as the theory of linear super positioning.

Fig: 5.2: Dimensionless Curvilinear Unit Hydrograph and Equivalent Triangular Hydrograph
(Source: Adopted from H.McLVEN, 1982)
Fig: 5.2: Dimensionless Curvilinear Unit Hydrograph and Equivalent Triangular Hydrograph

5.6
Ministry of Works and Transport
45
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design
Drainage Manual
Design Manual Section
Section 5 5

Example 5.1 (Adopted from HEC 22)

Given: The following watershed conditions:

 Watershed is commercially developed.

2
 Watershed area = 1.2 km .
 Time of concentration = 1.34 hr.
Find: The triangular SCS unit hydrograph.
Solution:

Step 1: Calculate peak flow using Equation 5.4.

3.125 Ak QD 3.125(1.2)(1) 3
qp    2.8 m
tc 1.34 s

Step 2: Calculate time to peak using Equation 5.7.

2 2
tp  t c  (1.34)  0.893hr
3 3

Step 3: Calculate time base of UH.

8
t b  (0.893)  2.38hr
3

Step 4: Draw resulting triangular UH. (see Figure Example 5.1)

Fig. Example 5.1:5.1:The

Fig. Example TheTriangular Unit
Triangular Unit Hydrograph
Hydrograph

46
Ministry of Works and Transport
5.7
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 5

Example 5.2

Given:
Excess rainfall data given in Table Example 5.2.1

Time, t (hr) Discharge, Q (m3/s) Excess Rainfall (cm/hr)

0 0 0
1 30 0.5
2 10 1.0
3 0 1.5
Find: The resulting convoluted direct runoff outflow hydrograph.
Solution:
Step 1: The unit hydrograph and excess rainfall are displayed in Figure Example 5.2 -2 (a).
Step 2: Using the following table, the total direct runoff outflow hydrograph will be developed.
Column one lists the time increments. Column two lists the ordinates of the unit hydrograph.
Column three calculates the direct runoff for the first hour of excess precipitation. The values
are the ordinates of the UH multiplied by the amount of excess precipitation for the first hour.
Column four is produced as was column three except the amount of precipitation is for the
second hour of excess rainfall and the time is lagged by one hour. Column five is lagged by
two hours and contains the values for the third hour of precipitation. Finally, the total direct
runoff outflow hydrograph is determined by summing the values across each row for columns
three through five.
Table: Example 5.2.2

Time, t (hr) Unit Direct Runoff Direct Runoff Direct Runoff Total Direct
Hydrograph for first hour for second for third hour Runoff
Discharge, Q (m3/s) hour (m3/s) Outflow
(m3/s)
(m3/s) Hydrograph
(m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
0 0 (0.5)(0) = 0 - - 0=0
1 30 (0.5)(30)=15 (1.0)(0)=0 - 15+0=15
2 10 (0.5)(10)=5 (1.0)(30)=30 (1.5)(0)=0 5+30+0=35
3 0 (0.5)(0)=0 (1.0)(10)=10 (1.5)(30)=45 0+10+45=55
4 (1.0)(0)=0 (1.5)(10)=15 0+15=15
5 (1.5)(0)=0 0=0
The final total direct outflow hydrograph is shown in Figure Table: Example 5.2-2 (b)

47
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Drainage Design Manual Section 5














      



Fig. Example 5.2 -1 Incremental Runoff

















 


      



Fig. Example 5.2 -2 (a) and (b) Convolution of Unit Hydrograph

48 5.9
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport
DrainageDesign
Drainage DesignManual
Manual Section 5
Section 5

5.3
5.3 TRRLEast
TRRL East African
African Flood
Flood ModelModel

5.3.1of Form
5.3.1 Form Model of Model

The most widely used dimensionless unit hydrograph is that of the US Soil
Conservation Service. The similar results for the ratio of time to peak to base time for
other catchments is not satisfactorily applicable in East African catchments studied by
TRRL. In the TRRL East African Flood Model the base time is assumed to be the time
from 1 per cent of peak flow on the rising limb to 10 per cent of peak flow on the falling
limb of the hydrograph. Defined this way, the ratio of base time to time to peak is
approximately 3.0 for US hydrographs. For East African catchments it varied between
2.7 and 11.0. The use of a single hydrograph base on time to peak was therefore not
appropriate.

A much more stable ratio was found to be the peak flow (Q) divided by the average
flow measured over the base time (Q ) (Peak Flow Factor)

Q
F Eqn. 5.8
Q
The peak flow can therefore be simply estimated if the average flow during the base
time of the hydrograph can be calculated.

The total volume of runoff is given by:

RO  ( P  Y )C A * A * 10 3 ( m 3 ) Eqn. 5.9

Where: P = rainfall (mm) during time period equal to the base time
Y = initial retention
CA = contributing are coefficient
A = catchment area (km2)

If the hydrograph base time is measured to a point on the recession curve at which the
flow is one tenth of the peak flow, then the volume under the hydrograph is
approximately 7 per cent less than the total run off given by eqn. 5.9

The average flow (Q ) is therefore given by:

0.93 * RO
Q Eqn. 5.10
3600 * TB

Where:
TB = hydrograph base time (hrs.)

Estimates of Y and CA are required to calculate RO and lag time K to calculate TB.

5.3.2 Initial Retention (Y)

In arid and semi arid zones an initial retention of 5 mm could be considered. Elsewhere 49
zero initial retention could be assumed.
Ministry of Works and Transport
5.10
Ministry of Works and Transport
 Where:
TB = hydrograph base time (hrs.)

Drainage Design Manual Section 5

Estimates of Y and CA are required to calculate RO and lag time K to calculate TB.
Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Drainage
5.3.2 5.3.2Design
Initial Manual
Retention
Initial (Y)
Retention (Y) Section 5

Drainage
In Design
arid
5.3.3 Manual
and semi
ContributingaridArea
zones an initial retention
Coefficient (CA) Section 5
of 5 mm could be considered. Elsewhere
5.3.3 Contributing Area Coefficient
zero initial retention could be assumed. (CA)
Contributing area coefficient is a coefficient that reflects the effects of the catchment
Contributing
5.3.3
5.3.2 Contributing
wetness area
Contributing
andArea coefficient
Area
the land is a ) coefficient
use.Coefficient
Coefficient
A (C
grassed (CA)
catchmentthatatreflects the effects
field capacity of the
is taken as acatchment
standard
A 5.10
wetness
value and the land
of contributing use. A grassed catchment at field capacity is taken
area coefficient. The design value of the contributing as a standard
area
Ministry of Works and Transport
value of contributing
Contributing
coefficient area coefficient.
areabecoefficient
could estimated isfrom Thethat
a coefficient
the followingdesign value
reflects
equation. the of the contributing
effects area
of the catchment
coefficient could be estimated from the following equation.
wetness and the land use. A grassed catchment at field capacity is taken as a standard
value of contributing area coefficient. The design value of the contributing area
C A  C S *could
coefficient C * C Lestimated from the following equation. Eqn. 5.11
C  C * CW *be
A S W C L Eqn. 5.11

A  CS *
CWhere: CC *C Eqn. 5.11
S W= theL standard value of contributing area coefficient for a grassed
Where: CS = the standard value of contributing area coefficient for a grassed
catchment at field capacity
catchment at field capacity
Where: CCWS ==the catchment
the standardwetness factor
value of contributing area coefficient for a grassed
CW = the catchment wetness factor
CL =catchment
the land useat factor
field capacity
CL = the land use factor
CW = the catchment wetness factor
The threeCfactors
L = the are given
land usein Tables 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4
factor
The three factors are given in Tables 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4
Table 5.2: Standard Contributing Area Coefficient (wet zone catchment, short grass
TableThe three
5.2: factors Contributing
Standard are given in Tables 5.2, 5.3, and(wet
Area Coefficient 5.4 zone catchment, short grass
cover)
Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706 cover)
Table
Table Source:
5.2:5.2:
Standard
StandardTRRL Laboratory
Contributing
ContributingArea Report
Area 706 (wet(wet
Coefficient
Coefficient zone catchment,
zone short
catchment, grass
short cover)
grass
cover)
Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706 Soil Type
Soil Type
Catchment Slope Slightly Impeded
Catchment Slope Well Drained Slightly Impeded Impeded Drainage
Well Drained Drainage
Soil Type Impeded Drainage
Drainage
Very Flat
Catchment < 1.0 %
Slope 0.15
Slightly Impeded 0.30
Very Flat < 1.0 % Well Drained 0.15 Impeded0.30
Drainage
Moderate 1-4 % 0.09 0.38
Drainage 0.40
Moderate 1-4 % 0.09 0.38 0.40
Rolling
Very Flat <4-10
1.0 % 0.10 0.45
0.15 0.50
0.30
Rolling 4-10 % 0.10 0.45 0.50
Hilly
Moderate 10-20
1-4 %% 0.11
0.09 0.50
0.38 0.40
Hilly 10-20 % 0.11 0.50
Mountainous 4-10
Rolling >20 % % 0.12
0.10 0.45 0.50
Mountainous >20 % 0.12
Note:
Hilly The soil types
10-20 % are based on
0.11 the soil map contained
0.50 in the Hand Book of Natural
Note: The soil types are based on the soil map contained in the Hand Book of Natural
Resources
Mountainous >20 % of East Africa0.12
Resources of East Africa
Note: The soil types are based on the soil map contained in the Hand Book of Natural
Table
Resources
Table of East Table
5.3: Catchment
5.3: Catchment Africa 5.3: Catchment
Wetness Wetness
Factor (Source: Factor
TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Wetness Factor (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Catchment Wetness Factor
Table 5.3: Catchment
Rainfall Zone Wetness Factor (Source: TRRL Laboratory
Catchment Report 706)
Wetness Factor
Rainfall Zone Perennial Streams Ephemera Streams
Perennial Streams Ephemera Streams
Wet Zone 1.0
Catchment Wetness Factor1.0
Wet Zone Rainfall Zone 1.0 1.0
Semi Arid Zone Perennial1.0Streams Ephemera1.0Streams
Semi Arid Zone 1.0 1.0
Dry Zones
Wet Zone (except West. Uganda) 0.75
1.0 0.50
1.0
Dry Zones (except West. Uganda) 0.75 0.50
West Arid
Semi Uganda
Zone 0.60
1.0 0.30
1.0
West Uganda 0.60 0.30
Dry Zones (except West. Uganda) 0.75 0.50
West Uganda 0.60 0.30

50
Ministry of Works and Transport

5.11
5.11
 Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Table 5.4: Land Use Factor (Base assumes short grass cover)
Table 5.4: Land Use Factor (Base assumes short grass cover)
Source: TRRLTable
Laboratory Report
5.4: Land Use 706
Factor (Base assumes short grass cover)
Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706

Land Use Land Use Factor

Land Use Land Use Factor
Largely bare soil 1.50
Largely bare soil 1.50
Intense cultivation (particularly in valleys) 1.50
Intense cultivation (particularly in valleys) 1.50
Grass cover 1.00
Grass cover 1.00
Dense vegetation (particularly in valleys) 0.50
Dense vegetation (particularly in valleys) 0.50
Ephemeral steam, sand filled valley 0.50
Ephemeral steam, sand filled valley 0.50
Swamp filled valley 0.33
Swamp filled valley 0.33
Forest 0.33
Forest 0.33
5.3.4 Catchment lag Time (K)
5.3.4 Catchment lag Time (K)
5.3.4 Catchment lag Time (K)
The appropriate value of lag time can be estimated from Table 5.5. In assessing which
The appropriate value of lag time can be estimated from Table 5.5. In assessing which
category to place a given catchment, it should be remembered that generally only small
category to place a given catchment, it should be remembered that generally only small
areas either side of the stream are contributing to the flood hydrograph. It is these
areas either side of the stream are contributing to the flood hydrograph. It is these
areas, therefore, which must be assessed.
areas, therefore, which must be assessed.
Table
Table 5.5: Catchment Lag5.5:
TimeCatchment Lag Time
(Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Table 5.5: Catchment Lag Time (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)

Catchment Type Lag Time (K) in hrs

Catchment Type Lag Time (K) in hrs
Arid 0.1
Arid 0.1
Very steep small catchments (slope > 20 %) 0.1
Very steep small catchments (slope > 20 %) 0.1
Semi arid scrub (large bare soil patches) 0.3
Semi arid scrub (large bare soil patches) 0.3
Poor pasture 0.5
Poor pasture 0.5
Good pasture 1.5
Good pasture 1.5
Cultivated land (down to river bank) 3.0
Cultivated land (down to river bank) 3.0
Forest, overgrown valley bottom 8.0
Forest, overgrown valley bottom 8.0
Papyrus swamp in valley bottom 20.0
Papyrus swamp in valley bottom 20.0

5.3.5 5.3.5 Base

Base Time
Base Time
5.3.5 Time
The rainfall time (TP) is the time during which the rainfall intensity remains at high level.
The rainfall time (TP) is the time during which the rainfall intensity remains at high level.
This can be approximated by the time during which 60 per cent of the total rainfall
This can be approximated by the time during which 60 per cent of the total rainfall
occurs. Using the general intensity duration frequency equation,
occurs. Using the general intensity duration frequency equation,
aa
ii 
 (0.33  t ) cc
(0.33  t dd )
the time to give 60 per cent of the total rainfall is given by solving the above equation.
the time to give 60 per cent of the total rainfall is given by solving the above equation.
c
tt d  24 .33  c
d  24.33 
 24  t  0.33 
00..66  Eqn. 5.12
Eqn. 5.12
24  t dd  0.33 
Values for the various rainfall zones of East Africa are given in Table 5.6
Values for the various rainfall zones of East Africa are given in Table 5.6

51
5.12
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Ministry of Works and Transport
 Drainage Design Manual Section 5
Drainage
DrainageDesign
DesignManual
Manual Section
Section 5 5

Table 5.6: Rainfall Time (TP) for East African 10 year Storm
(Source:
Table 5.6: Rainfall TRRL
Time (TP) forLaboratory Report
East African 706)
10 year Storm
(Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Zone Index 'c' Rainfall time (T P) (hr)
Inland zone Zone Index
0.96'c' Rainfall time
0.75 (T P) (hr)
Inland
Coastalzone
zone 0.96
0.76 0.75
4.0
Coastal zone
Kenya Aberdare Uluguru Zone 0.76
0.85 4.0
2.0
Kenya Aberdare Uluguru Zone 0.85 2.0
The flood wave attenuation (TA) could be estimated from equation 5.13
The flood wave attenuation (TA) could be estimated from equation 5.13
0.028L
TA  1 1 Eqn. 5.13
0.028L
T A  Q 14 S 12 Eqn. 5.13
Q 4S 2
Where:
Where: L = length of main stream (km)
LQ==length of main
average streambase
flow during (km)time (m3/s)
Q== average
S averageslope
flow during base time
along main (m3/s)
stream
The base S
time is, therefore,
= average slope estimated
along mainfrom equation 5.14:
stream
The base time is, therefore, estimated from equation 5.14:
TB  TP  2.3K  T A Eqn. 5.14
T  TP  2.3K  T A Eqn. 5.14
It Bis noted that Q appears in eqn. 5.13. So an iterative or trial end error solution is
It is notedIf that Q Tappears in eqn. 5.13. So an iterative or trial end error solution is
required. initially A is assumed zero, two iterations could be adequate. Knowing Q
and F, theIfpeak
required. flowTAisiscalculated
initially assumedusing zero, eqn. 5.8
two iterations could be adequate. Knowing Q
and F, the peak flow is calculated using eqn. 5.8
Example 5.3 (Adopted from TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Example 5.3 (Adopted from TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
A 10 year average recurrence interval design flood is required for a catchment that has
the10following
A details.recurrence interval design flood is required for a catchment that has
year average
the following details.
a) Area: 10 square kilometer
a)
b) Area: 10 square
Land slope: 6 % kilometer
C) Land
b) Channel slope:
slope: 6 %3%
d) Channel
C) Channel length:
slope: 3%4 km
o
d) Channel length: 4Skm
e) Grid reference: 5 35o E
o o
f)
e)Catchment
Grid reference: type:5Poor
S 35pasture
E
f) Catchment type: Poor pasture
From Table 5.5, lag time (K) = 0.5 h
From Table
Appendix5.5,5.1
lag and
timeTable
(K) = 5.2,
0.5 hstandard contributing area coefficient CS = 0.45
From Table
Appendix5.3,5.1
catchment
and Table wetness factor CW
5.2, standard = 0.5
contributing area coefficient CS = 0.45
From Table 5.4, 5.3, land use factor
catchment CL =factor
wetness 1.0 CW = 0.5
Therefore,
From Tablethe 5.4,design value
land use for CCAL == 0.23
factor 1.0
Initial retention
Therefore, Y = 0 value for CA = 0.23
the design
From
Initial Table 5.6,YT=P 0
retention = 0.75 hrs.
From Table 5.6, TP = 0.75 hrs.
Using Eqn. 5.14with TA = 0
Ts = 0.75
Using + 0.23
Eqn. (0.5)T=A =1.9hrs.
5.14with 0
Ts = 0.75 + 0.23 (0.5) = 1.9hrs.

52
Ministry of Works and Transport 5.13
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Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 5

Drainage Design Manual Section 5

Using Eqn. 5.14with TA = 0

Ts = 0.75 + 0.23 (0.5) = 1.9hrs.
Rainfall during base time is given by:
c
T  24.33  10
RTB = B   * R 24
24  TB + 0.33 
10
Where R 24 =daily rainfall of 10 years average recurrence interval
and c = 0.96 (Table 5.6)
Using rainfall map (Appendix 4.3)
Daily point rainfall of Average recurrence interval 2 year = 63 mm
10:2 yr ratio = 1.49
Daily rainfall of average recurrence interval 10 yr = 94 mm
0.96
1.9  24.33 
R1.9 =   * 94 = 73.79mm
24  1.9 + 0.33 
Area Reduction Factor is given by
1 1
ARF = 1 − 0.04T 3
A 2
= 0.84
Average Rainfall P = 73.79 x 0.84 = 61.98
RO = C A ( P − Y ) A * 10 3
0.93 * RO 3
(Q ) = = 19.38 m /s
3600 * TB
0.028L
TA 1 1
= 0.31 hrs
(Q) 4 S 2

TB (2nd approximation) = 1.9 + 0.31 = 2.21 hrs.

0.96
2.21  24.33 
R2.2.1 =   * 94 = 75.75��
24  2.21 + 0.33 
ARF = 0.84
Therefore P = 63.63 mm
Q = 17.11 m3/sec
TA = 0.32 hrs (no change)
Therefore Q = F * Q
For K less than 0.5 hour F = 2.8
For K more than 1 hour, F = 2.3
For the case at hand, therefore, F = 2.8
Therefore, Q = 2.8 * 17.11
= 47.91 m3/sec

53
Ministry of Works and Transport 5.14
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

SECTION 6
6.0 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF GAUGED DATA
6.1 General
Analysis of gauged data permits an estimate of the peak discharge in terms of its probability
or frequency of exceedance at a given site. This is done by statistical methods provided
sufficient data are available at the site to permit a meaningful statistical analysis to be made.
It is suggested that at least 10 years of record are necessary to warrant a statistical analysis
by method presented therein.
At some sites, historical data may exist on large floods prior to or after the period over which
stream flow data were collected. Whenever possible, these data should be compiled and
documented to improve frequency estimates.
6.2 Analysis of Annual and Partial-Duration Series
Before analyzing data, it is necessary to arrange it in a systematic manner. Data can be arranged
in a number of ways depending on the specific characteristics that are to be examined. An
arrangement of data by a specific characteristic is called a distribution or a series.
The most common arrangement of hydrologic data is by magnitude of the annual peak
discharge. This arrangement is called an annual series. Another method used in flood data
arrangement is the partial-duration series. This procedure uses all peak flows (for instance all
flows above the discharge of approximately bank-full stage) above some base value.
Partial-duration series are used primarily in defining annual flood damages when more than
one event that causes flood damages can occur in any year. The partial-duration series avoids
a problem with the annual-maximum series. Annual maximum series analyses ignore floods
that are not the highest flood of that year even though they are larger than the highest floods of
other years. While partial-duration series produce larger sample sizes than annual maximum
series, they require a criterion that defines independence of the discharges to be considered
for the frequency analysis.
The difference between the results of the two methods is large at the lower flows and becomes
very small at the higher peak discharges. If the recurrence interval of these peak flows is
computed as the order divided by the number of events (not years), the recurrence interval of
the partial-duration series can be computed in terms of the annual series by the equation:

1
TB  Eqn (6.1)
ln T A  ln(T A  1)

where:

TB and TA are the recurrence intervals of the partial-duration series and annual series,
respectively.
Comparison between analyses results of the two methods shows that the maximum deviation
between the two series occurs for flows with recurrence intervals less than 10 years. At this
interval the deviation is about 5 percent and for the 5-year discharge, the deviation is about 10
percent. For the less frequent floods, the two series approach one another.
When using the partial-duration series, one must be especially careful that the selected flood
peaks are independent events. This is a tough practical problem since secondary flood peaks
may occur during the same flood as a result of high antecedent moisture conditions. In this
case, the secondary flood is not an independent event. One should also be cautious with the
choice of the lower limit or base flood since it directly affects the computation of the properties
of the distribution (i.e., the mean, the variance and standard deviation, and the coefficient of
skew) all of which may change the peak flow determinations.

54
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

For this reason, it is probably best to utilize the annual series and convert the results to a
partial-duration series through use of Equation 6.1. For the less frequent events (greater than
5 to 10 years), the annual series is entirely appropriate and no other analysis is required.
6.3 Frequency Analysis Concepts
Future floods cannot be predicted with certainty. Therefore, their magnitude and frequency are
treated using probability concepts. To do this, a sample of flood magnitudes are obtained and
analyzed for the purpose of estimating a population that can be used to represent flooding at
that location. The assumed population is then used in making projections of the magnitude
and frequency of floods. It is important to recognize that the population is estimated from
sample information and that the assumed population, not the sample, is then used for making
statements about the likelihood of future flooding. The purpose of this section is to introduce
concepts that are important in analyzing sample flood data in order to identify a probability
distribution that can represent the occurrence of flooding.
6.3.1 Plotting Position Formulas
When making a flood frequency analysis, it is common to plot both the assumed population
and the peak discharges of the sample. To plot the sample values on frequency paper, it is
necessary to assign an exceedence probability to each magnitude. A plotting position formula
is used for this purpose. A number of different formulas have been proposed for computing
plotting position probabilities, with no unanimity on the preferred method. A general formula for
computing plotting positions is:

ia
P Eqn. 6.2
n  a  b 1
where:

i = the rank of the ordered flood magnitudes, with the largest flood having a rank of 1
n = the record length
a and b = constants for a particular plotting position formula

The Weibull, Pw ( a = b =0), Hazen, Ph ( a = b =0.5), and Cunnane, Pc ( a = b =0.4) are

three possible plotting position formulas:
i
PW  Eqn 6.3 (a)
n 1
i  0.5
Ph  Eqn 6.3 (b)
n
i  0.4
Pc  Eqn 6.3 (c)
n  0.2
The data are plotted by placing a point for each value of the flood series at the intersection
of the flood magnitude and the exceedance probability computed with the plotting position
formula. The plotted data should approximate the population line if the assumed population
model is a reasonable assumption.
6.3.2 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution
Flood frequency analysis uses sample information to fit a population, which is a probability
distribution. These distributions have parameters that must be estimated in order to make
probability statements about the likelihood of future flood magnitudes. A number of methods
for estimating the parameters are available. The method of moments, which is just one of the
parameter-estimation methods is applied in this manual.

55
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Drainage Design Manual Section 6

Several cumulative frequency distributions are commonly used in the analysis of hydrologic
data, and as a result they have been studied extensively and are now standardized. The
frequency distributions that have been found most useful in hydrologic data analysis are the
normal distribution, the log-normal distribution, the Gumbel extreme value distribution, and the
log-Pearson Type III distribution.
Log-Pearson Type III Distribution has found wide application in hydrologic analysis. It is a
three-parameter gamma distribution with a logarithmic transform of the variable. It is widely
used for flood analyses because the data quite frequently fit the assumed population.
The log-Pearson Type III distribution differs from most of other distributions in that three
parameters (mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of skew) are necessary to describe the
distribution. By judicious selection of these three parameters, it is possible to fit just about any
shape of distribution.
An abbreviated table of the log-Pearson III distribution function is given in 6.1. Using the mean,
standard deviation, and skew coefficient for any set of log-transformed annual peak flow data,
in conjunction with 6.1, the flood with any exceedence frequency can be computed from the
equation:

Yˆ  log X  Y  KS y Eqn. 6.4

where:

X is value of the flood series

Yˆ is the predicted value of log X
Y is the average of the logarithms of X and
S y is the standard deviation of the logarithms.
K is a function of the exceedance probability and the coefficient of skew.

A) Procedure

The specific steps for making a basic log-Pearson type III LP3 analysis without any of
the optional adjustments are as follows:

1. Make a logarithmic transform of all flows in the series ( Yi  log X i ).

2.Compute the mean ( Q ), standard deviation ( S ), and station skew (G) of the
logarithms using Equation 6.5, Equation 6.6, and Equation 6.7, respectively of both
the flood data and its log-transformed set. Round the skew to the nearest tenth (e.g.,
0.32 is rounded to 0.3). Discharges could also be estimated using Generalized skew
and Weighted skew. For this the user could refer to Highway Hydrology, HDS 2,
September 1996 (Metric Version).

Q i
Q  i 1 Eqn. 6.5
n
0 .5
 n 2 

0.5
Qi
n
2 
  (Qi  Q)    ( Q  1) 
 = Q  Eqn 6.6
i 1
S   i 1
 n 1   n 1 
   
   
n Q n
n(Qi Q) n( i 1)3
3

i1 Q
G  i1  Eqn. 6.7
56
(n 1)(n  2)V (n 1)(n  2)V3
3

S
Ministry of where: V Transport
Works and
X
 n

Q i
Q  i 1 Eqn. 6.5
n
0 .5
 n 2 
 0.5
Qi
n
2 
  (Qi  Q)    ( Q  1) 
Drainage Design
S   Manual
i 1 = Q i 1
 Eqn 6.6 Section 6
 n 1   n 1 
   
   
n n
Q
n(Qi Q)3 n( i 1)3
i1 Q
G  i1  Eqn. 6.7
(n 1)(n  2)V (n 1)(n  2)V3
3

S
where: V 
X

3. Since the LP3 curve with a nonzero skew does not plot as a straight line, it is necessary
to use more than two points to draw the curve. The curvature of the line will increase as
the absolute value of the skew increases, so more points will be needed for larger skew
magnitudes.
4. Compute the logarithmic value for each exceedence frequency using Equation 6.4.
5. Transform the computed values of step 4 to discharges using

Xˆ  10Y
Eqn 6.8
in which

Xˆ is 10 Y
the computed discharge for the assumed LP3 population.
6. Plot the points of step 5 on logarithmic probability paper and draw a smooth curve
through the points. The sample data can be plotted on the paper using a plotting position
formula to obtain the exceedence probability. The computed curve can then be verified,
and, if acceptable, it can be used to make estimates of either a flood probability or flood
magnitude.
Log-Pearson III distributions are usually plotted on log-normal probability graph paper
even though the plotted frequency distribution may not be a straight line. It is a straight
line only when the skew of the logarithms is zero.
Example 6.1 (Adopted from HDS 2, 1996)
The Log-Pearson Type III distribution will be illustrated using an exemplary river flood data
(Table Example 6-1-1) for the case of station skew. Appendix 6-1 and Equation 6.4 are used
to compute values of the log-Pearson III distribution for the 2- to 100- years flood using the
parameters, Y , S y , and G for the flood data with the following steps.
Step 1: Transform all the flow into their logarithmic values
This is done by taking the logarithm (to the base 10) of the discharge data. In the
example, it is included in the third column of Table Example 6.1 – 1.

Step 2: Computation of the mean ( Q ) , standard deviation (S), and station skew (G) of the
logarithms using Equation 6.5, Equation 6.6, and Equation 6.7, respectively for both
the flow data and the log-transformed data sets. The means for the flow data and the
log transformed version are figured out to be 186.96 and 2.0912 respectively and
standard deviations are computed to be 200.33 and 0.3941 respectively. To facilitate
the computation of the generalized skew, the term n

∑(
i =1
Qi
Q
− 1) 3

is rendered in the fifth column of Table Example 6.1–1. The Station Skew is then
computed to be 0.236 employing Eqn. 6.7. The value 0.236 is rounded to the nearest
tenth (i.e. to 0.2).

57
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Drainage Design Manual Section 6

Step 3: For the Frequency value for which the discharge is to be estimated, compute the
exceedence probability. For Frequency of 10 years, for instance, the exceedence
probability is
0.1 = 1/10
With the G value computed in step 2 and the exceedence probability for the
frequency value under consideration, find the K value from Appendix 6.1.
For the rounded of G value of 0.2 and exceedence probability of 0.1, for
instance, the corresponding K value is read to be 1.30105 and the Y value is
2.6039 = 2.0912 + 1.30105(0.3941).
Step 4: Transform the computed values of step 3 to discharges using Eqn. 6.8. The discharge
for the return period of 10 years, thus, become

401.7 m 3 / s  10 2.6039
Similarly the discharges for the different frequency values could be computed. The
results for the frequency values of two to hundred years are rendered in Table Example
6.1- 2.

58
Ministry of Works and Transport
 Drainage Design Manual Section 6
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

Table Example 6.1-1: Frequency Analysis Computations for the Log-Normal

Distribution: an Exemplary River

Weibull Plotting
Flood X, (m3/s) Rank Y = Log (x) Position (Y Y 1)3
903.30 1 2.96 0.023 0.071
900.50 2 2.95 0.045 0.070
495.50 3 2.70 0.068 0.024
492.70 4 2.69 0.091 0.024
410.60 5 2.61 0.114 0.016
370.90 6 2.57 0.136 0.012
342.60 7 2.53 0.159 0.010
274.10 8 2.44 0.182 0.005
267.30 9 2.43 0.205 0.004
261.10 10 2.42 0.227 0.004
231.10 11 2.36 0.250 0.002
212.70 12 2.33 0.273 0.001
195.10 13 2.29 0.295 0.001
180.10 14 2.26 0.318 0.000
160.30 15 2.20 0.341 0.000
155.20 16 2.19 0.364 0.000
153.80 17 2.19 0.386 0.000
146.70 18 2.17 0.409 0.000
140.60 19 2.15 0.432 0.000
134.50 20 2.13 0.455 0.000
130.80 21 2.12 0.477 0.000
116.90 22 2.07 0.500 0.000
112.10 23 2.05 0.523 0.000
100.20 24 2.00 0.545 0.000
95.10 25 1.98 0.568 0.000
94.90 26 1.98 0.591 0.000
90.60 27 1.96 0.614 0.000
86.40 28 1.94 0.636 0.000
83.50 29 1.92 0.659 -0.001
77.30 30 1.89 0.682 -0.001
71.90 31 1.86 0.705 -0.001
61.20 32 1.79 0.727 -0.003
60.90 33 1.78 0.750 -0.003
60.60 34 1.78 0.773 -0.003
58.00 35 1.76 0.795 -0.004
56.60 36 1.75 0.818 -0.004
56.10 37 1.75 0.841 -0.004
49.50 38 1.69 0.864 -0.007
41.60 39 1.62 0.886 -0.012
34.00 40 1.53 0.909 -0.019
25.20 41 1.40 0.932 -0.036
24.50 42 1.39 0.955 -0.038
22.70 43 1.36 0.977 -0.043

59
Ministry of Works and Transport
6.6
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

Table Example 6.1- 2. Calculation of Log Pearson Type III Discharges for the
Exemplary River Using Station Skew

(1)
(2) 5
Return (3) (4)
Exceedence X
Period K Y 3
Probability (m /s)
(Yrs)
2 0.50 -0.03325 2.0781 119.7
5 0.20 0.83044 2.4185 262.1
10 0.10 1.30105 2.6039 401.7
25 0.04 1.81756 2.8075 641.9
50 0.02 2.15935 2.9422 875.3
100 0.01 2.47226 3.0655 1162.8

Example 6.2 (Adopted from HDS 2, 1996)

Compute the plotting position values for the discharge data set given for example
6.1using Weibull Plotting Position Formula.

Step 1: The discharge data is arranged in rank. This is done in column 4 of Table
Example 6.1-1

Step 2: Compute the plotting position value employing Weibull’s formula. For the data
ranked first, the plotting position value is (for i = 1 and n=43)

1
 0.023
43  1
Using similar procedure, the plotting position values could be calculated for the whole
data set.

6.3.3 Outliers
6.3.3 Outliers
Outliers, which may be found at either or both ends of a frequency distribution, are
measured values that occur, but appear to be from a longer sample or different
population. This is reflected when one or more data points do not follow the trend of the
remaining data. If the station skew is greater than 0.4, tests are applied for high outliers
first; and if less than -0.4, low outliers are considered first. If the station skew is
between ± 0.4, both high and low outliers are tested before any data are eliminated.
The detection of high and low outliers is obtained with the following equations,
respectively:

YL  Y  K N S Y Eqn. 6.9
and

YL  Y  K N S Y Eqn. 6.10
where:
YL is the log of the high or low outlier limit
Y is the deviation of the sample
K N is the critical deviate taken from Appendix 6.2
If the sample is found to contain high outliers, the peak flows should be checked
against historical data and data from nearby stations. It is recommended that high
outliers be adjusted for historical information or retained in the sample as a systematic
peak. The high outlier should not be discarded unless the peak flow is shown to be
seriously in error. If a high outlier is adjusted based on historical data, the mean and
60
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

seriously in error. If a high outlier is adjusted based on historical data, the mean and standard
deviation of the log distribution should be recomputed for the adjusted data before testing
for low outliers.
To test for low outliers, the low outlier threshold YL of Equation 6.10 is computed. The
corresponding discharge X L = 10 YL is then computed. If any discharges in the flood
series are less than X L , then they are considered to be low outliers and should be
deleted from the sample.

Example 6.3 (Adopted from HDS 2, 1996)

To illustrate the criteria for outlier detection, Equation (6.9) and Equation (6.10) are
applied to the 43-year record for the exemplary River data (Table Example 6.1-1),
which has a log mean of 2.0912 and a log standard deviation of 0.3941. From Appendix
6.2 , KN = 2.710. Testing first for high outliers

Y L 2.0912  2.710(0.3941)  3.1592

and

X L  10 3.1592  1443 m
3
s

No flows in the sample exceed this amount, so there are no high outliers. Now testing
for low outliers, Equation 6.10 gives

Y L 2.0912  2.710(0.3941)  1.0232

and

X L  101.0232  11 m
3
s

There are no flows in the Medina River sample that are less than this critical value. Therefore,
the entire sample should be used in the log-Pearson III analysis. If any discharges in the flood
series are less than XL, then they are considered to be low outliers and should be deleted from
the sample. The moments should be recomputed with the data set that does not bear the low
outlier.

6.3.4 6.3.4 Incomplete
Incomplete Records
Records andFlows
and Zero Zero Flows
Stream flow records are often interrupted for a variety of reasons. Gages may be removed
for some period of time, there may be periods of zero flow and there may be periods when a
gage is inoperative either because the flow is too low to record or it is too large and causes
a gage malfunction. If the break in the record is not flood related, such as the removal of a
gage, no special adjustments are needed and the segments of the interrupted record can be
combined together to produce a record equal to the sum of the length of the segments. When
a gage malfunctions during a flood, it is usually possible to estimate the peak discharge from
high water marks or slope-area calculations. The estimate is made a part of the record, and a
frequency analysis performed without further adjustment.
Zero flows or flows that are too low to be recorded present more of a problem since in the
log transform, these flows produce undefined values. In this case, an adjustment based on
conditional probability that is applicable if not more than 25 percent of the sample is eliminated.
The adjustment for zero flows also is applied only after all other data adjustments have been
made. The adjustment is made by first calculating the relative frequency, , that the annual peak
will exceed the level below which flows are zero, or not considered (the truncation level):

61
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

M
Pa  Eqn. 6.11
n
where:

M is the number of flows above the truncated level

n is the total period of record.

The exceedence probabilities, P , of selected points on the frequency curve are

recomputed as a conditional probability as follows:

P  Pa * Pd Eqn. 6.12

where:

Pd is the selected probability

QS  log(Q0.50 )  K 0.50 ( S S ) Eqn. 6.13

Since the frequency curve adjusted by Equation 6.12 has unknown statistics, its
properties, synthetic values, are computed by the equations:

log(Q0.01 / Q0.50 )
SS  Eqn. 6.14
K 0.01  K 0.50
and
 log(Q0.01 / Q0.10 
G S  2.50  3.12  Eqn. 6.15
 log(Q0.10 / Q0.50 ) 
where:

Q S , Ss , and Gs are the mean, standard deviation, and skew of the synthetic
frequency curve, Q0.01 , Q0.10 and Q0.50 are discharges with exceedence probabilities
of 0.01, 0.10 and 0.50, respectively, K 0.01 and K 0.50 are the log-Pearson III deviates for
exceedence probabilities of 0.01 and 0.50, respectively.

The values of Q0.01 , Q0.10 and Q0.50 must usually be interpolated since probabilities
computed with Equation 6.11 are not normally those needed to compute the properties
of the synthetic or truncated distribution.

The
The log-Pearson
log-Pearson III
III distribution
distribution can
can thenthen be
be computed
computed in in the
theconventional
conventionalmanner
mannerusing
using the
synthetic statistical
the synthetic properties.
statistical It is Itrecommended
properties. is recommended that that
the distribution be compared
the distribution with the
be compared
observed flows since
with the observed datasince
flows adjusted
data for conditional
adjusted probabilityprobability
for conditional may not follow
may a log-Pearson
not follow a III
distribution.
log-Pearson III distribution.
The procedures for the aforementioned discussions could be summarized as follows:
The procedures for the aforementioned discussions could be summarized as follows:
1. Obtain site information, the systematic station data, and historic information. This data
should
1. Obtain beinformation,
site examined forthe changes in watershed
systematic conditions,
station data, gage datum,
and historic flow regulation,
information. This
etc. It is in this initial step that missing data should be estimated if
data should be examined for changes in watershed conditions, gage datum, flow indicated by the
project.
regulation, etc. It is in this initial step that missing data should be estimated if
indicated by the project.
2. Order the flood data, determine the plotting position, and plot the data on selected
probability graph paper (usually log-probability). Examine the data trend to select the
standard distribution that best describes the population from which the sample is taken.

62
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 6

Use a mixed-population analysis if indicated by the data trend and the watershed
information.
3. Compute the sample statistics and the frequency curve for the selected distribution.
Plot the frequency curve with the station data to determine how well the flood data are
distributed according to the selected distribution.
4. Check for high and low outliers. Adjust for historic data, retain or eliminate outliers, and
recompute the frequency curve.
5. Adjust data for missing low flows and zero flows and recompute the frequency curve.
6. Check the resulting frequency curve for reliability.

63
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 7

SECTION 7
7.0 DESIGN AND USE OF DETENTION BASIN
7.1 General
The temporary storage or detention of excess storm water runoff as a means of controlling
the quantity and quality of storm water is a fundamental principle in storm water management
and a necessary element of a growing number of highway storm drainage systems. Previous
concepts that called for the rapid removal of storm water runoff from developed areas, usually
by channelization, are now being combined with methods for storing storm water runoff to
prevent overloading of existing downstream drainage systems and to control their quality.
The storage of storm water can reduce the frequency and extent of downstream flooding, soil
erosion, sedimentation, and water pollution. Detention facilities have also been used to reduce
the costs of large storm drainage systems by reducing the required size for downstream storm
drain conveyance systems.
Storm water quantity control facilities can be classified by function as either detention or retention
facilities. The primary function of detention is to store and gradually release or attenuate storm
water runoff by way of a control structure or other release mechanism. True retention facilities
provide for storage of storm water runoff, and release via evaporation and infiltration only.
Retention facilities which provide for slow release of storm water over an extended period of
several days or more are referred to as extended detention facilities. Typical detention and
retention hydrographs are shown in Fig. 7.1.

Figure 7-1. Typical Detention and Retention Hydrographs

7.2 Retention Facilities
Retention facilities include extended detention facilities, infiltration basins, and swales. In
addition to storm water storage, retention may be used for water supply, recreation, pollutant
removal, aesthetics, and/or groundwater recharge. Retention facilities are typically designed
to provide the dual functions of storm water quantity and quality control. Design criteria for
retention facilities are the same as those for detention facilities except that it may not be
necessary to remove all runoff after each storm.
7.3 Detention Facilities
Detention storage may be provided at one or more locations. These locations may exist as
impoundments, collection and conveyance facilities, and on-site facilities such as parking lots,
pavements, and basins. Detention ponds are the most common type of storage facility used
for controlling storm water runoff peak discharges. Detention facilities should be provided

64
Ministry of Works and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 7

where they are shown to be beneficial by hydrologic, hydraulic, health, and cost analysis.
7.4 Storage Location and Size
7.4.1 Location
Storage can be classified by location as on-site, off-site, upstream, downstream, channel (or on-
stream) and off-stream. Based on function, storage facilities may be for single or multipurpose
use and temporary (detention) or permanent (retention). Site selection involves (in addition
to hydrologic, hydraulic, health and cost analysis) a number of selection points of which the
following are the important ones:
• The size, shape, and depth of a detention facility must provide sufficient volume to
satisfy the projects’ storage requirements. This is best determined by routing the inflow
hydrograph through the facility;
• The site must be accessible both for construction and maintenance; and,
• The geology should be suitable for weir construction and other elements thereof.
7.4.2 Size
Estimating the required volume of storage to accomplish the necessary peak reduction is an
important task since an accurate first estimate will reduce the number of trials involved in the
routing procedure. The following sections present methods for determining an initial estimate
of the storage required to provide a specific reduction in peak discharge. All of the methods
presented provide preliminary estimates only. It is recommended that the designer apply
several of the methods and a degree of judgment to determine the initial storage estimate.
7.5 Triangular Hydrograph Method
A preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow attenuation may be obtained
from a simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow and outflow hydrographs with
standard triangular shapes. This method should not be applied if the hydrographs can not be
approximated by a triangular shape. This would introduce additional errors of the preliminary
estimate of the required storage. The procedure is illustrated by Fig. 7-2. The required storage
volume may be estimated from the area above the outflow hydrograph and inside the inflow
hydrograph as defined by Equation 7-1.

Vs  0.5t i (Qi  Qo ) Eqn. 7.1

where:
Vs = storage volume estimate, m3
Qi = peak inflow rate into the basin, m3 /s
Qo = peak outflow rate out of the basin, m3 /s
t i = duration of basin inflow, s
The duration of basin inflow should be derived from the estimated inflow hydrograph.
Maximum allowable discharge may be determined by the modified rational method for tributary
areas of less than 500 acres.

65
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Fig. 7.2: Triangular Hydrograph Method

Example 7.1
Given: The post-developed hydrograph of Fig. Example 7.1 and a limiting outflow rate, from the
proposed detention facility, of 0.55 m3/s.











     


Solution
Solution:

From Example Fig. 7.1, the duration of basin inflow ( t i ) is read to be 1.43 hours (5148
3
seconds) and the inflow rate into the detention basin ( Qi ) is also read to be 0.88 m /s.
Due to a local ordinance, the peak flow rate out of the basin ( Qo ) is set to be = 0.55
m3/s. Using Equation 8-1, the initial storage volume is computed as:

Vs = 0.5 t i ( Qi - Qo )

Vs = (0.5)(5148)(0.88 - 0.55) = 849 m3 ]

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7.6 Stage Discharge Relationship

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the discharge
or outflow from a storage facility. A typical storage facility will have both a principal and an
emergency outlet. The principal outlet is usually designed with a capacity sufficient to convey
the design flood without allowing flow to enter the emergency spillway. The structure for the
principal outlet will typically consist of a pipe culvert, weir, orifice, or other appropriate hydraulic
control device. Multiple outlet control devices are often used to provide discharge controls
for multiple frequency storms. Development of a composite stage-discharge curve requires
consideration of the discharge rating relationships for each component of the outlet structure.
7.7 Estimating Peak Flow Reduction (Routing Procedure)
The reservoir routing is based on the storage equation:
S
I O  Eqn. 7.2
t
where:
I = the input;
O = the output;
t = the routing time interval; and
S = the change in storage that occurs during the time interval t .

Both the inflow I and outflow O are time varying functions, with I being the inflow
hydrograph and O being the outflow hydrograph. While the inflow hydrograph is
known, the objective of the reservoir routing is to compute the outflow hydrograph. The
storage equation can be rewritten as:

It  0t  S Eqn. 7.3

If the subscripts 1 and 2 are used to indicate time t and t  t , respectively, the
average inflow and average outflow can be used to expand Eq. 7.3:

1 1
( I 1  I 2 ) t  (O1  O2 ) t  S 2  S1 Eqn. 7.4
2 2
Eqn. 7.4 can be rearranged such that the known are placed on one side and the
unknowns on the other side:
1 1
( I1  I 2 ) t  ( S1  O1 t )  S 2  12 O2 t Eqn. 7.5
2 2
In order to find the outflow hydrograph, it is only necessary to compute the outflow-
storage relationship, which is easily obtained for site data.
A solution for Eqn. 7.5 can be obtained by deriving the storage-indication curve, which
1
is the relationship between O and ( S  Ot ) . Given the storage discharge curve,
2
O vs. S , the following four-step procedure can be used to develop the storage-
indication curve:
1. Select a value of O ;
2. Determine the corresponding value of S from the storage-discharge curve;
1
3. Use the values of S and O to compute ( S  Ot ) ; and
2
1
4. Plot O vs. ( S  Ot ) .
2
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These four steps are repeated for a sufficient number of values of O to define the storage-
indication curve.
The objective of the storage-indication method is to derive the outflow hydrograph. There are
five data requirement:
1. The storage-discharge relationship;
2. The storage-indication curve;
3. The inflow-hydrograph;
4. Initial values of the storage and outflow rate; and
5. The routing increment.
The following five-step procedure can be used to derive the outflow hydrograph, with the
storage-time relationship as a by-product:

1
Step 1. Determine the average inflow: ( I 1  I 2 )t ;
2
1
Step 2. Determine ( S1  O1 t ) ;
2
1
Step 3. Using Eqn. 7.5 and the values from steps 1 and 2, compute ( S 2  O2 t ) ;
2
Step 4. Using the value computed in step 3, as input, find O2 from the storage-
indication curve; and

Step 5. Use O2 with the storage-discharge relationship and obtain S 2 .

These five steps are repeated for the next time increment using I 2 , O2 , and S 2 as the
new values of I 1 , O1 , S1 , respectively. The process is solved iteratively until the
outflow hydrograph is computed.

7.8 Muskingum-Cunge Flood Routing Method

The Muskingum-Cunge routing method has gained popularity in recent years as a method
that does not require extensive hydrologic data for calibration. The method is considered a
“hybrid” routing method; it is like hydrologic methods, but contains more physical information
typical of hydraulic routing methods. The coefficients are functions of the physical parameters
of the channel. The model physically accounts for the diffusion that is present in most
natural channels. The diffusion wave equation is derived from the equations of continuity
and momentum. The Muskingum-Cunge method is one method of solution of the diffusion
equation. The computational equation is:

O2  C o I 2  C1 I1  C 2 O1 Eqn. 7.6

However, the computation of C i differs:

I C  D
Co  Eqn. 7.7
I DC
I C D
C1  Eqn. 7.8
I  DC
I C  D
C2  Eqn. 7.9
I DC
68
and
Ministry of Works and Transport
t
C c Eqn. 7.10
x
and
 I C  D
Co  Eqn. 7.7
I DC
I C D
C1  Eqn. 7.8
I  DC
I  CManual
Drainage Design D Section 7
C2  Eqn. 7.9
I DC
and

t
C c Eqn. 7.10
x
and
qo
D Eqn. 7.11
S o cx

where:

t = time (s),
x = distance along the channel (m),
c = celerity (m/s),
qo = is discharge per unit channel width (m2/s), and
S o = slope

Celerityc is obtained from a rating curve as V with velocity V based on the peak
discharge. The unit discharge, q o , is based on a reference discharge, typically the
peak flow. In this method, C o  C1  C 2 = 1. The following guidelines produce the
best results when using the Muskingum-Cunge method.

1. The sum of C and D should be greater than or equal to 1;

2. C1 and C 2 can be positive or negative, unlike the Muskingum method;
3. C should be kept close to 1, but not greater than 1, to avoid numerical dispersion;
4. The ratio of the time to peak of the flood wave to the time interval t should be
greater than or equal to

The Muskingum-Cunge method is appropriate for use on most stream channels. It accounts
for diffusion of the flood wave. However, if there are significant backwater effects caused by
upstream or downstream controls, then this method should not be used (actually, only the
full dynamic equation can account for backwater effects). The main advantage of using the
Muskingum-Cunge over the Muskingum routing method is that the Muskingum-Cunge method
is physically based and requires minimal streamflow data. The parameters are based on the
rating curve and slope. Therefore, this method is ideal for use in un-gauged streams.
Example 7-2
Consider a river shown in Example Figure 7.2. It has a 4.8 km reach between A and B with
an inflow hydrograph (peak discharge of 84 m3/s) given in Example Table 7-2. The average
discharge for this hydrograph is 34 m3/s. Using the trapezoidal cross section given in Example
Figure 7.2 and a flow depth of 2 m, the average velocity is computed from the continuity
equation and travel time = length/velocity. The cross-sectional area corresponding to Q =
34 m3/s is 24 m2, which yields a velocity of 1.4 m/s (= 34 m3/s/24 m2). The travel time at this
velocity is 4800 m/[1.4 m/s (3600 s/h)] = 0.95 hours.

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Example Figure 7.2: Schematics of River Reach

Assuming  = 5/3 and  t = 1,800 s, the inflow hydrograph can be routed using the
Equation 7.7 through Equation 7.11, and using the following  x and  t values. D and
the C values shall then be:

D = 0.718
C= 0.875
Co = 0.2287
C1 = 0.4462
C2 = 0.3251

The outflow hydrograph is computed from Equation 7-6 and is given in Example Table
3
7.2-1. The peak flow attenuates to 79 m /s, and translates to hour 4.5.

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DrainageDesign
DesignManual
Manual Section
Section 7 7

Example Table 7.2-1: Inflow and Outflow Hydrograph for Muskingum-Cunge Routing
Method

Time (h) Inflow (m3/s) Muskingum - Cungi Outflow (m3/s)

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7.8
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Drainage Design Manual Section 8

SECTION 8
8.0 PAVEMENT DRAINAGE
8.1 General
Effective drainage of highway pavements is essential to maintain the levels of service and
to traffic safety of roads. Water on the pavement can interrupt traffic, reduce skid resistance,
increase potential for hydroplaning, limit visibility due to splash and spray, and cause difficulty
in steering a vehicle when the front wheels encounter puddles. The substructures of a roadway
are also highly influenced by intrusion of water.
Pavement drainage requires consideration of surface drainage, gutter flow, and inlet capacity.
The design of these elements is dependent on storm frequency and the allowable spread of
storm water on the pavement surface. This chapter presents design guidance for the design
of these elements.
8.2 Design Frequency and Spread
Two of the more significant variables considered in the design of highway pavement drainage
are the frequency of the design runoff event and the allowable spread of water on the
pavement. A related consideration is the use of an event of lesser frequency to check the
drainage design.
Spread and design frequency are not independent. The implications of the use of a criteria for
spread of one-half of a traffic lane is considerably different for one design frequency than for a
lesser frequency. It also has different implications for a low-traffic, low-speed highway than for
a higher classification highway. These subjects are central to the issue of highway pavement
drainage and important to highway safety.
8.2.1 Selection of Design Frequency and Design Spread
The objective of highway storm drainage design is to provide for safe passage of vehicles
during the design storm event. The design of a drainage system for a kerbed highway pavement
section is to collect runoff in the gutter and convey it to pavement inlets in a manner that
provides reasonable safety for traffic and pedestrians at a reasonable cost. As spread from the
kerb increases, the risks of traffic accidents and delays, and the nuisance and possible hazard
to pedestrian traffic increase.
The process of selecting the recurrence interval and spread for design involves decisions
regarding acceptable risks of accidents and traffic delays and acceptable costs for the drainage
system. Risks associated with water on traffic lanes are greater with high traffic volumes, high
speeds, and higher highway classifications than with lower volumes, speeds, and highway
classifications. A summary of the major considerations that enter into the selection of design
frequency and design spread follows.
1. The classification of the highway is a good starting point in the selection process since it
defines the public’s expectations regarding water on the pavement surface. Ponding on
traffic lanes of high- speed, high-volume highways is contrary to the public’s expectations
and thus the risks of accidents and the costs of traffic delays are high.
2. Design speed is important to the selection of design criteria. At speeds greater than 70
km/hr, it has been shown that water on the pavement can cause hydroplaning.
3. Projected traffic volumes are an indicator of the economic importance of keeping the
highway open to traffic. The costs of traffic delays and accidents increase with increasing
traffic volumes.
4. The intensity of rainfall events may significantly affect the selection of design frequency
and spread. Risks associated with the spread of water on pavements may be less in
arid areas subject to high intensity thunderstorm events than in areas accustomed to
frequent but less intense events.
5. Capital costs are neither the least nor last consideration. Cost considerations make it

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necessary to formulate a rational approach to the selection of design criteria. “Tradeoffs”

between desirable and practicable criteria are sometimes necessary because of costs.
In particular, the costs and feasibility of providing for a given design frequency and
spread may vary significantly between projects. In some cases, it may be practicable to
significantly upgrade the drainage design and reduce risks at moderate costs.
Other considerations include inconvenience, hazards, and nuisances to pedestrian traffic.
These considerations should not be minimized and, in some locations such as in commercial
areas, may assume major importance. Local design practice may also be a major consideration
since it can affect the feasibility of designing to higher standards, and it influences the public’s
perception of acceptable practice.
The relative elevation of the highway and surrounding terrain is an additional consideration
where water can be drained only through a storm drainage system, as in underpasses and
depressed sections. The potential for ponding to hazardous depths should be considered in
selecting the frequency and spread criteria and in checking the design against storm runoff
events of lesser frequency than the design event.
Spread on traffic lanes can be tolerated to greater widths where traffic volumes and speeds are
low. Spreads of one-half of a traffic lane or more are usually considered a minimum type design
for low-volume local roads. The selection of design criteria for intermediate types of facilities
may be the most difficult. For example, some arterials with relatively high traffic volumes and
speeds may not have shoulders which will convey the design runoff without encroaching on
the traffic lanes. In these instances, an assessment of the relative risks and costs of various
design spreads may be helpful in selecting appropriate design criteria. Table 8-1 provides
suggested minimum design frequencies and spread based on the type of highway and traffic
speed.
Table 8-1 Suggested Minimum Design Frequency and Spread (Source: HEC 22)

DESIGN DESIGN
ROAD CLASSIFICATION
FREQUENCY SPREAD*
High Volume or < 70 km/hr 10-yrs Shoulder + 1 m
Divided or Bi- > 70 km/hr 10-yrs Shoulder
Directional Sag Point 50-yrs Shoulder + 1 m
Collector < 70 km/hr 10-yrs 1/2 Driving Lane
> 70 km/hr 10-yrs Shoulder
Sag Point 10-yrs 1/2 Driving Lane
Local Streets Low ADT** 5-yrs 1/2 Driving Lane
High ADT 10-yrs 1/2 Driving Lane
Sag Point 10-yrs 1/2 Driving Lane

*A gutter flowing at capacity should not flood more than 1.5 meters into carriageway

**ADT = Average daily traffic

8.2.2 Selection of Check Storm and Spread

A check storm should be used to assess the impact of flooding during less frequent events.
Also, inlets should always be evaluated for a check storm when a series of inlets terminate at
a sag vertical curve where ponding to hazardous depths could occur.
The frequency selected for the check storm should be based on the same considerations
used to select the design storm, i.e., the consequences of spread exceeding that chosen for
design and the potential for ponding. Where no significant ponding can occur, check storms
are normally unnecessary.

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8.3 Surface Drainage

When rain falls on a sloped pavement surface, it forms a thin film of water that increases
in thickness as it flows to the edge of the pavement. Factors which influence the depth of
water on the pavement are the length of flow path, surface texture, surface slope, and rainfall
intensity.
As the depth of water on the pavement increases, the potential for vehicular hydroplaning
increases. For the purposes of highway drainage, a discussion of hydroplaning is presented
and design guidance for the following drainage elements is presented:
• longitudinal pavement slope;
• cross or transverse pavement slope;
• kerb and gutter design; and,
• bridge decks.
8.3.1 Hydroplaning
As the depth of water flowing over a roadway surface increases, the potential for hydroplaning
increases. When a rolling tire encounters a film of water on the roadway, the water is
channeled through the tire tread pattern and through the surface roughness of the pavement.
Hydroplaning occurs when the drainage capacity of the tire tread pattern and the pavement
surface is exceeded and the water begins to build up in front of the tire. As the water builds
up, a water wedge is created and this wedge produces a hydrodynamic force which can lift
the tire off the pavement surface. This is considered as full dynamic hydroplaning and, since
water offers little shear resistance, the tire loses its tractive ability and the driver has a loss of
control of the vehicle.
Hydroplaning is a function of the water depth, roadway geometry, vehicle speed, tread
depth, tire inflation pressure, and conditions of the pavement surface. It has been shown that
hydroplaning can occur at speeds of 87 km/hr with a water depth of 2 mm. The hydroplaning
potential of a roadway surface can be reduced by the following:
1. Design the highway geometries to reduce the drainage path lengths of the water flowing
over the pavement. This will prevent flow build-up.
2. Increase the pavement surface texture depth by such methods as grooving of Portland
cement concrete. An increase of pavement surface texture will increase the drainage
capacity at the tire pavement interface.
3. The use of open graded asphalt pavements has been shown to greatly reduce the
hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface. This reduction is due to the ability of the
water to be forced through the pavement under the tire. This releases any hydrodynamic
pressures that are created and reduces the potential for the tire to hydroplane.
4. The use of drainage structures along the roadway to capture the flow of water over the
pavement will reduce the thickness of the film of water and reduce the hydroplaning
potential of the roadway surface.
8.3.2 Longitudinal Slope
Experience has shown that the recommended minimum values of roadway longitudinal slope
given in the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design will provide safe, acceptable pavement
drainage. In addition, the following general guidelines are presented.

1. A minimum longitudinal gradient is more important for a kerbed pavement than for an
un-kerbed pavement since the water is constrained by the kerb. However, flat gradients
on un-kerbed pavements can lead to a spread problem if vegetation is allowed to build
up along the pavement edge.
2. Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5 percent for kerbed pavements with
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an absolute minimum of 0.3 percent. Minimum grades can be maintained in very flat
terrain by use of a rolling profile, or by warping the cross slope to achieve rolling gutter
profiles.
3. To provide adequate drainage in sag vertical curves, a minimum slope of 0.3 percent
should be maintained within 15 meters of the low point of the curve. This is accomplished
where the length of the curve in meters divided by the algebraic difference in grades in
percent ( ) is less than or equal to 50. This is represented as:

L
K Eqn. 8.1
G2  G1
where:

K = vertical curve constant m/percent

L = horizontal length of curve, m
Gi = grade of roadway, percent
8.3.3 Cross (Transverse) Slope
Table 8-2 indicates an acceptable range of cross slopes as specified in AASHTO’s policy on
geometric design of highways and streets. These cross slopes are a compromise between the
need for reasonably steep cross slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slopes for driver
comfort and safety. These cross slopes represent standard practice.
As reported in Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimizing Hydroplaning, cross
slopes of 2 percent have little effect on driver effort in steering or on friction demand for vehicle
stability. Use of a cross slope steeper than 2 percent on pavements with a central crown line is
not desirable. In areas of intense rainfall, a somewhat steeper cross slope (2.5 percent) may
be used to facilitate drainage.
On multi-lane highways where three lanes or more are sloped in the same direction, it is
desirable to counter the resulting increase in flow depth by increasing the cross slope of the
outermost lanes. The two lanes adjacent to the crown line should be pitched at the normal
slope, and successive lane pairs, or portions thereof outward, should be increased by about
0.5 to 1 percent. The maximum pavement cross slope should be limited to 4 percent (refer to
Table 8-2). Additional guidelines related to cross slope are:
1. Although not widely encouraged, inside lanes can be sloped toward the median if
conditions warrant.
2. Median areas should not be drained across travel lanes.
3. The number and length of flat pavement sections in cross slope transition areas should
be minimized. Consideration should be given to increasing cross slopes in sag vertical
curves, crest vertical curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal grades.
4. Shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the pavement, except with raised,
narrow medians and super elevations.
8.3.4 Kerb and Gutter
Kerbs are normally used at the outside edge of pavements for low-speed, highway facilities,
and in some instances adjacent to shoulders on moderate to high-speed facilities. They serve
the following purposes:

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Fig. 8.1 Conventional Kerb and Gutter Section

• contain the surface runoff within the roadway and away from adjacent;
• properties;
• prevent erosion on fill slopes;
• provide pavement delineation; and,
• enable the orderly development of property adjacent to the roadway.

Table 8-2. Normal Pavement Cross Slopes

SURFACE TYPE RANGE IN RATE OF SURFACE SLOPE (m/m)

High-Type Surface
2-lanes 0.015 - 0.020
3 or more lanes, 0.015 minimum; increase 0.005 to 0.010 per lane;
each direction 0.040 maximum
Intermediate Surface 0.015 - 0.030
Low-Type Surface 0.020 - 0.070
Shoulders
Bituminous or Concrete 0.020 - 0.070
With Kerbs  0.040

Gutters formed in combination with kerbs are available in 0.3 through 1.0 meter widths. Gutter
cross slopes may be the same as that of the pavement or may be designed with a steeper
cross slope, usually 80 mm per meter steeper than the shoulder or parking lane (if used).
AASHTO geometric guidelines state that an 8 percent slope is a common maximum cross
slope.
A kerb and gutter combination forms a triangular channel that can convey runoff equal to or
less than the design flow without interruption of the traffic. When a design flow occurs, there is
a spread or widening of the conveyed water surface. The water spreads to include not only the
gutter width, but also parking lanes or shoulders, and portions of the traveled surface. Spread
is what concerns the hydraulic engineer in kerb and gutter flow. The distance of the spread, T,
is measured perpendicular to the kerb face to the extent of the water on the roadway and is
shown in Figure 8-1. Limiting this width becomes a very important design criterion.
Where practical, runoff from cut slopes and other areas draining toward the roadway should
be intercepted before it reaches the highway. By doing so, the deposition of sediment and
other debris on the roadway as well as the amount of water which must be carried in the
gutter section will be minimized. Where kerbs are not needed for traffic control, shallow ditch
sections at the edge of the roadway pavement or shoulder offer advantages over kerbed
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sections by providing less of a hazard to traffic than a near-vertical kerb and by providing
hydraulic capacity that is not dependent on spread on the pavement. These ditch sections are
particularly appropriate where kerbs have historically been used to prevent water from eroding
fill slopes.
Kerb Flow Time - The velocity of water flowing in kerb gutter depends on: the roughness of the
kerb gutter and road surface; cross-fall of the road; the longitudinal profile of the gutter; the
magnitude of flow in the gutter.
Flow along the gutter varies with the length of the kerb as more flow joins the gutter and this
makes estimation of the flow time difficult. The flow time, however, could be approximated by
equation 8.2.

L
tg  Eqn. 8.2
40 S
where:
t g  kerb gutter flow time (minute)
L = length of kerb gutter (meters)
S= longitudinal grade of the kerb gutter (percent)

8.4 Flow in Gutters

A pavement gutter is defined as a section of pavement adjacent to the roadway which conveys
water during a storm runoff event. It may include a portion or all of a travel lane. Gutter
sections can be categorized as conventional or shallow swale type as illustrated in Figure 8-1.
Conventional kerb and gutter sections usually have a triangular shape with the kerb forming the
near-vertical leg of the triangle. Conventional gutters may usually have a straight cross slope
(Figure 8.1-1.), or a composite cross slope where the gutter slope varies from the pavement
cross slope (Figure 8.1-2).
8.4.1 Capacity Relationship
Gutter flow calculations are necessary to establish the spread of water on the shoulder, parking
lane, or pavement section. A modification of the Manning equation can be used for computing
flow in triangular channels. The modification is necessary because the hydraulic radius in
the equation does not adequately describe the gutter cross section, particularly where the
top width of the water surface may be more than 40 times the depth at the kerb. To compute
gutter flow, the Manning equation is integrated for an increment of width across the section.
The resulting equation is:

K c 1.67 0.5 2.67

Q Sx SL T Eqn. 8.3
n
where:
K c = 0.377
n = Manning's coefficient (Table 8-3)
Q = flow rate, m3/sec
T = width of flow (spread), m
S x = cross slope, m/m
S L = longitudinal slope, m/m

Equation 8.3 neglects the resistance of the kerb face since this resistance is negligible.

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Table 8-3. Manning's Roughness (n) for Street and Pavement Gutters
(Source: USDOT, FHWA, HDS-3)

TYPE OF GUTTER OR PAVEMENT MANNING’S n

Concrete gutter, troweled finish 0.012
Asphalt Pavement:
Smooth texture 0.013
Rough texture 0.017
Concrete gutter-asphalt pavement:
Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.015
Concrete pavement:
Float finish 0.014
Broom finish 0.017

Spread on the pavement and flow depth at the kerb are often used as criteria for spacing
pavement drainage inlets. Design Chart 1 (Appendix 8.1) is a nomogram for solving Equation
8.3. The chart can be used for either criterion with the relationship:

d  TS x Eqn. 8.4

where:

d = depth of flow , m
others as defined earlier

Chart 1 (Appendix 8.1) can be used for direct solution of gutter flow where the Manning
n value is 0.018. For other values of n, divide the value of Qn by n . Instructions for
use and an example problem solution are provided on the chart.

Example 8.1 (Adopted from HEC 22)

Given: Gutter section illustrated in Figure 8.1.

S L  0.010 m/m
S x  0.020 m/m
n = 0.017
Find: (1) Spread at a flow of 0.05 m3/s
(2) Gutter flow at a spread of 2.5 m

Solution (1):

Step 1. Compute spread, T , using Equation 8.3 or from Chart 1.

 
T  Qn  / K m S x
1.67
SL
0.5

0.375

T = [(0.0008)/{(0.377)(0.020)1.77(0.010)0.5}]0.375
T = 2.7 m
Solution (2):

Step 1. Using Equation 8.3 or Chart 1 with T = 2.5 m and the information given above,
78 determine Qn .
Ministry of Works
Q and
 KTransport
S
1.67
S
0.5
T 2.67
n m x L

Qn = (0.377) (0.020)1.77 (0.010)0.5 (2.5)2.77

Q = 0.00074 m3/s
 
T  Qn  / K m S x 1.67
SL
0.5

0.375

T = [(0.0008)/{(0.377)(0.020)1.77(0.010)0.5}]0.375
T = 2.7 m
Drainage Design Manual Section 8
Solution (2):

Step 1. Using Equation 8.3 or Chart 1 with T = 2.5 m and the information given above,
determine Qn .
1.67 0.5
Qn  K m S x S L T 2.67
Qn = (0.377) (0.020)1.77 (0.010)0.5 (2.5)2.77
Qn = 0.00074 m3/s

Step 2. Compute Q from Qn determined in Step 1.

Q = Qn / n
Q = 0.00074 / 0.017
Q = 0.040 m3/s
8.4.2 Relative Flow Capacities
Equation 8.3 can be used to examine the relative effects of changing the values of spread,
cross slope, and longitudinal slope on the capacity of a section with a straight cross slope.

To examine the effects of cross slope on gutter capacity, Equation 8.3 can be
transformed as follows into a relationship between S x and Q as follows:

Let
n
K1  0.5
Eqn. 8.5
K m S L T 2.67

then

1.67
Sx  K1Q and
1.67
 S x1  K 1Q1 Q1
    Eqn. 8.6
 S x2  K 1Q1 Q2

Similar transformations can be performed to evaluate the effects of changing

longitudinal slope and width of spread on gutter capacity resulting in Equation 8.7 and
Equation 8.8 respectively.
2.67
 S L1  Q 
    1  Eqn. 8.7
 S L2   Q2 
2.67
 T1  Q 
    1  Eqn. 8.8
 T2   Q2 
Equation 8.6, Equation 8.7, and Equation 8.8 are illustrated in Figure 8.2. As illustrated, the
effects of spread on gutter capacity are greater than the effects of cross slope and longitudinal
slope, as would be expected due to the larger exponent of the spread term. The magnitude
of the effect is demonstrated when gutter capacity with a 3 meter spread is 18.8 times greater
than with a 1 meter spread, and 3 times greater than a spread of 2 meters).
The effects of cross slope are also relatively great as illustrated by a comparison of gutter
capacities with different cross slopes. At a cross slope of 4 percent, a gutter has 10 times the
capacity of a gutter of 1 percent cross slope. A gutter at 4 percent cross slope has 3.2 times
the capacity of a gutter at 2 percent cross slope.

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Little latitude is generally available to vary longitudinal slope in order to increase gutter capacity,
but slope changes which change gutter capacity are frequent. Figure 8.2 shows that a change
from = 0.04 to 0.02 will reduce gutter capacity to 71 percent of the capacity at = 0.04.
8.4.3 Bridge Decks
Bridge deck drainage is similar to that of kerbed roadway sections. Effective bridge deck
drainage is important for the following reasons:
Deck structural and reinforcing steel is susceptible to corrosion from deicing salts;
Hydroplaning often occurs at shallower depths on bridges due to the reduced surface texture
of concrete bridge decks.
Bridge deck drainage is often less efficient than roadway sections because cross slopes are
flatter, parapets collect large amounts of debris, and drainage inlets or typical bridge scuppers
are less
Hydraulically efficient and more easily clogged by debris. Because of the difficulties in
providing for and maintaining adequate deck drainage systems, gutter flow from roadways
should be intercepted before it reaches a bridge. For similar reasons, zero gradients and sag
vertical curves should be avoided on bridges. Additionally, runoff from bridge decks should be
collected immediately after it flows onto the subsequent roadway section where larger grates
and inlet structures can be used.

Figure 8.2. Relative Effects of Spread, Cross Slope, and Longitudinal Slope on Gutter
Capacity
8.5 Inlets
Storm drain inlets are used to collect runoff and discharge it to an underground storm drainage
system. Inlets are typically located in gutter sections, paved medians, and roadside and median
ditches. Inlets used for the drainage of highway surfaces can be divided into the following four
classes:
• grate inlets;
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• slotted inlets;
• kerb-opening inlets; and,
• combination inlets.
8.5.1 Grate inlets
As a class, Grate inlets perform satisfactorily over a wide range of gutter grades. Grate inlets
generally lose capacity with increase in grade, but to a lesser degree than kerb opening inlets.
The principal advantage of grate inlets is that they are installed along the roadway where the
water is flowing. Their principal disadvantage is that they may be clogged by floating trash
or debris. For safety reasons, reference should be given to grate inlets where out-of-control
vehicles might be involved. Additionally, where bicycle traffic occurs, grates should be bicycle
safe.
8.5.2 Slotted Inlets
Slotted inlets can be used in areas where it is desirable to intercept sheet flow before it crosses
onto a section of roadway. Their principal advantage is their ability to intercept flow over a wide
section. However, slotted inlets are very susceptible to clogging from sediments and debris,
and are not recommended for use in environments where significant sediment or debris loads
may be present. Slotted inlets on a longitudinal grade do have the same hydraulic capacity as
kerb openings when debris is not a factor.
8.5.3 Kerb-opening
Kerb opening inlets are most effective on flatter slopes, in sags, and with flows which typically
carry significant amounts of floating debris. The interception capacity of kerb-opening inlets
decreases as the gutter grade steepens. Consequently, the use of kerb-opening inlets is
recommended in sags and on grades less than 3 percent. Of course, they are bicycle safe as
well.
8.5.4 Combination Inlets
Combination inlets provide the advantages of both kerb opening and grate inlets. This
combination results in a high capacity inlet which offers the advantages of both grate and
kerb-opening inlets. When the kerb opening precedes the grate in a “Sweeper” configuration,
the kerb-opening inlet acts as a trash interceptor during the initial phases of a storm. Used in a
sag configuration, the sweeper inlet can have a kerb opening on both sides of the grate.
8.6 Drainage Inlet Design
The hydraulic capacity of a storm drain inlet depends upon its geometry as well as the
characteristics of the gutter flow. Inlet capacity governs both the rate of water removal from
the gutter and the amount of water that can enter the storm drainage system. Inadequate inlet
capacity or poor inlet location may cause flooding on the roadway resulting in a hazard to the
traveling public. As they are highly efficient and their interference with carriageways is rather
limited, the design of kerb opening inlets is further discussed
8.6.1 Kerb-Opening Inlets
Kerb-opening inlets are effective in the drainage of highway pavements were flow depth at
the kerb is sufficient for the inlet to perform efficiently. Kerb openings are less susceptible to
clogging and offer little interference to traffic operation. They are viable alternative to grates
on flatter grades where grates would be in traffic lanes or would be hazardous for pedestrians
or bicyclists. Kerb opening heights vary in dimension. However, a typical maximum height
is approximately 100 to 150 mm. The length of the kerb-opening inlet required for total
interception of gutter flow on a pavement section with a uniform cross slope is expressed by
Equation 8.9:
The efficiency of kerb-opening inlets shorter than the length required for total interception is
expressed by Equation 8.10

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The efficiency of kerb-opening inlets shorter than the length required for total
interception is expressed by Equation 8.10
1.8
 L
E  1  1   Eqn. 8.10
 LT 
where:

L = kerb-opening length, m
Chart 2 (Appendix 8.2) is a nomogram for the solution of Equation 8.9, and Chart 3
(Appendix 8.3) provides a solution of Equation 8.10.

The length of inlet required for total interception by depressed kerb-opening inlets or
kerb-openings in depressed gutter sections can be found by the use of an equivalent
cross slope, S e , in Equation 8.9 in place of S x . S e can be computed using Equation
8.11.

S e  S X  S 'W E o Eqn. 8.11

where:
SW' = cross slope of the gutter measured from the cross slope of the pavement, S x ,
m/m
S 'W  a /1000W 
S x = cross slope, m/m
a = gutter depression, mm



Figure 8-3 Depressed Kerb Opening Inlet

The capacity of a kerb-opening inlet in a sag depends on water depth at the kerb, the kerb
opening length, and the height of the kerb opening. The inlet operates as a weir to depths
equal to the kerb opening height and as an orifice at depths greater than 1.4 times the opening
height. At depths between 1.0 and 1.4 times the opening height, flow is in a transition stage.
Spread on the pavement is the usual criterion for judging the adequacy of a pavement drainage
inlet design.
The weir location for a depressed kerb-opening inlet is at the edge of the gutter, and the
effective weir length is dependent on the width of the depressed gutter and the length of the
kerb opening.
The equation for the interception capacity of a depressed kerb-opening inlet operating as a
weir is:

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Qi  CW ( L  1.8W ) d 1.5 Eqn. 8.12

where:
CW = 1.25
L = length of kerb opening, m
W = lateral width of depression, m
d = depth at kerb measured from the normal cross slope, m ,
i.e., d = TS x

The weir equation for kerb-opening inlets without depression becomes:

Qi  CW Ld 1.5 Eqn. 8.13

Without depression of the gutter section, the weir coefficient, CW , becomes 1.70 (3.0,
English system). The depth limitation for operation as a weir becomes d  h.
Kerb-opening inlets operate as orifices at depths greater than approximately 1.4 times
the opening height. The interception capacity can be computed by Equation 8.14 and
Equation 8.15. These equations are applicable to depressed and undepressed kerb-
opening inlets. The depth at the inlet includes any gutter depression.

Qi  Co hL  2 gd o 
0.5
Eqn. 8.14

0.5
  h 
Qi  C o Ag  2 g  d i    Eqn. 8.15
  2 
where:
C o = orifice coefficient (0.77)
d o = effective head on the center of the orifice throat, m
L = length of orifice opening, m
Ag
= clear area of opening, m 2
d i = depth at lip of kerb opening, m
h = height of kerb-opening orifice, m
h = TS x  a1000
The height of the orifice in both Equation 8.14 and Equation 8.15 assumes a vertical orifice
opening.
The location and spacing of kerb inlets depend on the following factors:
• amount of runoff
• grade profile
• geometry of intersection
• width of flow limitation
• inlet capacity.

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Drainage Design Manual Section 8

8.7 Subsurface Drainage

8.7.1 General
The aim of subsurface drainage is the removal of detrimental quantities of ground water to
ensure stable road bed and side slope conditions.
A satisfactory solution to subsurface drainage problems requires a knowledge of geology and
an insight into soil mechanics.
Many variables and uncertainties exist regarding the actual subsurface conditions. In most
cases the need for the installation of subsurface drainage can only be established on site
during the construction stage.
8.7.2 Ground Water
Ground water, as distinguished from capillary water, is free water occurring in a one of saturation
below the ground surface. The rate at which ground water can be removed depends on the
effective hydraulic head and on the permeability, depth, slope, thickness and extent of the
water-bearing formation. Field exploration is the most satisfactory method of determining the
discharge capacity. Generally, exploration should be undertaken during the rainy season when
subsurface problems are most likely to be evident.
8.7.3 Subsurface Drain Types
Two types of subsurface drain may be necessary in road construction.
a) Pipe subsurface Drains:-The standard pipe subsurface drain consists of a pipe at the
bottom of a narrow trench which is backfilled around the pipe with filter material to be
wrapped in a filter fabric if the filter material does not meet the grading requirements.
The pipes may be perforated, slotted, porous or open jointed.
This type should be used as a single subsurface, drain along the toe of a cut to intercept
seepage, along the toe of an embankment on the side from which ground water
originates and across the roadway at the downhill end of a cut.
b) Stabilization Trenches:-These should usually be wider trenches with sloping sides and
have a blanket of filter material up to 900mm thick on the bottom and side slopes of the
trench. Filter fabric may be required to line the trench. At least one subsurface pipe of
200mm diameter should normally be laid at the bottom of the trench.
Stabilization trenches may be required under side cut fills to stabilize water logged fill foundation
areas that are well defined. They are usually linked to herring-bone configurations and to filter
blankets.
French drains, which consist of a trench filled with unspecified crushed rock, have been found
to be unreliable and are not recommended.
8.7.4 Design Criteria
The minimum inside pipe diameter for a pipe subsurface drain should normally not be less
than 100mm. A 75mm diameter pipe could be considered under special circumstances.
Surface drainage should not be permitted to discharge in to a subsurface drain. The discharge
from a subsurface drain into a storm water drain of culvert is permissible, provided the possibility
of water backing up into the subsurface drain is avoided.
In general, the subsurface drain grade should not be flatter than 0.5 percent. If this slope
cannot be achieved, an absolute minimum grade of 0.25 percent may be accepted.
The choice of depth and spacing of the subsurface drain is flexible and depends on the
permeability of the soil, the level of the water table and the amount of draw down needed to
ensure stability. Wherever practical a subsurface drain pipe should be set in the impervious
layer below the saturated layer.

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The start and out let of pipe subsurface drains should be indicated on the surface by means of
markers. These are necessary for the maintenance personnel.
Design of subsurface drains is associated with soil type and seepage flow rate. The
interrelationship, between the permeable filler material, the filter fabric and the subsurface
drain pipe selected is important in the design of an effective subsurface drain. Cost could
have a major bearing on the type of subsurface drain used. All possibilities should therefore
be investigated.
8.7.5 Materials
a) Filter Materials:- permeable filter materials for subsurface drains should consist of sand
and /or crushed stone plus gravel of suitable grading. Grading specifications may have
to be varied to suit availability of material.
b) Filter fabric:- Synthetic fiber filter fabrics should also be considered where there is a
definite engineering and cost advantage, but preference should be given to the use of
local natural materials.
c) Subsurface pipes:- Cost, ease of handling and ease of laying should be the main
considerations when specifying subsurface pipes, which may consist of perforated,
slotted or open jointed concrete, clay, pitch fiber or plastic pipes.

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Drainage Design Manual Section 9

SECTION 9
9.0 DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC CULVERTS

9.1 General
This section considers the hydraulics of conventional culverts and the requirements for selecting
a culvert size for a given set of conditions. Guidelines are provided to enable the designer
to make use of standard design charts adopted from AASHTO-Model Drainage Manual, as
well as other relevant documents. However, the designer retains the right to deviate from the
standard on the basis of well-proven and applicable state-of-the-art knowledge on the subject
and with the approval of the concerned authority (MoWT).
9.1.1 Rural Road Drainage
A road is considered as a dyke which divides the countryside in two parts, and therefore
disturbs the water flow characteristics of the area, whether it be sheet overland flow or channel
flow in defined water courses. The importance of continuity in surface drainage is illustrated by
the fact that most road embankment failures are caused by water problems. Drainage design
will influence the road geometry on the higher standard road to a large extent. An efficient
drainage system is an essential contribution to the overall design of the road. A vital factor in
rural areas is to ensure continuity of flow from one side of the road to the other, whatever class
of road is involved.
The road, which functions as a barrier, will cause storm runoff to flow parallel to the road
embankment until a discharge point is reached, whether it be a relieving culvert or a culvert
at a low point.
Between two watersheds there is generally one low point in the road. The distance from a
watershed to this low point can be several kilometres, dependent on the nature of the terrain.
Provision should be made to discharge the runoff across the road at regular intervals to avoid
such a concentration of runoff at the low point and to maintain a balance of runoff. These
intervals depend upon the locality and type of road and could be in excess of 500m in flat semi
arid terrain.
There the situation arises that a road is aligned parallel to and close upstream or downstream
of an existing railway line, the siting and sizing of the road drainage structures may need
artificial adjustment to match that of the railway structures. The designer is encouraged to
liaise closely with the relevant authorities in all such cases.
To prevent the collection of water and ponding on the road surface, roads should be cambered
as follows:

Surface roads 2.5% camber

Gravel roads 4.0% camber
Earth roads 5.0% camber
9.1.2 Urban Road Drainage
Roads passing through urban areas should generally be constructed high enough not to act
as collector channels for surrounding runoff during a storm. The designer should at the same
time take into account the damage that might occur as a result of a major storm.
The type of drainage required should be interactive with the type of urban road. It might be
considered that a road passing though a minor village or small town would have a drainage
design typical of that for a rural road. Open side-channel drainage combined with normal cross
culverts at selected points should be considered for roads passing through the larger towns.
For major towns in Uganda with a developed infrastructure, a more sophisticated drainage
system could be designed with kerb inlets and underground pipe systems. An underground

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drainage system must not, however, be incorporated at the expense of a satisfactory surface
drainage layout.
9.2 Culvert Type and Class
Hydraulic performance is one of several factors which influence the selection of type of culvert
for a particular location. However, the shape and type of culvert to be used should not be
determined by hydraulic performance alone. The economics and availability of different culvert
types in the various regions should also be considered. The guidelines in this manual indicate
the common types of culverts in use. Whenever the designer feels that other appropriate
culvert types are applicable to specific local conditions, he can use his professional experience
to select the appropriate type after getting the permission of the concerned authority.
9.2.1 Culvert Types
Different shapes of culverts and a description of their applicability is given in the form of a table
in appendix 9.1. Land use requirements can dictate a larger or different barrel geometry than
required for hydraulic consideration. Arch or oval shapes are used only if required by hydraulic
limitations, site characteristics, structural criteria, or environmental criteria.
Transport and purchase costs play a major role in selecting the culvert type for a particular
region. In evaluating the suitability of alternate materials, the selection process shall be based
on a comparison of the total cost of alternate materials over the design life of the structure that
is dependent upon the following:
• durability (service life);
• cost;
• availability;
• construction and maintenance ease;
• structural strength;
• traffic delays;
• abrasion and corrosion resistance; and,
• water tightness requirements;
Concrete is the preferred material for construction of culverts, if aggregate materials are available
locally. However, other materials may be more suitable for a particular location, hydraulic
roughness, bedding condition, etc. A pipe material other than concrete may be accepted as
an alternate if the substitution is supported by evidence that the hydraulic capacity, strength,
durability, abrasion, and corrosion resistance of the concrete pipe specified is equalled or
exceeded. In addition, any substitution must be analyzed in terms of cost and availability.
The advantages of corrugated metal pipe sections should be considered for small to medium
sized culverts and the corrugated metal multi-plated arch for larger culverts. Such culverts
usually require protection from corrosion. They shall be protected at the ends by headwalls. Use
of corrugated metal pipes with projecting ends is not permitted under any circumstances.
Prefabricated concrete pipe and portal units are encouraged, wherever they can be economically
and practically justified.
A newly developed plastic pipe with radial ribs may also be considered for the smaller range
of culvert sizes.
9.2.2 Culvert Loading
Culvert of whatever type will be subjected to loads. The primary loads which should be
considered are as follows: self mass, water mass, mass of backfill, traffic loads, temporary
handling and construction. These factors, individually or collectively, influence the class of
culvert to be installed.
9.3 Headwater– Depth Relationship
All culverts should be designed to carry the design frequency flood with a headwater depth that
does not materially increase the size of the flooded upstream area.

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Allowable headwater depth is determined by the maximum permissible elevation of the

headwater pool at the culvert for the design discharge. It is limited by one of the following
factors:
• non-damaging to upstream property;
• below the traffic lines of interest or no higher than the shoulder or 0.5 m below the edge
of the shoulder;
• equal to an Hw/D no greater than 1.5;
• no greater than the low point in the road grade; and,
• equal to the elevation where flow diverts around the culvert;
A headwater-culvert depth ratio (Hw/D) equal to 1.2 is recommended for cases where insufficient
data is available to predict the flooding effect from headwater depth.
9.4 Inlet and Outlet Control
A culvert may flow with either inlet or outlet control over its full design discharge range.
Alternatively flow through the culvert may vary with discharge from inlet to outlet control. The
designer should check both inlet and outlet control to determine the governing headwater
depth. The following sections are aimed to guide the designer on these issues.
Control Section—the location where there is a unique relationship between the flow rate and
the upstream water surface elevation. Inlet control is governed by the inlet geometry. Outlet
control is governed by a combination of the culvert inlet geometry, the barrel characteristics,
and the tailwater.
9.4.1 Inlet Control
Culverts flowing with inlet control usually lie on relatively steep gradients and flow only partly
full. Guidance for the sizing of culverts for inlet control are adapted from publications by the
U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, and from AASHTO model drainage manual.
For inlet control, the control section is at the upstream end of the barrel (the inlet). The flow
passes through critical depth near the inlet and becomes shallow, high velocity (supercritical)
flow in the culvert barrel. Depending on the tailwater, a hydraulic jump may occur downstream
of the inlet.
Headwater depth is measured from the inlet invert of the inlet control section to the surface
of the upstream pool. The inlet area is the cross-sectional area of the face of the culvert.
Generally, the inlet face area is the same as the barrel area. Inlet edge configuration describes
the entrance type. Some typical inlet edge configurations include thin edge projecting, mitred
edges, square edges in a headwall, and beveled edges. Inlet shape is usually the same as
the shape of the culvert barrel. Typical shapes are rectangular, circular, elliptical, and arch. It
is necessary to check for additional control section if the shape of inlet is different from that of
the barrel.
Flow with inlet control can be further subdivided into different flow regions depending on
whether inlet is submerged or unsubmerged. Hydraulically, three regions of flow are known:
unsubmerged, transition, and submerged types of flow regions.
a) Unsubmerged Zone
For headwater below the inlet crown, the entrance operates as a weir (see Figure 9.1). A weir
is a flow control section where the upstream water surface elevation can be predicted for a
given flow rate. The relationship between flow and water surface elevation can be determined
by model tests of the weir geometry or by measuring prototype discharges.

88
Ministry of Works and Transport
 A weir is a flow control section where the upstream water surface elevation can be
predicted for a given flow rate. The relationship between flow and water surface
elevation can be determined by model tests of the weir geometry or by measuring
prototype discharges.
Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Drainage Design Manual Section 9

300 mm

Figure 9.1 Unsubmerged Flow Inlet Control

b) Submerged
FigureZone
9.1 Unsubmerged Flow Inlet Control
For headwaters
Drainage above the inlet, the culvert operates as an orifice (see FigureSection
Design Manual 9.2). An 9orifice
isb)an opening, submerged
Submerged Zone on the upstream side and flowing freely on the downstream side,
which functions as a control section.
For headwaters above the inlet, the culvert operates as an orifice (see Figure 9.2).
An orifice is an opening,
300 mm
submerged on the upstream side and flowing freely on the
downstream side, which functions as a control section.

Figure 9.2 Submerged Flow Inlet Control

c) Transition Zone

The transition zone is located between the unsubmerged and the submerged flow
conditions where theFigure flow is9.2 Submerged
poorly Flowzone
defined. This InletisControl
approximated by plotting the
unsubmerged
c) and submerged
Transition Zone flow equations and connecting them with a line
tangential to both curves. Appendix 9.2 shows this type of curve.
The transition zone is located Figure 9.2 Submerged
between Flow Inlet
the unsubmerged and Control
the submerged flow conditions
where
d) the flow is poorly
Nomographs defined.
applicable forThis
Inletzone is approximated by plotting the unsubmerged
Control
and submerged flow equations and connecting them with a line tangential to both curves.
The inlet control
Appendix 9.2 showsflowthis
versus
type headwater
of curve. curves, which are established using the above
c) Transition
procedure, are theZonebasis for constructing the inlet control design nomographs. Note that
d)
in the inletNomographs applicable
control nomographs, HwforisInlet Controlto the total upstream energy grade line
measured
The
The transition
including
inlet the zone
approach
control is located head. Inletthe
between
velocityheadwater
flow versus unsubmerged
control
curves, are and
nomographs
which thegiven
are submerged
established flow
in appendix
using the above
conditions where the flow is poorly defined. This
culverts, zone is approximated
corrugated by plotting the
9.3 to appendix
procedure, are the9.5,
basisforforconcrete pipe the
constructing inlet control designmetal culverts,Note
nomographs. andthatbox in the
unsubmerged
culverts, and submerged flow equations and connecting them with a line
respectively.
inlet control nomographs, Hw is measured to the total upstream energy grade line including
tangential to both curves. Appendix 9.2 shows this type of curve. 9.4
the approach velocity head. Inlet control nomographs are given in appendix 9.3 to appendix
Ministry 9.4.2
of Works Outlet
and Transport
Control
9.5,
d) forNomographs
concrete pipe culverts, corrugated
applicable metal culverts, and box culverts, respectively.
for Inlet Control
9.4.2 Outlet
Outlet Control
control has depths and velocity that are subcritical. The control of the flow is at
The downstream
the inlet control flow
end versus
of the headwater
culvert curves,
(thethat
outlet). which are established
The tailwater isusing the above
Outlet
procedure, control
are has
the depths
basis forand velocity
constructing theare
inletsubcritical.
control Thedepth
design control assumed flowtothat
of the Note
nomographs. isbeat the
critical
downstream depth near the culvert
end ofnomographs, outlet
the culvert (the or in the downstream channel, whichever is higher.
in
In the
a the inlet control
given culvert, theortype Hwoutlet).
of downstream
flow
The tailwater
isismeasured
dependent to on depth
the all
total is assumed
of upstream
the is
barrel
to be
energy
factors
critical depth
grade
suchlineas
near
including culvert outlet
the approach in the
velocity head.length, channel,
Inlet control whichever
nomographs higher.
are OutletIn
given ina given
appendix culvert,
barrel
the type roughness,
of flow is barrel
dependentarea, barrel barrel slope and so on. control flow
9.3 to appendix
is illustrated for concrete pipe culverts, corrugated metal culverts, and boxarea,
9.5, 9.3.
in Figure
on all of the barrel factors such as barrel roughness, barrel
barrel
culverts, length, barrel slope and so on. Outlet control flow is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
respectively.

9.4.2 Outlet Control

Outlet control has depths and velocity that are subcritical. The control of the flow is at
the downstream end of the culvert (the outlet). The tailwater depth is assumed to be
critical depth near the culvert outlet or in the downstream channel, whichever is higher.
In a given culvert, the type of flow is dependent on all of the barrel factors such as
barrel roughness, barrel area, barrel length, barrel slope and so on. Outlet control flow
is illustrated in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Outlet Control

Figure 9.3 Outlet Control 89
Ministry of Works and Transport

9.5
Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Outlet controlled culvert flows are calculated with an energy (total head) equation. Occasionally
a backwater calculation through the culvert is required. The energy equations are expressed
below based on schematic diagram of Figure 9.3.
Ignoring the outlet velocity head, the energy equation between u/s and d/s ends of the
culvert:

Hw + SoL = Tw + H (9.1)

where: Hw : depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
So : slope of channel
L : length of channel
Tw : tailwater depth
H : head losses

Losses are composed of :

HL = HE + Hf + Hv + Hb + Hj + Hg (9.2)
where:
HL = total energy loss, m
HE = entrance loss, m
HF = friction losses, m
HV = exit loss (velocity head), m
H b = bend losses, m
Hj = losses at junctions, m
H g = losses at grates, m
velocity
V = Q/A (9.3)
where:
V = average barrel velocity, m/s
Q = flow rate, m3/s
A = cross sectional area of flow with the barrel full, m2
velocity head
Hv = V2/2g (9.4)

where:
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2
entrance loss
HE = KE (V2/2g) (9.5a)
where:
KE = entrance loss coefficient, see appendix 9.6.

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friction Loss
HF = [(19.63n2L)/R1.33] [V2/2g) (9.5b)
where:
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (see appendix 9.7)
L = length of the culvert barrel, m
R = hydraulic radius of the full culvert barrel = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter of the barrel, m exit Loss
Ho = 1.0 [(V2/2g) - (Vd2/2g)] (9.5c)
where:
Vd = channel velocity downstream of the culvert, m/s (usually
neglected, resulting in equation (9.5d)).

Ho = HV = V2/2g (9.5d)
Barrel Losses
H = HE + Ho+HF
H = [1 + Ke + (19.63n2L/R1.33)] [V2/2g] (9.6)
The energy grade line represents the total energy at any point along the culvert barrel. Equating
the total energy at sections 1 and 2, upstream and downstream of the culvert barrel in Figure
9.3, the following relationship results:
HWo + ( Vu2/2g) = TW + (Vd2/2g) + HL (9.7)
where:
HWo = headwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vu = approach velocity, m/s
TW = tailwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vd = downstream velocity, m/s
HL = sum of all losses (equation 9.2)
The hydraulic grade line is the depth to which water would rise in vertical tubes connected to
the sides of the culvert barrel. In full flow, the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line are
parallel lines separated by the velocity head except at the inlet and the outlet.
a) Nomographs applicable to outlet control
Nomographs (full flow) - The nomographs were developed assuming that the culvert barrel is
flowing full and:
• TW > D, Outlet Control (see figure 9.3) or;
• dc > D, Inlet Control (see figure 9.4);
• Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered a part of the available headwater
(HW) used to convey the flow through the culvert;
• Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected; and,
• Equation 9.7 will appear in same form as equation 9.1. With rearrangement it
becomes:

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Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Figure 9.4 Submerged Pipe Flowing Full, Inlet Control

HW = TW + H - SoL (9.8)
Figure 9.4 Submerged Pipe Flowing Full, Inlet Control
where:
HW = TW + H - SoL (9.8)
where: HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
H = is the value read from the nomographs (or equation 9.6), m
HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m
H
b) Nomographs =
(Partly is the
full value
flow) read from
- Equations thethrough
(9.1) nomographs (or equation
(9.8) were 9.6),for
developed m full
barrelSflow.
o
L The
= equations also apply
drop from inlet totooutlet
the flow situations
invert, m which are effectively full
flow conditions, if TW < dc, Figure 9-5.
b) Nomographs (Partly full flow) - Equations (9.1) through (9.8) were developed for
full barrel flow. The equations also apply to the flow situations which are effectively full flow
conditions, if TW < dc, Figure 9-5.

Figure 9.5 Partly full flow

Backwater calculations may be required that begin at the downstream water surface and
proceed upstream. If the depth Figure
intersects9.5
thePartly fullbarrel,
top of the flow a full flow extends from that
point upstream to the culvert entrance.
c)
BackwaterNomographs
calculations (partly
may be fullrequired
flow) FHWA Approximation
that begin - It has been
at the downstream found
water that the
surface
hydraulic grade line pierces the plane of the culvert outlet at a point one-half
and proceed upstream. If the depth intersects the top of the barrel, a full flow extends way between
critical depth
from that and
point the top of
upstream to the
the barrel
culvertorentrance.
(dc + D)/2 above the outlet invert. For such situation,
TW should be used if higher than (dc + D)/2. Generally, the following equation should be
used:
c) Nomographs (partly full flow) FHWA Approximation - It has been found that the
hydraulic
HW =hgrade
o
+ Hline pierces the plane of the culvert
-SoL outlet at a point one-half way
(9.9)
between critical depth and the top of the barrel or (dc + D)/2 above the outlet invert.
where:
ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2, m
9.8
Adequate results are obtained down to a HW = 0.75D. For lower headwaters, backwater
Ministry of Works and Transport
calculations are required. (See Figure 9.6 if TW < dc and Figure 9.7 if TW > dc)

92
Ministry of Works and Transport
 backwater calculations are required. (See Figure 9.6 if TW < dc and Figure 9.7 if TW >
dc)

Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Figure 9.6 Flow Condition TW < dc

Figure 9.6 Flow Condition TW < dc

Figure 9.7 Flow Condition, TW > dc

9.5 Figure
Hydraulic Design Procedures 9.7 Flow Condition, TW > dc
The hydraulic design of culverts encompasses the different types of flow conditions discussed
9.5 in the previous
Hydraulic section. Procedures
Design In addition, the design should satisfy the constraints given in the next
sections. In general, a standard approach can be laid to guide the designer in the procedures
to
The behydraulic
followed. design
In cases of where
culvertsrigorous methodsthe
encompasses aredifferent
considered
typesunnecessary, alternative
of flow conditions
approximating methods are given.
discussed in the previous section. In addition, the design should satisfy the constraints
9.5.1 DesigninProcedure
given the next According
sections. In to general,
AASHTOa standard approach can be laid to guide the
designer in the procedures to be followed. In cases where rigorous methods are
The following
considered design procedure
unnecessary, adapted
alternative from AASHTO
approximating provides
methods are a convenient and organized
given.
method for designing culverts for a constant discharge, considering inlet and outlet control. The
designer
9.5.1 shouldDesign be familiar
Procedure with all the equations
According to in section 9.4 before using these procedures.
AASHTO
Following the design method without an understanding of culvert hydraulics can result in an
inadequate,
The following unsafe,
design or procedure
costly structure.
adaptedThefrom
commonAASHTOsteps provides
to be followed in the design
a convenient and are
enumerated here below.
organized method The overall
for designing procedure
culverts is also summarised
for a constant discharge, in the form ofinlet
considering flow-chart
and in
appendix 9.8 forThe
outlet control. easedesigner
of follow-up of the
should be procedure.
familiar with all the equations in section 9.4
before using these procedures. Following the design method without an understanding
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
of culvert hydraulics can result in an inadequate, unsafe, or costly structure. The

common a. steps toHydrographic
be followed in Survey - Data are
the design include
enumerated here below. The overall
procedure is also• summarised
topographic,insite,the and
formlocation
of flow-chart
maps; in appendix 9.8 for ease of
follow-up of the procedure.
• embankment cross section;
• roadway profile; 9.9
Step 1 Assemble• Site Data and Project File
photographs;
Ministry of Works and Transport
• field visit (sediment, debris); and,
a. Hydrographic
• design dataSurvey - Data include
of nearby structures;
b. Studies by other agencies including Ministry in charge of Water
 topographic, site, and location maps;
c.  Environmental
embankment cross constraints contained in environmental review
section;
documents
 roadway profile;
d.  Design criteria.
photographs;
Step 2 Determine Hydrology
 field visit (sediment, debris); and,
 design
Minimum data of nearby structures;
data required—drainage area maps and discharge-frequency plots
Step 3 Survey Downstream
b. Studies by otherChannel
agencies including Ministry in charge of Water
c. Environmental constraints contained in environmental review
documents 93
Ministry of Works andDesign
d. criteria.
Transport
Step 2 Determine Hydrology

Minimum data required—drainage area maps and discharge-frequency plots

Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Minimum data are cross section of channel and the rating curve for channel.
Step 4 Summarize Data on Design Form (see appendix 9.9). Use data from Steps 1-3
Step 5 Select Design Alternative
Choose culvert material, shape, size, and entrance type
Step 6 Select Design Discharge Qd
a. Determine flood frequency from data
b. Determine Q from discharge-frequency plot (Step 2)
c. Divide Q by the number of barrels
Step 7 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use the inlet control nomograph (Charts in appendix 9.3 to appendix 9.5)
Locate the size or height on the scale
a. Locate the discharge
• for a circular shape use discharge; and,
• for a box shape use Q per metre of width.
b. Locate HW/D ratio using a straightedge
• extend a straight line from the culvert size through the flow rate;
• mark the first HW/D scale. Extend a horizontal line to the desired scale, read
HW/D, and note on Charts;
c. Calculate headwater depth (HW)
• multiply HW/D by D to obtain HW to energy gradeline;
• neglecting the approach velocity HWi = HW; and,
• including the approach velocity HWi = HW - approach velocity head.
Step 8 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)
a. Calculate the tailwater depth (TW) using the design flow rate and normal depth
(single section) or using a water surface profile
b. Calculate critical depth (dc) using appropriate chart (appendix 9.10 to appendix
9.11)
• locate flow rate and read dc; and,
• dc cannot exceed D.
c. Calculate (dc + D)/2
d. Determine (ho)
• ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2).
e. Determine entrance loss coefficient (Ke) from appendix 9.6
f. Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H) using charts given in appendix
9.12 to 9.14
• use nomograph charts or equation 9.6 if outside range;
• locate appropriate KE scale; and,
• locate culvert length (L) or (L1);
- use (L) if Manning’s n matches the n value of the culvert and
- use (L1) to adjust for a different culvert n value
L1 = L(n1/n)2 ( 9.10)

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where:
L 1 = adjusted culvert length, m
L = actual culvert length, m
n 1 = desired Manning n value
n = Manning n value on chart
• mark point on turning line
- use a straightedge and
- connect size with the length
• read (H)
- use a straightedge
- connect Q and turning point and
- read (H) on Head Loss scale
g. Calculate outlet control headwater (HW)
• use equation 9.11, if Vu and Vd are neglected;
HWoi = H + ho - SoL ( 9.11)
• use equation 9.2, 9.5c, 9.6 to include Vu and Vd;
• if HWoi is less than 1.2D and control is outlet control;
- the barrel may flow partly full
- the FHWA approximate method of using the greater tailwater or (dc+ D)/2 may not be
applicable
- backwater calculations should be used to check the result and
- if the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate method shall not be
used
Step 9 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)
• compare HWi and HWoi, use the higher;
• HWc = HWi, if HWi > HWoi;
- the culvert is in inlet control
• HWc = HWoi, if HWoi > HWi;
- the culvert is in outlet control.
Step 10 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)
a. Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr)
HWr = HWc - HWov
HWov = height of road above inlet invert
b. If HWr < 0, Qr = 0
If HWr > 0, determine Qr
Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)
Qt = Qd + Qr (9.12)
Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)
If inlet control is the controlling headwater
a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit
• use normal depth (dn)
• use water surface profile
b. Calculate flow area (A)

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c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A

If outlet control is the controlling headwater
a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit
• use (dc) if dc > TW
• use (TW) if dc < TW < D
• use (D) if D < TW
b. Calculate flow area (A)
c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A
Step 13 Review Results
Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any of the
following are exceeded, repeat Steps 5 through 12.
• the barrel must have adequate cover;
• the length should be close to the approximate length;
• the headwalls and wingwalls must fit site conditions;
• the allowable headwater should not be exceeded; and,
• the allowable overtopping flood frequency should not be exceeded;
Step 14 Plot Performance Curve
a. Repeat Steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges
b. Use the following upper limit for discharge
• Q100 if Qd < Q100;
• Q500 if Qd > Q100;
• Qmax if no overtopping is possible;
• Qmax = largest flood that can be estimated;
Step 15 Related Designs
Consider the following options
 Tapered inlets if culvert is in inlet control and has limited available
headwater;
 Flow routing if a large upstream headwater pool exists; and,
 Consider energy dissipator if Vo is larger than the normal V in the downstream
channel;
Step 16 Documentation
Prepare report and file with background information
Example of culvert design
The following example problem follows the Design Procedure Steps described in the
previous section:
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
a. Site survey project file contains:

Figure 9.8 Longitudinal section for example 9.8

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Drainage Design Manual Section 9

• roadway profile and;

• embankment cross section (see Figure 9.8);
Site visit notes indicate
• no sediment or debris problems;
Drainage Design Manual Section 9
• no nearby structures;
b. Studies by other agencies – none
c. d. Designrisk
Environmental criteria
assessment shows
 50-year
• no buildings nearfrequency
floodplain;for design;
• no sensitive floodplain
 100-year valuesfor
frequency and;
check;
• convenient detours exist;
Step 2 Determine Hydrology
d. Design criteria
• 50-year frequency
SCS equations for design;
yield
• 100-year frequency for check;
3
 Q50 = 11.3 m /s;
Step 2 Determine Hydrology
SCS equations yield 3
 Q = 14.16m /s;
• Q50 =10011.3 m3/s;
Step 3• Q100 Design= Downstream
14.16m /s; Channel (see figure 9.9)
3

Step 3 Design Downstream Channel (see figure 9.9)

Figure 9.9 Cross-Section of Channel (for Example)

Figure 9.9 Cross-Section of Channel (for Example)

Point Station, m Elevation, m

1 3.7 54.86
2 6.7 53.34
3 9.8 53.19
4 10.4 52.58
5 11.9 52.58
6 12.5 53.19
7 15.5 53.34
8 18.6 54.86

The rating curve for the channel calculated by normal depth yields:
3
Q (m /s) TW (m) V (m/s)
2.83 0.43 3.39
5.66 0.63 4.18
8.50 0.76 4.87
11.33 0.85 5.34
14.16 0.93 5.73

Step 4 Summarize Data on Design Form (see appendix 9.9)

97
Step 5 Select Design Alternative
Ministry of Works and Transport
Shape – box Size - 2135 mm by 1830 mm
o
Material – concrete Entrance- Wingwalls, 45 bevel, rounded
 2.83 0.43 3.39
5.66 0.63 4.18
8.50 0.76 4.87
11.33 0.85 5.34
Drainage Design Manual
14.16 0.93 5.73 Section 9

Step 4 Summarize Data on Design Form (see appendix 9.9)

Step 5 Select Design Alternative

Shape – box Size - 2135 mm by 1830 mm

o
Material – concrete Entrance- Wingwalls, 45 bevel, rounded
Drainage Design Manual Section 9
Step 6 Select Design Discharge
(Qd = Q50 = 11.33 m3/s)
9.15
Step 7 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Ministry of Works and Transport
Use inlet control nomograph – appendix 9.5

a. D = 1.83 m
b. Q/B = 11.33/2.13 = 5.32
c. HW/D = 1.27 for 45o bevel
d. HW i = (HW/D)D = (1.27)1.83 = 2.32 m (Neglect the approach
velocity)

Step 8 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)

3
a. TW = 0.85 m for Q50 = 11.33 m /s
b. dc = 1.43 m from charts in appendix 9.11
c. (dc + D)/2 = (1.43 + 1.83)/2 = 1.63 m
d. ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2)
ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.63 m
e. KE = 0.2 from tables in appendix 9.6
f. Determine (H) - use chart in appendix 9.14
 KE scale = 0.2;
 culvert length (L) = 90 m;
n = 0.012 same as on chart;
2
 area = 3.90 m ;
 H = 0.85 m;
g. HW oi = H + ho - SoL = 0.85 + 1.63 - (0.05)90 = - 2.02 m
HW oi is less than 1.2D, but control is inlet control, outlet control
computations are for comparison only

Step 9 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)

 HW c = HW i = 2.32 m > HWoi = - 2.02 m;

 The culvert is in inlet control;

Step 10 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

a. Calculate depth above the roadway:

HWr = HWc - HW ov = 2.32 – 2.59 = - 0.27m
b. If HWr  0, Qr = 0

Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

98
3 3
Qt = Qd + Qr = 11.33 m /s + 0 = 11.33 m /s
Ministry of Works and Transport

Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn) Inlet Control

a. Calculate normal depth (dn):

 Step 10 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

a. Calculate depth above the roadway:

Drainage Design Manual HWr = HWc - HW ov = 2.32 – 2.59 = - 0.27m Section 9
b. If HWr  0, Qr = 0

Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

3 3
Qt = Qd + Qr = 11.33 m /s + 0 = 11.33 m /s

Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn) Inlet Control

a. Calculate normal depth (dn):

Q = (1/n)A R2/3 S1/2 = 11.33 m3/s
2/3 .5
= (1/0.012)(2.13*dn)[(2.13*dn/(2.13+2dn)] (0.05)
2/3
Drainage Design Manual = (2.13*dn)[2.13*dn/(2.13+2dn)] = 0.608 Section 9
Trial-and-error solution

try dn = 0.6 m, 0.675 > 0.608 9.16

Ministry of Works and Transport use dn= 0.55 m, 0.596  0.608
b.
A = (2.13)0.55 = 1.17 m2

c. Vo = Q/A = 11.33/1.17 = 9.68 m/s

This velocity could cause erosion problems at the outlet, so the

designer may want to consider protecting the outlet with riprap.

Step 13 Review Results

Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any

of the following are exceeded repeat, Steps 5 through 12

 barrel has (2.59 m – 1.83 m) = .76 m of cover

 L = 90 is OK, since inlet control
 headwalls and wingwalls fit site
 allowable headwater (2.59 m) > 2.32 m is ok and
 overtopping flood frequency > 50-year

Step 14 Plot Performance Curve

Use Q100 for the upper limit, Steps 6 through 12 should be repeated
for each discharge used to plot the performance curve, figure 9.10.

Step 15 Related Designs

Consider tapered inlets, culvert is in inlet control and has limited

available headwater

 No flow routing, a small upstream headwater pool exists

 Consider energy dissipators since Vo= 9.5 m/s > 6 m/s in the
downstream channel
 No sediment problem

Step 16 Documentation

Report prepared and background filed

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Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Figure 9.10 Performance Curve for Design Example

9.5.2 Approximate Procedures
Figure 9.10 Performance Curve for Design Example
For cases where culvert size has to be determined quickly with an acceptable degree of
approximation,
9.5.2 nomographs
Approximate issued by the Ethiopian Construction Design Enterprise in 1993
Procedures
can be used. The nomographs are for pipe, box and slab culverts. Nomographs for different
size pipe culverts
For cases are shown
where culvert size hasin to
Figure 9.11 to Figure
be determined quickly9.13.
withFor ease of utilization
an acceptable degree ofof the
nomographs,
approximation,they have beenissued
nomographs converted into
by the a form ofConstruction
Ethiopian a table. These tables
Design are provided
Enterprise in in
appendix
1993 can 9.19-appendix
be used. The 9.21.nomographs are for pipe, box and slab culverts. Nomographs
for different size pipe culverts are shown in Figure 9.11 to Figure 9.13. For ease of
Roughness coefficient for Manning used is 0.015 for reinforced pipe and 0.017 for box culverts
utilization of the nomographs, they have been converted into a form of a table. These
and
tables0.019 for slab culvert
are provided (with paved
in appendix waterway9.21.
9.19-appendix at inlet, bed and outside the slab culvert). A
minimum efficiency factor of 200% in accommodating the available discharge is used for both
new pipe and
Roughness new slab for
coefficient culverts.
Manning used is 0.015 for reinforced pipe and 0.017 for box
culverts and
Example 0.019
1 Pipe for slab culvert (with paved waterway at inlet, bed and outside the
culverts
slab culvert). A minimum efficiency factor of 200% in accommodating the available
Say we have
discharge a discharge
is used for bothof 3.38
new m3/s,
pipe andand
newaslab
slope of 2.5%. Using a 200% efficiency factor
culverts.
the discharge used for design is 7.76 m3/s. The Table in appendix 9.19 has limits of slope of
up to 2% 1since
Example Pipethis slope is critical and slopes beyond this level are supercritical and do not
culverts
pose a problem of increased headwater depth. From the table in appendix 9.19 3x42” pipes
which
Say we could
haveaccommodate
a discharge of a discharge
3.38 m /s,ofand
3
8.10
a m3/s
slopeare
of chosen.
2.5%. Using a 200% efficiency
factor the discharge used for design is 7.76 m3/s. The Table in appendix 9.19 has limits

100
9.18
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and Transport
Drainage Design Manual Section 9

Example 2 Box Culverts

Given discharge = 13.2 m3/s, Slope =0.7%
The discharge is doubled for 200% efficiency, discharge = 26.4 m3/s
From the table in appendix 9.20 a box culvert of 3.0 m span and 2.0 m height is chosen which
has a capacity of 26.65 m3/s. Depending on actual geometry of crossing at site, the geometry
of opening can be altered.
Example 3 Slab Culverts
Given discharge = 52.5, Slope = 3.4 %
The discharge is doubled for 200% efficiency, discharge = 105 m3/s
From the table in appendix 9.21 a double slab culvert of 3.0 m span and 2.0 m height is
chosen. Each opening has a capacity of 52.54 m3/s.

Figure 9.11 Nomograph for Pipe Culverts (30 inch

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Figure 9.12 Nomograph for Pipe Culverts (36 inch)

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Figure 9.13 Nomograph for pipe culverts (42 inch)

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9.6 Freeboard Requirements

Drainage structure should be sized such that the headwater elevation resulting from the design
discharge is somewhat lower than the road shoulder break point at the low point in the road.
This difference in level is referred to as the freeboard. The freeboard will vary according to the
importance of the road but is usually set at 250 mm for major roads and 100 mm for minor roads.
The design flood could be permitted to discharge over the road up to a depth of 200 mm but
only if approved by the Engineer-in-Chief.
Low points should be localised and the road graded level over them so as to minimize scour
damage caused by overtopping. Wherever possible dips in the road grading on low class
roads should be located at watercourse crossings where the deck slabs of concrete box
culverts could be used as the riding surface of the roadway. Scour damage would then be
localised and minimised.
On low-cost low traffic roads no freeboard is required. The carriage way should be aligned
to follow existing ground profile and cross dry watercourse at bed level. Flow will be allowed
to pass over the road which may therefore become temporarily impassable to traffic during
floods.
9.7 Limitations on Outlet Velocity
A culvert, because of its hydraulic characteristics, generally increases the velocity of flow
above that in the natural channel. High velocities are critical immediately downstream of the
culvert outlet and the scour potential from the resulting energy is a factor to be considered in
culvert design.
Table 9.1 Permissible velocity & roughness coefficient
Material in channel Maximum permissible Roughness
velocity (m/s) coefficient
Sand, loam, fine gravel, volcanic 0.6 45
ash
Stiff Clay 1.1 50
Course Gravel 1.5 40
Conglomerate, hard shale, soft 2.0 25
rock
Hard rock 3.0 25
Masonry 3.0 40
Concrete 3.0 60

Culverts should be laid to grades that produce a non-silting or a non-erosive velocity, ideally
between 1 and 3.5m/s. This is particularly important in the sandy, semi-arid regions which
experience sporadic high intensity cloudbursts.
Maximum permissible velocities in erodible ditches and corresponding roughness coefficients
are given in Table 9.1.
9.8 Culvert Alignment
Generally, a culvert should be aligned along the natural watercourse. However, the culvert
itself should be straight between the inlet and outlet. This may require some modification of
the natural conditions.
Where natural conditions call for skewed alignments, a reduced degree of skew angle should
be investigated in order to shorten the culvert, and reduce costs. The culvert skew shall not
exceed 45o as measured from a line perpendicular to the roadway centreline without the
approval of the concerned Authority. Sound judgement should be used in any associated
channel relocations as these could adversely influence the hydraulic performance of the
culvert. Unless downstream scour would present serious problems, the inlet of the culvert
should be placed in the natural watercourse.
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9.9 Culvert Gradients

Culverts should generally be placed on the natural gradient, where this is not excessive.
Velocity is associated with gradient and therefore the following minimum and maximum
gradients should be used to ensure an acceptable range of velocities.
9.9.1 Minimum Gradients
Gradients less than 1 percent should be avoided, if possible. Gradients less than 0.5 percent
should not be used as they create maintenance problems resulting from siltation of the culvert,
particularly where the catchment consists of erodible material.
9.9.2 Steep Gradients
Culvert on gradients in excess of 10 percent should be provided with anchors in the case of
concrete pipes. For gradients in excess of 20 percent special anchoring devices should be
incorporated for all types of pipe culvert.
Where the natural gradient is steep and outlet scour is likely, the introduction of drop inlets and
stilling basins at the outlets, acting as energy dissipators, should be considered.
9.10 Minimum Size of Culvert
While sizing culverts, the designer should compare the sizes obtained from hydraulic design
principles to the minimum sizes required by practical aspects of construction to avoid
maintenance problems and clogging.
The minimum diameter of a pipe culvert under a road should be 600 mm or its equivalent in
corrugated metal pipe arches.
Similarly, the minimum size of precast concrete portal type culvert under a road should be
600mm x 450mm. This may be reduced to 450mm x 400m wherever self-scouring velocities
through the culvert can be achieved, resulting in a maintenance free structure.
9.11 End Structure
Inlet and outlet structures are required to prevent scouring of the roadway embankment, to
provide a transition from a channel to the culvert, and to improve the hydraulic performance
of the culvert.
In the higher class roads the design and type of inlet and outlet structures should be aimed
at providing a balance between hydraulic performance and cost. In the lower class roads
the emphasis should be on the cost saving aspect. Unless hydraulic or other considerations
require special end structures, the least expensive type of end structure should be adopted
throughout the project for continuity.
9.12 Types of End Structures
The type of end structure selected will depend on:
• Hydraulic performance;
• Cost; and,
• Availability of suitable materials;
The culvert inlet type and endwall detail shall be selected from standard details as shown
in appendix 9.15 through appendix 9.18. End structures generally consist of the following
types:
a) Composite headwall/wingwall/apron structure
This is the most common type of structure, but generally the most expensive. It protects
the embankment and provides a transition between the culvert and channel. It is normally
constructed in concrete, but cement mortared block or stone masonry wall, or gabion
construction should also be considered.

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Wingwalls are used to retain the roadway embankment to avoid a projecting culvert barrel.
They are also used where the side slopes of the channel are unstable, and where the culvert
is skewed to the normal channel flow.
Aprons are used to reduce scour from high headwater depths or from approach velocity in the
channel. They should extend at least 1.5 pipe diameters upstream, and should not protrude
above the normal streambed elevation. The apron slab may be omitted where the culvert is
founded on rock embankment.
b) Endwall structure
This is headwall without the wingwalls, and similar construction to the headwall/wingwall
structure should be considered.
c) Mitred structure
This is the endwall structure, but mitred to match the slope of the embankment. If this structure
is used it is normally constructed in cement-mortared stonework or gabion mattresses. Mitring
improves the hydraulics of flow at the entrance and is therefore preferred to the endwall
structure. Mitred ends are recommended on shallow fill slopes. The ends should be fixed at
least 3m from the shoulder break point, wherever the fill slope falls within the recovery area.
d) Projecting end
These are box or pipe culvert extensions beyond the embankment of the roadway. They have
low construction cost, eliminating headwalls and wingwalls. However, they are susceptible to
damage during roadway maintenance. Hydraulically it is the most unsound and some form
of scour protection may therefore be required at the outlet. They have poor inlet hydraulic
efficiency, and they may require anchoring of the inlet to strengthen the weak leading edge.
They are suggested for only low standard roads. Cutoff walls are recommended in all cases
where the culvert is not founded on rock.
9.13 Flare Angle of Wingwalls
Inlet and outlet wingwalls should be flared at an angle of 45 degrees to the culverts center
line on all pipe culverts and minor box culverts up to 1.2 m span. The wingwalls on major
structures should preferably be flared at an angle of 30 degrees as any increase in this flare
angle will only aggravate the potential scour at the outlet particularly for large culvert.
9.14 Effects of Scour
9.14.1 Effects on Culverts
Unchecked erosion is a prime cause of culvert failure. The greatest scour potential is at the
culvert outlet where high velocities may necessitate scour protection or energy dissipation.
Road embankments that are designed to be overtopped in a flood should also be protected
against scour, if this is deemed desirable.
9.14.2 Effects at Bridge Sites
The need for scour protection can be minimized by locating bridges on stable tangential
reaches of rivers and by placing foundations on non-erodible materials. However, such a
solution is not always practicable, economic or desirable from the road alignment standpoint.
In such cases the designer is reminded to check for local scour at bridge sites, which is caused
by macro-turbulence resulting from the concentration of energy. Potential scour around piers
and abutments should also be checked and allowed for if necessary. Where scour around the
abutments of major bridges is likely to be a serious problem, particularly where the bridge is
sited in a wide flood plain, consideration should be given to the allowance of guide banks or
spur dykes. The issue of scour at bridge sites and recommended measures of river training is
discussed in section 10 which treats the topic of hydraulic design of bridges.
Before finally fixing the level of the pier and abutment foundation footings, consideration should
be given to the possible shifting of the river channel during a flood.

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9.15 Protection of Culverts Against Scour

Scour can be eliminated by the effective use of:
• gabion mattresses;
• hand placed or dumped rip-rap;
• stone pitching (plain or grouted);
• concrete (in-situ or interlocking blocks); and,
• cutoff walls at the culvert exit;
Embankments and training works should always be protected against undermining. The choice
of protection to be used should be determined by materials availability and cost at the site.
9.16 Topographic Survey Requirements
The hydraulic design of culverts or bridge openings should be carried out using the procedure
described in this and the next section respectively, calling to organize the topographic surveys
as the first step of coherent data collection. Topographic survey activity consists of performing
detailed ground survey along the entire established alignment of the roadway opening.
Surveys information should be collected for river profile at the culvert or bridge site and also for
the cross-section of the opening. It is recommendable to conduct detailed survey operations
including cross sections, stream alignment center line on different sections to be determined
by the designer.
Wherever available the coordinates should be recorded automatically using total station
theodolites. Total stations enable to carry out the whole topographic survey by recording all
data directly into electronic data recording books, which will be retrieved by a computer system
for drainage design. Modern total stations are also programmed for construction stakeout and
for road infrastructure surveys. Total stations have made trigonometric levels as accurate as
many of the differential level techniques in areas possessing large relief landforms.
If a total station is not available non-digital theodolites may be used. The question of field
note is an important issue. Based on availability of facilities, field notes can be kept, or data
collector may be used to replace field notes with electronic field book”.

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SECTION 10
10.0 HYDRAULIC DESIGN ASPECTS OF BRIDGES
10.1 Introduction
Bridges are defined as:
• structures that transport traffic over waterways or other obstructions; and,
• part of a stream crossing system that includes the approach roadway over the flood plain,
relief openings, and the bridge structure;
The purpose of this section is to provide guidance on the hydraulic design of a stream crossing
system through appropriate policy, design, and technical criteria. In addition, this section
will provide non-hydraulic factors that influence design, including environmental concerns,
emergency access, and traffic service.
Proper hydraulic analysis and design is as vital as the structural design. Stream crossing
systems shall be designed for minimum cost, to the desired level of hydraulic performance up
to an acceptable risk level, and to mitigate impacts on stream environment.
10.2 Design Principles
Standards are a set of goals that establish a definite course of action or method of action
and that are selected to guide and determine present and future decisions. Principles that
are unique to bridge crossings are presented in this section. The hydraulic analysis should
consider various stream-crossing system designs to determine the most cost-effective proposal
consistent with design constraints.
These policies identify specific areas for which quantifiable criteria can be developed:
• The final design selection should consider the maximum backwater allowed (0.5m)
unless exceeding of this limit can be justified by special hydraulic conditions;
• The final design should not significantly alter the flow distribution in the flood plain;
• The “crest-vertical curve profile” shall be considered as the preferred highway crossing
profile when allowing for embankment overtopping;
• A specified clearance shall be established to allow for passage of debris; a vertical
clearance shall be established based on normally expected flows and to allow for the
passage of small boats where necessary;
• Degradation or aggradation of the river as well as contraction and local scour shall be
estimated as part of the final design; the design should either eliminate scour or provide
scour protection; and,
• Foundation level shall be positioned below the total scour depth whenever practical.
10.3 Design Criteria
There are a number of hydraulic as well as non-hydraulic factors affecting the design of bridges.
Hereunder, the different criteria are discussed for clarity of design procedure.
10.3.1 General Criteria
Design criteria are the tangible means for placing accepted policies into action and become
the basis for the selection of the final design configuration of the stream-crossing system. The
following are the general criteria related to the hydraulic analyses for the location and design
of bridges:
• Backwater will not significantly increase flood damage to property upstream of the
crossing;
• Velocities through the structure(s) will not either damage the highway facility or increase
damages to adjacent property;
• Maintain the existing flow distribution to the extent practicable;

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• Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment are to be designed to minimize flow disruption
and potential scour; spill-through type abutments using side slopes are preferred over
deep abutments to minimize scour and backwater, see appendix 10.5;
• Select foundation design and/or scour countermeasures to avoid failure by scour;
• Freeboard at structure(s) designed to pass anticipated debris;
• Acceptable risks of damage or viable measures to counter the unpredictability of alluvial
streams;
• Minimal disruption of ecosystems and values unique to the flood plain and stream;
• Provide a level of traffic service compatible with that commonly expected for the
class of highway and compatible with projected traffic volumes; and,
• Design choices should support costs for construction, maintenance, and operation,
including probable repair and reconstruction and potential liability.
10.3.2 Specific Criteria
These criteria augment the general criteria. They provide specific, quantifiable values that
relate to local site conditions. Evaluation of various alternatives according to these criteria can
be accomplished by using the water surface profile computation.
a) Location of a Stream Crossing
Although many factors, including non-technical ones, are used to determine the final location
of a stream-crossing system, the hydraulics of the proposed location must have a high priority.
Hydraulic considerations in selecting the location include flood plain width and roughness,
flow distribution and direction, stream type (braided, straight, or meandering), stream regime
(aggrading, degrading, or equilibrium), and stream controls. The hydraulics of a proposed
location also affect environmental considerations such as aquatic life, wetlands, sedimentation,
and stream stability. Finally, the hydraulics of a particular site determine whether or not
certain national objectives such as wise use of flood plains, reduction of flooding losses, and
preservative of wetlands can be met.
b) Inundation
Inundation of the carriageway dictates the level of traffic services provided by the facility. The
carriageway overtopping flood level identifies the limit of serviceability.
c) Risk Evaluation
The selection of hydraulic design criteria for determining the waterway opening, road grade,
scour potential, riprap, and other features should consider the potential impacts to interruptions
to traffic, adjacent property, the environment, and the infrastructure of the highway.
The evaluation of the consequence of risk associated with the probability of flooding attributed
to a stream-crossing system is a tool by which site specific design criteria can be developed.
This evaluation considers capital cost, traffic service, environmental and property impacts, and
hazards to human life.
The evaluation of risk is a two-stage process. The initial step, identified as risk assessment, is
more qualitative than a risk analysis and serves to identify threshold values that must be met
by the hydraulic design.
In many cases where the risks are low and/or threshold design values can be met, it is
unnecessary to pursue a detailed economic analysis. In those cases where the risks are high
and/or threshold values cannot be met, a Least Total Expected Cost (LTEC) analysis shall be
considered.
The results of a least-cost analysis can be presented in a graph of total cost as a function of
the overtopping discharge. The total cost consists of a combination of capital costs and flood
damages (or risk costs). Risk costs decrease with increases in the overtopping discharge
while capital costs simultaneously increase. The overtopping discharge for each alternative
is determined from a hydraulic analysis of a specific combination of embankment height and
bridge-opening length. The resulting least-cost alternative provides a tradeoff comparison.

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The alternatives considered in the least-cost analysis do not require the specification of a
particular design flood. This information is part of the output of the least-cost analysis. In other
words, the least-cost alternative has a specific risk of overtopping that is unknown before the
least-cost alternative has been determined. Therefore, design flood frequencies are used only
to establish the initial alternative.
Thereafter, specific flood-frequency criteria shall be considered only as constraints on the final
design selection. Deviation from the least-cost alternative may be necessary to satisfy these
constraints and the trade-off cost for doing so can be obtained from the least-cost analysis.
Risk based analysis does not recognize some of the intangible factors that influence a design.
The minimum design that results from this type of analysis may be too low to satisfy the site
condition.
d) Design Floods
Design floods for such purposes as the evaluation of backwater, clearance, and overtopping
shall be established predicated on risk based assessment of local site conditions. They should
reflect consideration of traffic service, environmental impact, property damage, hazard to
human life, and flood plain management criteria.
e) Backwater
Backwater and/or increases over existing condition up to 0.5 m during the passage of the 100-
year flood, if practicable.
The expression for backwater is formulated by applying the principle of conservation of energy
between the point of maximum backwater upstream from the bridge, and a point downstream
from the bridge at which normal stage has been reestablished. The expression is reasonably
valid if the channel in the vicinity of the bridge is essentially straight, the cross sectional area
of the stream is fairly uniform, the gradient of the bottom is approximately constant between
the upstream and downstream section, the flow is free to contract and expand, there is no
appreciable scour of the bed in the constriction and the flow is in the subcritical range.
f) Clearance
A minimum clearance conforming to the requirements of the Bridge Design manual (usually
1.5 meters) shall be provided between the design approach water surface elevation and the
low chord of the bridge for the final design alternative to allow for passage of debris.
g) Scour
Design for bridge foundation scour should be made considering the magnitude of flood,
through the 1% event (100 years return period), which generates the maximum scour depth.
The designer should use a safety factor of three. The resulting design should then be checked
using a superflood that is 1.7 times the magnitude of the 1% event.
The extreme hazard posed by bridges subject to bridge scour failures dictates a different
philosophy in selecting suitable flood magnitudes to use in the scour analysis.
With bridge flood hazards other than scour, such as those caused by roadway overtopping
or property damage from inundation, a prudent and reasonable practice is to select first a
design flood to determine a trial bridge opening geometry. This geometry is selected either
subjectively or objectively based on the initial cost of the bridge along with the potential future
costs for flood hazards. Following the selection of this trial bridge geometry, the base flood
(100 years return period) is used to evaluate the selected opening. This two step evaluation
process is used to ensure the selected bridge opening based on the design flood implies no
unexpected increase in any existing flood hazards other than those from scour or aggradation.
Not only is it necessary to consider bridge scour or aggradation from the base flood, but also
from an even larger flood termed herein as the “superflood”.
Scour prediction technology is steadily developing, but lacks at this time, the reliability
associated with other facets of hydraulic engineering. Several formulae for predicting scour

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depths are currently available and others will certainly be developed in the future. The designer
should strive to be acquainted with the “state of practice’ at the time of a given analysis and is
encouraged to be conservative in the resulting scour predictions.
With potential bridge scour hazards, a different flood selection and analysis philosophy is
considered reasonable and prudent. The foregoing trial bridge opening which was selected
by considering initial costs and future flood hazard costs shall be evaluated for two possible
scour conditions with the worse case dictating the foundation design and possibly a change in
the selected trial bridge opening.
First, evaluate the proposed bridge and road geometry for scour using the base flood, incipient
overtopping flood, overtopping flood corresponding to the base flood, or the relief opening
flood whichever provides the greatest flood discharge through the bridge opening. Once the
expected scour geometry has been assessed, the geotechnical engineer would design the
foundation.
The foundation design would use the conventional foundation safety factors and eliminate
consideration of any stream bed and bank material displaced by scour for foundation
support.
Second, impose a “superflood” on the proposed bridge and road geometry. This event must
be greater than the base flood and shall be used to evaluate the proposed bridge opening to
ensure that the resulting potential scour will produce no unexpected scour hazards.
The “superflood” is defined as the 500-year flood or a designated ratio (e.g. 1.7) times the
100-year flood. Similar to the base flood to evaluate the selected bridge opening, use either
the “superflood’, or the relief opening flood, whichever imposes the greatest flood discharge
on the selected bridge opening. The foundation design based on the base flood would then
be reviewed by the geotechnical engineer using an appropriate safety factor and again, taking
into account any stream bed and bank material displaced by scour from the “superflood”.
h) Preventive /Protection Measures Against Scour
Based on an assessment of potential scour provided by the Hydraulic Engineer, the structural
designers can incorporate design features that will prevent or mitigate scour damage at piers.
In general, circular piers or elongated piers with circular noses and an alignment parallel to
the flow direction are a possible alternative. Spread footings shall be used only where the
stream bed is extremely stable below the footing and where the spread footing is founded at
a depth that is below the maximum scour computed in the scour subsection. Drilled shafts or
drilled piers may be possible where pilings cannot be driven. Drop structures or grade-control
structures can provide protection against general streambed degradation in or downstream of
the bridge opening.
Rock riprap is often used, where stone of sufficient size is available, to armor abutment fill
slopes and the area around the base of piers.
Whenever possible, clearing of vegetation upstream and downstream of the toe of the
embankment slope shall be avoided. Embankment overtopping may be incorporated into the
design but shall be located well away from the bridge abutments and superstructure. Spur
dikes are recommended to align the approach flow with the bridge opening and to prevent
scour around the abutments. They are usually elliptical shaped with a major to minor axis ratio
of 2.5 to 1. This issue is discussed in detail under river training and stabilization in subsection
10.10.
i) Deck Drainage
Improperly drained bridge decks can cause numerous problems including hydroplaning. Bridge
decks should drain over the side. Where curb and gutter is used deck drainage is carried to
the ends, the bridge decks shall be watertight, and drains at the end of the bridge should have
sufficient inlet capacity to carry all bridge drainage.

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j) Environmental Consideration
Environmental criteria must be met in the design of stream-crossing systems. Such
considerations might require the expertise of an environmentalist on the design team. Water
quality considerations should also be included in the design process insofar as the stream-
crossing system affects the water quality relative to beneficial uses. As a practical matter
with bridges, the hydraulic design criteria related to scour, degradation, aggradation, flow
velocities, and lateral distribution of flow, for example, are important criteria for evaluation of
environmental impacts as well as the safety of the stream-crossing structures.
All borrow areas existing within the flood plain shall be chosen so as to minimize the potential
for scour and adverse environmental effects within the limits of the bridge and its approaches
on the flood plain.
k) Construction Maintenance Aspects
Construction plans shall be reviewed jointly by the Contractor and the Hydraulic Engineer to
note any changes in the stream from the conditions used in the design. Temporary structures
and crossings used during construction shall be designed for a specified risk of failure due to
flooding during the construction period. The impacts on normal water levels, fish passage, and
normal flow distribution must be considered.
The stream-crossing design should incorporate measures which reduce maintenance costs
whenever possible. These measures include spur dikes, retards, guide dikes, jetties, riprap
protection of abutments and embankments, embankment overflow at lower elevations than
the bridge deck, and alignment of piers with the flow.
10.4 Investigation and Design Procedure

The investigation of bridge sites and hydraulic design of bridges involve a number of steps
which must be properly formulated to develop a systematic procedure. The following sections
discuss the relevant aspects and steps that are necessary in the data collection and hydraulic
design of bridges .
10.4.1 Physical Survey
The purpose of surveys is to gather all necessary site information. This should include such
information as topography and other physical features, land use and culture, flood data, basin
characteristics, precipitation data, historical high-water marks, existing structures, channel
characteristics, and environmental data. A site plan shall be developed on which much of the
survey data can be shown.
The designer of a stream crossing system requires a comprehensive engineering approach
that includes formulation of alternatives, data collection, selection of the most cost effective
alternative according to established criteria, and documentation of the final design. Water
surface profiles are computed for a variety of technical uses including:
• flood hazard mitigation investigations;
• drainage crossing analysis; and,
• longitudinal encroachments.
The completed profile can affect the highway bridge design and is the mechanism for
determining the effect of a bridge opening on upstream water levels.
10.4.2 Design Procedure Outline
The following design procedure outline shall be used. Although the scope of the project and
individual site characteristics make each design a unique one, the following procedure shall
be applied.

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I. Data Collection
A. Survey
1. Topography
2. Geology
3. High-water marks
4. History of debris accumulation and scour
5. Review of hydraulic performance of existing structures
6. Maps, aerial photographs
7. Rainfall and stream gage records
8. Field reconnaissance
B. Other Relevant Information
1. From Concerned Ministries
2. River basin studies
3. Hydraulic performance of existing bridges
C. Influences on Hydraulic Performance of Site
1. Other streams, reservoirs, water intakes
2. Structures upstream or downstream
3. Natural features of stream and flood plain
4. Channel modifications upstream or downstream
5. Flood plain encroachments
6. Sediment types and bed forms
D. Environmental Impact
1. Existing bed or bank instability
2. Flood plain land use and flow distribution
3. Environmentally sensitive areas (fisheries, wetlands, etc.)
E. Site-specific Design Criteria
1. Preliminary risk assessment
2. Application of agency criteria
II. Hydrologic Analysis
A. Catchments area morphology
1. Drainage area (attach map)
2. Catchment area and stream slope
3. Channel geometry
B. Hydrologic computations
1. Discharge for historical flood that complements the high water marks used for
calibration
2. Discharges for specified frequencies
III. Hydraulic Analysis
A. Computer model calibration and verification
B. Hydraulic performance for existing conditions
C. Hydraulic performance of proposed designs
IV. Selection of Final Design

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A. Risk assessment/least-cost alternative ( or Least Total Expected Cost)

B. Measure of compliance with established hydraulic criteria
C. Consideration of environmental and social criteria
D. Design details such as riprap, scour abatement, and river training
V. Documentation
A. Complete project records, etc.
B. Complete correspondence and reports
10.4.3 Hydraulic Performance of Bridges
The stream-crossing system is subject to either free-surface flow or pressure flow through one
or more bridge openings with possible embankment overtopping.
It is impracticable to perform the hydraulic analysis for a bridge by manual calculations due to
the interactive and complex nature of those computations. These hydraulic complexities are
best analyzed using a computer program such as WSPRO or HEC-2.
For purposes of illustration, the hydraulic variables and flow types are defined in appendix
10.1 and appendix 10.2. Backwater is measured relative to the normal water surface elevation
without the effect of the bridge at the approach cross-section. It is the result of contraction
and re-expansion head losses and head losses due to bridge piers. Backwater can also be
the result of a “choking condition” in which critical depth is forced to occur in the contracted
opening with a resultant increase in depth and specific energy upstream of the contraction.
This is illustrated in appendix 10.2.
• Type I consists of subcritical flow throughout the approach, bridge, and exit cross sections
and is the most common condition encountered in practice (see appendix 10.2).
• Type IIA and IIB (see appendix 10.2) both represent subcritical approach flows which have
been choked by the contraction resulting in the occurrence of critical depth in the bridge
opening. In Type IIA the critical water surface elevation in the bridge opening is lower than
the undisturbed normal water surface elevation. In the Type IIB it is higher than the normal
water surface elevation and a weak hydraulic jump immediately downstream of the bridge
contraction is possible.
• Type III flow (see appendix 10.2) is supercritical approach flow and remains supercritical
through the bridge contraction. Such a flow condition is not subject to backwater unless it
chokes and forces the occurrence of a hydraulic jump upstream of the contraction.
10.4.4 The Region of Influence
The water surface profile used in the hydraulic analysis of a bridge should extend from a point
downstream of the bridge that is beyond the influence of the constriction to a point upstream
that is beyond the extent of the bridge backwater (Figure 10.1). The cross sections that are
necessary for the energy analysis through the bridge opening for a single opening bridge with
and without spur dikes are shown in appendix 10.3.

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Figure 10.1 Variable Cross-section in the Vicinity of Bridges

Energy losses caused by structures such as bridges and culverts are computed in two parts.
First, the losses due to expansion and contraction of the cross section on the upstream and
downstream sides of the structure are computed in the standard step calculations. Secondly,
the loss through the structure itself is computed by either the normal bridge or the special
bridge methods.
10.5 Bridge Scour and Aggradation
Reasonable and prudent hydraulic analysis of a bridge design requires that an assessment
be made of the proposed bridge vulnerability to undermining due to potential scour. Because
of the extreme hazard and economic hardships posed by a rapid bridge collapse, special
considerations must be given to selecting appropriate flood magnitudes for use in the analysis.
The designer shall use the most appropriate scour forecasting methods.
According to recent studies as reported in HEC-18, the scour at deep abutments is nearly
twice that at the toe of the embankment slope of spill-through type abutments. Therefore, spill-
through type bridge structures are preferred for stream crossings, see appendix 10.5.
The inherent complexities of stream stability, further complicated by highway stream crossings,
requires a multilevel solution procedure. The evaluation and design of a highway stream
crossing shall begin with a qualitative assessment of stream stability. This involves application of
geomorphologic concepts to identify potential problems and alternative solutions. This analysis
shall be followed with quantitative analysis using basic hydrologic, hydraulic and sediment
transport engineering concepts. Such analyses could include evaluation of flood history,
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channel hydraulic conditions (up to and including, for example, water surface profile analysis)
and basic sediment transport analyses such as evaluation of catchment area sediment yield,
incipient motion analysis and scour calculations. This analysis can be considered adequate
for many locations if the problems are resolved and the relationships between different factors
affecting stability are adequately explained. If not, a more complex quantitative analysis based
on detailed mathematical modeling and/or physical hydraulic models shall be considered. This
multilevel approach is presented in HEC-20.
Less hazardous perhaps are problems associated with aggradation. Where freeboard is
limited, problems associated with increased flood hazards to upstream property or to the
traveling public due to more frequent overtopping may occur. Where aggradation is expected,
it may be necessary to evaluate these consequences. In addition, aggradation in a stream
reach may serve to moderate potential scour depths. Aggradation is sometimes referred to as
negative scour.
10.5.1 Scour Types
Present technology dictates that bridge scour be evaluated as interrelated components:
• long term profile changes (aggradation/degradation);
• plan form change (lateral channel movement);
• contraction scour/deposition; and,
• local scour.
Long-term profile changes can result from streambed profile changes that occur from
aggradation and/or degradation.
• Aggradation is the deposition of bedload due to a decrease in the energy gradient; and,
• Degradation is the scouring of bed material due to increased stream sediment transport
capacity that results from an increase in the energy gradient.
Forms of degradation and aggradation shall be considered as imposing a permanent future
change for the streambed elevation at a bridge site whenever they can be identified.
10.5.2 Plan Form Changes
The form and shape of the stream path created by its erosion and deposition characteristics
comprise its morphology. A stream can be braided, straight, or meandering, or it can be in the
process of changing from one form to another because of natural or manmade influences. A
historical study of the stream morphology at a proposed stream-crossing site is mandatory.
This study should also include an assessment of any long-term trends in aggradation or
degradation. Braided streams and alluvial fans should especially be avoided for stream-
crossing sites whenever possible.
Plan form changes are morphological changes such as meander migration or bank widening.
The lateral movement of meanders can threaten bridge approaches as well as increase scour
by changing flow patterns approaching a bridge opening. Bank widening can cause significant
changes in the flow distribution and thus the bridge’s flow contraction ratio.
It is difficult to anticipate when a change in plan form may occur. It may be gradual or the result
of a single major flood event. Also, the direction and magnitude of the movement of the stream
are not easily predicted. It is difficult to evaluate properly the vulnerability of a bridge due to
changes in plan form; however, it is important to incorporate potential plan form changes into
the design of new bridges and design of countermeasures for existing bridges.
Assessing the significance of plan form changes, such as the shifting location of meanders,
the formation of islands, and the overall pattern of streams, usually cannot be accomplished
without field observations. Records and photographs taken by bridge inspectors and
maintenance personnel may provide some insight into the nature of the stream for the initial
assessments. Historical aerial photographs of the stream can be extremely valuable in this
analysis. Ultimately, an engineering judgement must be made as to whether possible future
or existing plan form changes represent a hazard to the bridge, and the extent of field work
required to evaluate this condition.
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10.5.3 Contraction
A constriction of the channel, which may be caused, in part, by bridge piers in the waterway,
can result in channel contraction scour. Deposition results from an expansion of the channel
or the bridge site being positioned immediately downstream of a steeper reach of stream.
Highways, bridges, and natural channel contractions are the most commonly encountered
cause of constriction scour.
10.5.4 Local Scour
The potential scour hazard at a bridge site is exacerbated by abutments or piers located within
the flood flow prism. The amount of potential scour caused by these features is termed local
scour. Local scour is a function of the geometry of these features as they relate to the flow
geometry. However, the importance of these geometric variables will vary. As an example,
increasing the pier or cofferdam width either through design or debris accumulation will
increase the amount of local scour, but only up to a point in subcritical flow streams. After
reaching this point, pier scour should not be expected to increase measurably with increased
stream velocity or depth. This threshold has not been defined in the more rare, supercritical
flowing streams.
10.6 Natural Armoring
Armoring occurs because a stream or river is unable, during a particular flood, to move the
more coarse material comprising either the bed or, if some bed scour occurs, its underlying
material. Scour may occur initially but later become arrested by armoring before the full scour
potential is reached again for a given flood magnitude.
When armoring does occur, the coarser bed material will tend to remain in place or quickly
redeposit so as to form a layer of riprap like armor on the stream bed or in the scour holes
and thus limit further scour for a particular discharge. When a larger flood occurs than used
to define the probable scour hole depths, scour will probably penetrate deeper until armoring
again occurs at some lower threshold.
Armoring may also cause bank widening. Bank widening encourages rivers or streams to seek
a more unstable, braided regime. Such instabilities may pose serious problems for bridges
as they encourage further plan form changes that are difficult to assess. Bank widening also
spreads the approach flow distribution, which in turn results in a more severe bridge opening
contraction.
10.7 Naturally Occurring Scour Resistant Materials
Caution is necessary in determining the scour resistance of bed materials and the underlying
strata. With smaller size material, the passage of a single flood may result in the predicted
scour depths. Conversely, in scour resistant material the maximum predicted depth of scour
may not be realized during the passage of a particular flood; however, some scour resistant
material may be lost. Commonly, this material is replaced with more easily scoured material.
Thus, a later flood may reach the predicted scour depth. Serious scour has been observed to
occur in materials commonly perceived to be scour resistant, such as consolidated soils, so-
called bed rock streams, and streams with gravel and boulder beds.
10.8 Methods of Computation of Extent of Scour
Determination of maximum scour depth that can occur at a crossing site is necessary in the
design of abutment and pier foundation. Actual extent of scouring at a particular crossing site
depends on various factors such as velocity of water, change in the channel geometry and
hydraulics resulting from the introduction of the crossing structure, nature of river bank and
river bed materials, shape and size of Abutment/pier structure, etc.
A number of empirical formulas for computing depth of scour have been developed over
the years based on results of numerous experiments. The method recommended by US
Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development is re-commended.

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According to this method, contraction scour and local scour are considered. Constriction scour
occurs when the waterway opening size provided by the bridge is less than regime width.
Otherwise no contraction scour occurs.
There are two cases of contraction scour to be considered; Live bed scour and Clear water
scour. For any case or condition, it is only necessary to determine if the flow in the main
channel or over-bank area upstream of the bridge, or approaching relief bridge, is transporting
bed material (live-bed), and then apply the appropriate equation with the variable defined
according to the location of contraction scour (channel or over bank). The calculation procedure
explained in this sub-section is demonstrated by means of a worked example in appendix
10.4.
To determine if the flow upstream of the bridge is transporting bed material, calculate the
critical velocity for beginning of motion Vc and compare it with the mean velocity V of the flow
in the main channel or over-bank area upstream of the bridge opening. If the critical velocity of
the bed material is higher than the mean velocity (Vc > V), then clear water contraction scour
will exist. On the other hand if the critical velocity of the bed, which is sufficient enough to
transport the D50 size of the bed material, is less than the mean velocity (Vc < V), then live-
bed contraction scour will exist.
The critical velocity is calculated by Laursen’s equation: -
Vc=10.95*Y1 (1/6)*D50(1/3)
Where: Vc = Critical velocity(ft/s)
Drainage Design Manual
Y1 = Mean depth of flow(ft)
D50 = Diameter at which 50% of the river bed material passes(ft)

10.8.1 Live-Bed
10.8.1 Contraction
Live-Bed Scour
Contraction Scour

Live-bed contraction scour is to be determined using the following relationship

ys = y2-y1 = (average scour depth)

6
k
 Q   W 
1
y 7
2
  2
  1
 10.3
y 1  Q 1   W 2 
where:

y1 = average depth in the upstream main channel, [ft]

y2 = average depth in the contracted section, [ft]
w1 = bottom width of the upstream main channel, [ft]
w2 = bottom width of the main channel in the contracted section, [ft]
Q1 = flow in the upstream channel transporting sediment, [cfs]
Q2 = flow in the contracted channel, [cfs]
k1 = exponent determined below:

Table 10.1 K110.1

Table forKdetermining
1 of of
for determining live-bed
live-bedcontraction scour
contraction scour

V./w K1 Mode of Bed Material Transport

<0.50 0.59 Mostly contact bed material discharge
0.50 – 2.0 0.64 Some suspended bed material discharge
>2.0 0.69 Mostly suspended bed material discharge

V = (/)1/2 = (gy1S1)1/2, shear velocity in the upstream section, [ft/sec]

w = fall velocity of bed material based on D50, [ft/sec]
2
118 g = acceleration of gravity [32.2 ft/sec ]
S1 = slope of energy grade line of main channel, [ft/ft]
Ministry of Works and Transport 2
 = shear stress on the bed, [lb/ft ]
 = density of water [1.94 slugs/ft3]
 Table 10.1 K1 for determining of live-bed contraction scour

V./w K1 Mode of Bed Material Transport

<0.50 0.59 Mostly contact bed material discharge
0.50 –Manual
Drainage Design 2.0 0.64 Some suspended bed material discharge Section 10
>2.0 0.69 Mostly suspended bed material discharge

V = (/)1/2 = (gy1S1)1/2, shear velocity in the upstream section, [ft/sec]

w = fall velocity of bed material based on D50, [ft/sec]
2
g = acceleration of gravity [32.2 ft/sec ]
S1 = slope of energy grade line of main channel, [ft/ft]
2
 = shear stress on the bed, [lb/ft ]
 = density of water [1.94 slugs/ft3]

10.8.2 10.8.2
Clear Water Contraction
Clear Scour
Water Contraction Scour

Clear water contraction scour is determined using the following relationship:

where:   
7/6

 Q 
ys  y1 0.13   1 10.4
 Dm  Y1   W
1/3 7/6
 
ys = scour depth (ft)
y1 = mean depth of flow prior to scour [ft]
Q = Discharge through the bridge, [cfs]
Dm = Effective mean diameter of the bed material (1.25*D50), [ft]
W = Bottom width of the bridge less pier width, [ft]

10.8.3 10.8.3
Local scour at Pier
Local scour at Pier
Drainage Design Manual
The local scour at pier is a function of bed material size, flow characteristics, fluid
properties and the geometry of the pier.

where;
10.13
MinistryYsof Works and
= scour Transport
depth
Y1 = flow depth directly upstream of the pier, [ft]
K1 = Correction factor for pier nose shape
K2 = Correction factor for angle of attack of flow
K3 = Correction factor for bed condition
a = Pier width, [ft]
V1 = mean velocity of flow directly upstream of the pier, [ft/sec]
1/2
Fr1 = Froude number = V1/(gy1)

TableTable
10.2:10.2: Correction
Correction Factor
Factor for Table 10.3: Correction Factor
Table Factor k2
k2for
forangle attack
pier nose
for pier nose
shape angle attack of flowof flow

Shape of pier nose K1 Angle L/a = 4 L/a = 8 L/a = 12

Square nose 1.1 0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Round nose 1.0 15 1.5 2.0 2.5
Circular nose 1.0 30 2.0 2.75 3.5
Sharp nose 0.9 45 2.3 3.3 4.3
Group of cylinders 1.0 90 2.5 3.9 5.0

L = Length of pier, [ft]

a = Pier width, [ft]

10.12 Required Data for Scour Assessment

10.12.1 Bed Material

119
It is
Ministry of necessary
Works to obtain bed material samples for all channel cross sections when
and Transport
armoring is to be evaluated. If armoring is not being evaluated, this information need
only be obtained at the site. From these samples try to identify historical scour and
associate it with a discharge. Also, determine the bed material size-weight distribution
curve in the bridge reach and from this distribution determine d16, d50, d84, and d90.
Drainage Design Manual Section 10

10.12 Required Data for Scour Assessment

10.12.1 Bed Material
It is necessary to obtain bed material samples for all channel cross sections when armoring is
to be evaluated. If armoring is not being evaluated, this information need only be obtained at
the site. From these samples try to identify historical scour and associate it with a discharge.
Also, determine the bed material size-weight distribution curve in the bridge reach and from
this distribution determine d16, d50, d84, and d90.
10.12.2 Geometry
Obtain existing stream and flood plain cross sections, stream profile, site plan and the stream’s
present, and where possible, historic geomorphic plan form. Also, locate the bridge site with
respect to such things as other bridges in the area, tributaries to the stream or close to the site,
bed rock controls, manmade controls (dams, old check structures, river training works, etc.),
and downstream confluence with other streams. Locate (distance and height) any “headcuts”
due to natural causes or such things as gravel mining operations. Upstream gravel mining
operations may absorb the bed material discharge resulting in the more adverse clear water
scour case discussed later. Any data related to plan form changes such as meander migration
and the rate at which they may be occurring are useful.
10.12.3 Hydrology
Identify the character of the stream hydrology; i.e., perennial, ephemeral, intermittent as well
as whether it is subject to broad hydrographic peaks resulting from gradual flow increases
such as occur with general thunderstorms.
Stage discharge relationships at the bridge site can be estimated by indirect iterative procedure
described in appendix 10.4. The procedure requires surveyed data with regard to river cross-
section and river slope at the site. Required parameters for the use of the Manning’s equation
are developed from surveyed data and the discharge is calculated for different discrete levels of
stages. For ease of understanding and application, the procedure is clearly stated in appendix
10.4 with an accompanying example.
10.12.4 Geomorphology
Classify the geomorphology of the site; i.e., such things as whether it is a flood plain stream,
crosses a delta, or crosses an alluvial fan; youthful, mature or old age.
10.13 River Training and Stabilization
Specific functions of bank protection and training works in relation to bridges and their
approaches include: (1) stabilize eroding river banks and channel location in the case
of shifting streams; (2) economize on bridge lengths by constricting the natural waterway;
(3) direct flow parallel to piers and thereby minimize local scour; (4) improve the hydraulic
efficiency of a waterway opening, thereby reducing afflux and scour and facilitating passage
of debris; (5) protect road approaches from stream attack and prevent meanders from folding
onto the approaches; (6) permit construction of a square bridge crossing by diverting the
channel from a skewed alignment; (7) reduce the overall cost of a road project by diverting the
channel away from the base of a valley slope, thereby allowing a reduction in bridge length
and height; (8) secure existing works, or repair damage and improve initial designs; and (9)
protect longitudinal encroachments. Straight reaches and reaches of very small curvature
should be avoided, insofar as practicable, because there is a tendency for flows to shift from
side to side in such reaches. The optimum bend radius approximates that of relatively stable
bends in the general river reach. Some of the common river training structures to effect the
aforementioned measures are discussed below

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10.13.1 Guide Banks

Guide banks are effective means of decreasing the risk from scour at bridge abutments. They
achieve this by moving the contraction of the streamlines and the generated velocities away
from the abutment to the upstream end of the guide bank. Guide banks also assist in the
protection of approach embankments from scour by reducing the flow along the face of the
embankment. Details of a common type of guide bank is given in appendix 10.6.
Three principal considerations are involved in proportioning a guide bank:
• Geometry;
• Height; and,
• Length.
Geometry - A guide bank in the form of a quarter ellipse, with ratio of major (length) to minor
(offset) axes of 2.5:1 performs as well or better than any other shape tested. The equation for
this ellipse (appendix 10.6) is:

X2 Y2
2
 1 (10.6)
Ls ( 0. 4 L s ) 2
Height - is based on the anticipated high water level. The guide bank should have sufficient
height and free board to avoid overtopping and be protected from wave action.
Length - is estimated using the method recommended in “Hydraulics of bridge waterways”
(Bradley, 1978) in which the length of guide bank, Ls, is determined from the discharge ratio
Qf/Q30, relating the flow over the left or right flood plain to a specific portion of the flow under
the bridge, a representative velocity adjacent to the abutment of the bridge, and the length of
the guide bank needed. The length Ls is determined from nomograph in appendix 10.7.
Definitions of the symbol used in the Figure are:
Q = total stream discharge (m3/s)
Qf = lateral of flood plain flow (one side) (m3/s)
Q30 = Q/bx30 = discharge (m3/s) in 30 m of stream adjacent to abutment
b = length (m) of bridge opening
An2 = Water area (m2) under bridge referred to normal stage
Vn2 = average velocity (m/s) through bridge opening
Qf/Q30 = guide bank discharge ratio
Ls = top length (m) of guide bank (as shown on appendix 10.7)
It can be observed that the length of guide bank should be increased with an increase in
floodplain discharge, with an increase in velocity under the bridge, or both. The chart is read
by entering the ordinate with the proper value of Qf/Q30, moving horizontally to the curve
corresponding with the computed value of Vn2 and then downward to obtain from the abscissa
the length of guide bank required.
As a general rule, if the length read from the abscissa is less than 10m, a guide bank is not
required. For chart lengths from 10 to 30 m, it is recommended that a guide bank not less than
30 m long constructed. This length is needed to direct the curvilinear flow around the end of
the guide bank so that it will merge with the main channel flow and establish a straight course
down river before reaching the bridge abutment.
Curvilinear flow can have several times the capacity to scour than that of parallel flow, depending
on the radius of curvature, velocity, depth of flow and other factors. Holding the depth flow and
other factors constant, the depth of scour will increased with decrease in radius of curvature.
For this reason the deepest scour produced by a guide bank occurs near the nose where the
radius of curvature is least.

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Appendix 10.6 shows the guide bank details including the provision of rock protection, which
should be extended out from the toe of the guide bank on the river bed, so that as the scour
hole forms, the rock will fall into place on the side of the scour hole to prevent undermining of
the guide bank.
10.13.2 Spurs
Spurs, retards or groynes are structures or embankments projecting into a stream from the
bank at some angle to deflect flowing water away from critical zones, to prevent erosion of the
bank, and establish a more desirable channel alignment or width. By deflecting the current
from the bank, a spur or a series of spurs may protect the stream bank more effectively and at
less cost than rock protecting the bank.
Also, by moving the location of any scour away from the bank, failure of the rock protection
on the spur can often be repaired before damage is done to structures along and across the
river. Spurs are also used to protect road embankments that form the approaches to a bridge
crossing. Often these embankments cut off the over bank flood flows causing these flows to
run parallel to embankment enroute to the bridge opening. Spurs constructed perpendicular
to the embankment keep the potentially erosive current away from the embankment, thus
protecting it. In this context guide banks also act as spurs. The noses of spurs are generally
rock protected.
The length of bank or road embankment protected by each spur is about three times its
projected length perpendicular to the direction of flow, as shown of appendix 10.9. Therefore,
spurs of equal length need not be spaced closer than three times their projected length. For a
group of four or more, the spacing may be up to four times their projected length.
10.13.3 Rock Protection
For abutments and piers where scour is expected, properly designed rock riprap will afford
protection against progressive erosion. This type of protection has generally been found to
be the most practical and economic solution for the protection of spill through abutments and
guide banks.
a) Selection of size and thickness of rock - The basic assumptions in determining the
rock size and thickness are as follows:
The stones are graded uniformly between specified minima for class of rock protection with
two thirds heavier than minimum required on face.
Minimum mass of stone (kg),

11x10 3 V 6 S gr
W (10.7)
(S gr  1) 3 sin 3 (   )
where,
V = Velocity (m/s)
S gr = Specific gravity of rock
 = 70o for randomly placed rock rubble
 = Face slope (degrees)
1/3
Thickness (m) of rock protection, T=0.3sin  x W c
where, Wc = Class of rock protection (see appendix 10.8) expressed in kg.
(ie Wc = 1/4 tonne = 250 kg)
o 6
Assuming, S gr = 2.65 and = 1.5: 1(33.69 ), then W= 0.032 V and the size
and thickness of rock can be determined from appendix 10.8.

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Note that the mass by which the class of rock protection, Wc is designated does not correspond
to the mass W. The class of rock protection, Wc should be graded so that at least 2/3 of all
rocks in the class have a greater mass than W.
b) Grading of rock - the grading of rock riprap affects its resistance to erosion. The
stone should be reasonably well graded throughout the riprap layer thickness. The grading of
the various standard classes of rock protection should be in accordance with appendix 10.8.
Each load of riprap should be reasonably well graded from the smallest to the maximum
specified. Stones smaller than the specified 10 percent size should not be permitted in an
amount exceeding 20 percent by weight of each load.
c) Quality of rock - the riprap should be hard, dense and durable. In addition, it should
be resistant to weathering, free from overburden, spoil, shale and organic matter. Rock that
is laminated, fractured, porous, or otherwise physically weak is unacceptable as rock slope
protection.
Stone shape is another important factor in the selection of an appropriate riprap material. In
general, riprap constructed with angular material has the best performance. Round material
can be used as riprap provided it is not placed on slopes greater than 3:1. Flat slab-like stones
should be avoided since they are easily dislodged by flow. An approximate guide to stone
shape is that the breadth or thickness of a single stone should be not less than one-third its
length.
d) Method of placement of rock protection - the thickness of the rock protection has
been determined assuming the following method of placement.
A footing trench should be excavated, along the toe of the slope. Rock should be placed so as
to provide a minimum of voids. The larger rocks should be placed in the foundation course and
on the outside surface of the slope protection. The rock may be placed by dumping and may
be spread in layers by bulldozers or other similar equipment.
Where filter fabrics are not used, best results are obtained when the embankment and rock
protection are raised in progressive horizontal layers. At each level the large rocks are placed
at the face by bulldozer, and where required a graded sand/gravel filter material is pushed
tightly in behind the rock protection, before raising the general level of the embankment to the
next level. Local surface irregularities of the slope protection should not vary from the planned
slope by more than 300 mm measured at right angles to the slope.
e) Filter material - where necessary a filter should be placed between the embankment
fill and the rock slope protection to prevent fine embankment material from being washed out
through the voids of the face stones. The filter may be a graded sand/gravel filter.

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APPENDICES

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Drainage Design Manual Appendix for Section 4

Appendix 4.1: Example on Development of IDF Equations/Curves for a "Demonstration Rainfall Station"

Maximum Annual Intensity Data for 10, 20, 30, and 60 minutes Durations

Year 1 hr max. 30 min. max. 20 min. max. 10 min. max.

Se. No precipitation precipitation precipitation precipitation
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 1969 32.50 28.00 23.00 18.80
2 1970 73.20 60.00 49.00 30.00
3 1971 39.10 24.00 19.60 9.80
4 1972 22.80 20.00 15.90 10.00
5 1973 28.80 21.20 19.00 14.30
6 1974 45.30 36.50 20.40 10.40
7 1975 20.60 18.10 17.00 9.00
8 1976 21.60 19.70 14.80 9.80
9 1977 44.30 36.50 24.30 15.00
10 1978 63.10 47.90 31.50 22.10
11 1979 23.00 22.20 20.00 12.10
12 1980 31.30 29.00 20.10 16.10
13 1981 23.80 20.00 15.40 10.00
14 1982 31.90 27.20 21.20 10.40
15 1983 24.80 21.60 20.40 10.60
16 1984 44.30 30.30 20.20 10.30
17 1985 26.80 23.70 20.00 10.30
18 1988 24.40 16.00 15.50 23.30
19 1989 34.90 32.30 28.30 9.60
20 1990 18.80 17.20 14.90 13.30
21 1991 20.3 19.8 19.0 11.3
22 1992 20.5 17.0 16.3 9.7
23 1993 38.8 32.2 19.2 9.4
24 1994 35 27.8 22.8 13.6
25 1995 25 24.0 18.0 13.8
26 1996 25 25.0 14.0 14.7

Mean 32.30 26.82 20.76 13.37

S.D 13.29 9.99 7.05 5.12

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Appendix 4.1 continued

Computation of Intensity Values for Different Durations and Average

Recurrence Intervals

1) 10 minutes duration
a) 2 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X = 12.62
b) 5 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X= 18.07
c) 10 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X= 21.69
d) 25 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X= 26.25
e) 50 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X= 29.64
f) 100 yr. Return period
mean = 13.37 S.D = 5.12

X= 33.00

2) 20 minutes duration
a) 2 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 19.72
b) 5 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 27.23
c) 10 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 32.21
d) 25 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 38.49
e) 50 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 43.16
f) 100 yr. Return period
mean = 20.76 S.D = 7.05

X= 47.79

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Appendix 4.1 continued

3) 30 minutes duration
a) 2 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 25.34
b) 5 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 35.99
c) 10 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 43.05
d) 25 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 51.96
e) 50 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 58.57
f) 100 yr. Return period
mean = 26.82 S.D = 9.99

X= 65.14
4) 60 minutes duration
a) 2 yr. Return period
mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 30.34
b) 5 yr. Return period
mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 44.51
c) 10 yr. Return period
mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 53.90
d) 25 yr. Return period
mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 65.75
e) 50 yr. Return period
mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 74.55

f) 100 yr. Return period

mean = 32.30 S.D = 13.29

X= 83.28

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Appendix 4.1 continued

Summary of Intensity Values for Different Durations and Average

Recurrence Intervals
Duration (minutes)
Frequency (yrs.) 10 20 30 60
2 1.26 0.99 0.84 0.51
5 1.81 1.36 1.20 0.74
10 2.17 1.61 1.43 0.90
25 2.63 1.92 1.73 1.10
50 2.96 2.16 1.95 1.24
100 3.30 2.39 2.17 1.39

Bi-variate Linear Regression Analysis to Determine a, b, and c-values of the

Corresponding IDF Equations

For 2 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.30

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 1.88 3.53 -0.62
20 -0.20 0.04 1.77 3.14 -0.35
30 -0.10 0.01 1.70 2.91 -0.17
60 0.11 0.01 1.48 2.20 0.17
Sum -0.51 0.17 6.84 11.77 -0.97
Avg. -0.13 0.04 1.71 2.94 -0.24

C = -0.89 0.89

k = 1.60

a = 39.40

r = -0.995

For 5 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.30

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 2.04 4.14 -0.67
20 -0.20 0.04 1.91 3.66 -0.38
30 -0.10 0.01 1.86 3.45 -0.18
60 0.11 0.01 1.65 2.72 0.19
-0.51 0.17 7.45 13.97 -1.05
-0.13 0.04 1.86 3.49 -0.26

C = -0.86 0.86

k = 1.75

a = 56.70

r = -0.996

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Appendix 4.1 continued

For 10 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.3

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 2.11 4.47 -0.70
20 -0.20 0.04 1.99 3.94 -0.39
30 -0.10 0.01 1.93 3.74 -0.19
60 0.11 0.01 1.73 3.00 0.20
-0.51 0.17 7.77 15.15 -1.08
-0.13 0.04 1.94 3.79 -0.27

C= -0.84 0.84

k= 1.83

a= 68.14

r= -0.996

For 25 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.3

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 2.20 4.83 -0.73
20 -0.20 0.04 2.06 4.25 -0.41
30 -0.10 0.01 2.02 4.07 -0.20
60 0.11 0.01 1.82 3.30 0.21
-0.51 0.17 8.09 16.45 -1.12
-0.13 0.04 2.02 4.11 -0.28

C= -0.83 0.83

k= 1.92

a= 82.60

r= -0.995

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Appendix 4.1 continued

For 50 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.3

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 2.25 5.06 -0.74
20 -0.20 0.04 2.11 4.46 -0.42
30 -0.10 0.01 2.07 4.28 -0.20
60 0.11 0.01 1.87 3.51 0.21
-0.51 0.17 8.30 17.31 -1.15
-0.13 0.04 2.08 4.33 -0.29

C= -0.83 0.83

k= 1.97

a= 93.32

r= -0.994

For 100 years Average Recurrence Interval best trial value of b

b= 0.3

t(min) X X2 Y Y2 XY
10 -0.33 0.11 2.30 5.27 -0.76
20 -0.20 0.04 2.16 4.65 -0.43
30 -0.10 0.01 2.11 4.47 -0.20
60 0.11 0.01 1.92 3.69 0.22
-0.51 0.17 8.49 18.09 -1.17
-0.13 0.04 2.12 4.52 -0.29

C= -0.82 0.82

k= 2.02

a= 103.96

r= -0.993

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Appendix 4.1 continued

Table….Calculated Values of Intensity (mm/h) for Different Durations and Average

Recurrence Intervals for "Demonstration" Station
Intensity for
t (min) t (h) ARI = 2yrs ARI = 5yrs ARI = 10yrs ARI = 20yrs ARI = 50yrs ARI = 100yrs
5 0.08 92.48 128.90 153.03 183.53 206.16 228.62
10 0.17 77.63 108.92 129.63 155.80 175.22 194.49
15 0.25 67.07 94.62 112.85 135.88 152.96 169.92
20 0.33 59.16 83.85 100.18 120.82 136.13 151.32
25 0.42 53.00 75.42 90.26 109.00 122.90 136.70
30 0.50 48.06 68.64 82.26 99.46 112.22 124.88
35 0.58 44.00 63.06 75.66 91.59 103.39 115.12
40 0.67 40.61 58.37 70.12 84.96 95.97 106.89
45 0.75 37.73 54.38 65.40 79.31 89.63 99.87
50 0.83 35.25 50.94 61.31 74.42 84.14 93.79
55 0.92 33.09 47.93 57.75 70.15 79.35 88.48
60 1.00 31.20 45.29 54.61 66.39 75.12 83.79
65 1.08 29.52 42.94 51.82 63.04 71.36 79.62
70 1.17 28.02 40.84 49.33 60.04 67.99 75.88
75 1.25 26.68 38.96 47.08 57.34 64.96 72.51
80 1.33 25.46 37.25 45.05 54.90 62.20 69.46
85 1.42 24.36 35.69 43.19 52.67 59.70 66.67
90 1.50 23.36 34.27 41.50 50.63 57.40 64.13
100 1.67 21.59 31.77 38.51 47.03 53.35 59.63
110 1.83 20.08 29.63 35.96 43.95 49.88 55.77
120 2.00 18.78 27.78 33.75 41.28 46.87 52.43

Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Equations for "Demonstration" Station

39 .4 56 .7 68 .14
i2  i5  i10 
(0 .3  t d ) 0.89 ( 0 .3  t d ) 0 .86 ( 0 .3  t d ) 0.84

82 .6 93 .32 103.96
i 25  i50  i100 
( 0 .3  t d ) 0.83 ( 0 .3  t d ) 0.83 ( 0.3  t d ) 0.82

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132
250
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200

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150
ARI = 2yrs.
ARI = 5yrs.
ARI = 10yrs.
ARI = 20yrs.

Intensity (mm/h)
100
ARI = 50yrs.

50

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 Time (h) 1.5 2.0 2.5

Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves for a Data from A Demonstration Rainfall Station

Appendices

SABA/FINNROAD
Drainage Design Manual Appendices

Appendix
Appendix 4.3:
4.3: Two
Two Years
Years 24
24 hours
hours Rainfall
Rainfall (Source:
(Source: TRRL
TRRL Laboratory
Laboratory Report
Report 623)
623)

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Appendix 4.4 Ten Year to Two year Ratio

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Appendix 4.5: Flood Factors

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Appendix 5.1: Rainfall Time (TP) Zones (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)
Appendix 5.1: Rainfall Time (TP) Zones (Source: TRRL Laboratory Report 706)

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Annex 6.1 Frequency Factors (K)

for the Log-Pearson Type III Distribution
(Source: HDS 2)

Prob. Skew
-2.0 -1.9 -1.8 -1.7 -1.6 -1.5 -1.4
0.9999 -8.21034 -7.98888 -7.76632 -7.54272 -7.31818 -7.09277 -6.86661
0.9995 -6.60090 -6.44251 -6.28285 -6.12196 -5.95990 -5.79673 -5.63252
0.9990 -5.90776 -5.77549 -5.64190 -5.50701 -537087 -5.23353 -5.09505
0.9980 -5.21461 -5.10768 -4.99937 -4.88971 -4.77875 -4.66651 -4.55304
0.9950 -4.29832 -4.22336 -4.14700 -4.06926 -3.99016 -3.90973 -3.82798
0.9900 -3.60517 -3.55295 -3.49935 -3.44438 -3.38804 -3.33035 -3.27134
0.9800 -2.91202 -2.88091 -2.84848 -2.81472 -2.77964 -2.74325 -2.70556
0.9750 -2.68888 -2.66413 -2.63810 -2.61076 -2.58214 -2.55222 -2.52102
0.9600 -2.21888 -2.20670 -2.19332 -2.17873 -2.16293 -2.14591 -2.12768
0.9500 -1.99573 -1.98906 -1.98124 -1.97227 -1.96213 -1.95083 -1.93836
0.9000 -1.30259 -1.31054 -1.31760 -1.32376 -1.32900 -1.33330 -1.33665
0.8000 -0.60944 -0.62662 -0.64335 -0.65959 -0.67532 -0.69050 -0.70512
0.7000 -0.20397 -0.22250 -0.24094 -0.25925 -0.27740 -0.29535 -0.31307
0.6000 0.08371 0.06718 0.05040 0.03344 0.01631 -0.00092 -0.01824
0.5704 0.15516 0.13964 0.12381 0.10769 0.09132 0.07476 0.05803
0.5000 0.30685 0.29443 0.28150 0.26808 0.25422 0.23996 0.22535
0.4296 0.43854 0.43008 0.42095 0.41116 0.40075 0.38977 0.37824
0.4000 0.48917 0.48265 0.47538 0.46739 0.45873 0.44942 0.43949
0.3000 0.64333 0.64453 0.64488 0.64436 0.64300 0.64080 0.63779
0.2000 0.77686 0.78816 0.79868 0.80837 0.81720 0.82516 0.83223
0.1000 0.89464 0.91988 0.94496 0.96977 0.99418 1.01810 1.04144
0.0500 0.94871 0.98381 1.01973 1.05631 1.09338 1.13075 1.16827
0.0400 0.95918 0.99672 1.03543 1.07513 1.11566 1.15682 1.19842
0.0250 0.97468 1.01640 1.06001 1.10537 1.15229 1.20059 1.25004
0.0200 0.97980 1.02311 1.06864 1.11628 1.16584 1.21716 1.26999
0.0100 0.98995 1.03695 1.08711 1.14042 1.19680 1.25611 1.31815
0.0050 0.99499 1.04427 1.09749 1.15477 1.21618 1.28167 1.35114
0.0020 0.99800 1.04898 1.10465 1.16534 1.23132 1.30279 1.37981
0.0010 0.99900 1.05068 1.10743 1.16974 1.23805 1.31275 1.39408
0.0005 0.99950 1.05159 1.10901 1.17240 1.24235 1.31944 1.40413
0.0001 0.99990 1.05239 1.11054 1.17520 1.24728 1.32774 1.41753

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Section 6

Annex 6.1 continued

Prob. Skew
-1.3 -1.2 -1.1 -1.0 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
0.9999 -6.63980 -6.41249 -6.18480 -5.95691 -5.72899 -5.50124 -5.27389
0.9995 -5.46735 -5.30130 -5.13449 -4.96701 -4.79899 -4.63057 -4.46189
0.9990 -4.95549 -4.81492 -4.67344 -4.53112 -4.38807 -4.24439 -4.10022
0.9980 -4.43839 -4.32263 -4.20582 -4.08802 -3.96932 -3.84981 -3.72957
0.9950 -3.74497 -3.66073 -3.57530 -3.48874 -3.40109 -3.31243 -3.22281
0.9900 -3.21103 -3.14944 -3.08660 -3.02256 -2.95735 -2.89101 -2.82359
0.9800 -2.66657 -2.62631 -2.58480 -2.54206 -2.49811 -2.45298 -2.40670
0.9750 -2.48855 -2.45482 -2.41984 -2.38364 -2.34623 -2.30764 -2.26790
0.9600 -2.10823 -2.08758 -2.06573 -2.04269 -2.01848 -1.99311 -1.96660
0.9500 -1.92472 -1.90992 -1.89395 -1.87683 -1.85856 -1.83916 -1.81864
0.9000 -1.33904 -1.34047 -1.34092 -1.34039 -1.33889 -1.33640 -1.33294
0.8000 -0.71915 -0.73257 -0.74537 -0.75752 -0.76902 -0.77986 -0.79002
0.7000 -0.33054 -0.34772 -0.36458 -0.38111 -0.39729 -0.41309 -0.42851
0.6000 -0.03560 -0.05297 -0.07032 -0.08763 -0.10486 -0.12199 -0.13901
0.5704 0.04116 0.02421 0.00719 -0.00987 -0.02693 -0.04397 -0.06097
0.5000 0.21040 0.19517 0.17968 0.16397 0.14807 0.13199 0.11578
0.4296 0.36620 0.35370 0.34075 0.32740 0.31368 0.29961 0.28516
0.4000 0.42899 0.41794 0.40638 0.39434 0.38186 0.36889 0.35565
0.3000 0.63400 0.62944 0.62415 0.61815 0.61146 0.60412 0.59615
0.2000 0.83841 0.84369 0.84809 0.85161 0.85426 0.85607 0.85703
0.1000 1.06413 1.08608 1.10726 1.12762 1.14712 1.16574 1.18347
0.0500 1.20578 1.24313 1.28019 1.31684 1.35299 1.38855 1.42345
0.0400 1.24028 1.28225 1.32414 1.36584 1.40720 1.44813 1.48852
0.0250 1.30042 1.35153 1.40314 1.45507 1.50712 1.55914 1.61099
0.0200 1.32412 1.37929 1.43529 1.49188 1.54886 1.60604 1.66325
0.0100 1.38267 1.44942 1.51808 1.58838 1.66001 1.73271 1.80621
0.0050 1.42439 1.50114 1.58110 1.66390 1.74919 1.83660 1.92580
0.0020 1.46232 1.55016 1.64305 1.74062 1.84244 1.94806 2.05701
0.0010 1.48216 1.57695 1.67825 1.78572 1.89894 2.01739 2.14053
0.0005 1.49673 1.59738 1.70603 1.82241 1.94611 2.07661 2.21328
0.0001 1.51752 1.62838 1.75053 1.88410 2.02891 2.18448 2.35015

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Section 6

Annex 6.1 continued

Prob. Skew
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0
0.9999 -5.04718 -4.82141 -4.59687 -4.37394 -4.15301 -3.93453 -3.71902
0.9995 -4.29311 -4.12443 -3.95605 -3.78820 -3.62113 -3.45513 -3.29053
0.9990 -3.95567 -3.81090 -3.66608 -3.52139 -3.37703 -3.23322 -3.09023
0.9980 -3.60872 -3.48737 -3.36566 -3.24371 -3.12169 -2.99978 -2.87816
0.9950 -3.13232 -3.04102 -2.94900 -2.85636 -2.76321 -2.66965 -2.57583
0.9900 -2.75514 -2.68572 -2.61539 -2.54421 -2.47226 -2.39961 -2.32635
0.9800 -2.35931 -2.31084 -2.26133 -2.21081 -2.15935 -2.10697 -2.05375
0.9750 -2.22702 -2.18505 -2.14202 -2.09795 -2.05290 -2.00688 -1.95996
0.9600 -1.93896 -1.91022 -1.88039 -1.84949 -1.81756 -1.78462 -1.75069
0.9500 -1.79701 -1.77428 -1.75048 -1.72562 -1.69971 -1.67279 -1.64485
0.9000 -1.32850 -1.32309 -1.31671 -1.30936 -1.30105 -1.29178 -1.28155
0.8000 -0.79950 -0.80829 -0.81638 -0.82377 -0.83044 -0.83639 -0.84162
0.7000 -0.44352 -0.45812 -0.47228 -0.48600 -0.49927 -0.51207 -0.52440
0.6000 -0.15589 -0.17261 -0.18916 -0.20552 -0.22168 -0.23763 -0.25335
0.5704 -0.07791 -0.09178 -0.11154 -0.12820 -0.14472 -0.16111 -0.17733
0.5000 0.09945 0.08302 0.06651 0.04993 0.03325 0.01662 0.00000
0.4296 0.27047 0.25558 0.24037 0.22492 0.20925 0.19339 0.17733
0.4000 0.34198 0.32796 0.31362 0.29897 0.28403 0.26882 0.25335
0.3000 0.58757 0.57840 0.56867 0.55839 0.54757 0.53624 0.52440
0.2000 0.85718 0.85653 0.85508 0.85285 0.84986 0.84611 0.84162
0.1000 1.20028 1.21618 1.23114 1.24516 1.25824 1.27037 1.28155
0.0500 1.45762 1.49101 1.52357 1.55527 1.58607 1.61594 1.64485
0.0400 1.52830 1.56740 1.60574 1.64329 1.67999 1.71580 1.75069
0.0250 1.66253 1.71366 1.76427 1.81427 1.86360 1.91219 1.95996
0.0200 1.72033 1.77716 1.83361 1.88959 1.94499 1.99973 2.05375
0.0100 1.88029 1.95472 2.02933 2.10394 2.17840 2.25258 2.32635
0.0050 2.01644 2.10825 2.20092 2.29423 2.38795 2.48187 2.57583
0.0020 2.16884 2.28311 2.39942 2.51741 2.63672 2.75706 2.87816
0.0010 2.26780 2.39867 2.53261 2.66915 2.80786 2.94834 3.09023
0.0005 2.35549 2.50257 2.65390 2.80889 2.96698 3.12767 3.29053
0.0001 2.52507 2.70836 2.89907 3.09631 3.29921 3.50703 3.71902

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Section 6

Annex 6.1 continued

Prob. Skew
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.9999 -3.50703 -3.29921 -3.09631 -2.89907 -2.70836 -2.52507 -2.35015
0.9995 -3.12767 -2.96698 -2.80889 -2.65390 -2.50257 -2.35549 -2.21328
0.9990 -2.94834 -2.80786 -2.66915 -2.53261 -2.39867 -2.26780 -2.14053
0.9980 -2.75706 -2.63672 -2.51741 -2.39942 -2.28311 -2.16884 -2.05701
0.9950 -2.48187 -2.38795 -2.29423 -2.20092 -2.10825 -2.01644 -1.92580
0.9900 -2.25258 -2.17840 -2.10394 -2.02933 -1.95472 -1.88029 -1.80621
0.9800 -1.99973 -1.94499 -1.88959 -1.83361 -1.77716 -1.72037 -1.66325
0.9750 -1.91219 -1.86360 -1.81427 -1.76427 -1.71366 -1.66253 -1.61099
0.9600 -1.71580 -1.67999 -1.64329 -1.60574 -1.56740 -1.52830 -1.48852
0.9500 -1.61594 -1.58607 -1.55527 -1.52357 -1.49101 -1.45762 -1.42345
0.9000 -1.27037 -1.25824 -1.24516 -1.23114 -1.21618 -1.20028 -1.18347
0.8000 -0.84611 -0.84986 -0.85285 -0.85508 -0.85653 -0.85718 -0.85703
0.7000 -0.53624 -0.54757 -0.55839 -0.56867 -0.57840 -0.58757 -0.59615
0.6000 -0.26882 -0.28403 -0.29897 -0.31362 -0.32796 -0.34198 -0.35565
0.5704 -0.19339 -0.20925 -0.22492 -0.24037 -0.25558 -0.27047 -0.28516
0.5000 -0.01662 -0.03325 -0.04993 -0.06651 -0.08302 -0.09945 -0.11578
0.4296 0.16111 0.14472 0.12820 0.11154 0.09478 0.07791 0.06097
0.4000 0.23763 0.22168 0.20552 0.18916 0.17261 0.15589 0.13901
0.3000 0.51207 0.49927 0.48600 0.47228 0.45812 0.44352 0.42851
0.2000 0.83639 0.83044 0.82377 0.81638 0.80829 0.79950 0.79002
0.1000 1.29178 1.30105 1.30936 1.31671 1.32309 1.32850 1.33294
0.0500 1.67279 1.69971 1.72562 1.75048 1.77428 1.79701 1.81864
0.0400 1.78462 1.81756 1.84949 1.88039 1.91022 1.93896 1.96660
0.0250 2.00688 2.05290 2.09795 2.14202 2.18505 2.22702 2.26790
0.0200 2.10697 2.15935 2.21081 2.26133 2.31084 2.35931 2.40670
0.0100 2.39961 2.47226 2.54421 2.61539 2.68572 2.75514 2.82359
0.0050 2.66965 2.76321 2.85636 2.94900 3.04102 3.13232 3.22281
0.0020 2.99978 3.12169 3.24371 3.36566 3.48737 3.60872 3.72957
0.0010 3.23322 3.37703 3.52139 3.66608 3.81090 3.95567 4.10022
0.0005 3.45513 3.62113 3.78820 3.95605 4.12443 4.29311 4.46189
0.0001 3.93453 4.15301 4.37394 4.59687 4.82141 5.04718 5.27389

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Section 6

Annex 6.1 continued

Prob. Skew
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
0.9999 2.18448 -2.02891 -1.88410 -1.75053 -1.62838 -1.51752 -1.41753
0.9995 -2.07661 -1.94611 -1.82241 -1.70603 -1.59738 -1.49673 -1.40413
0.9990 -2.01739 -1.89894 -1.78572 -1.67825 -1.57695 -1.48216 -1.39408
0.9980 -1.94806 -1.84244 -1.74062 -1.64305 -1.55016 -1.46232 -1.37981
0.9950 -1.83660 -1.74919 -1.66390 -1.58110 -1.50114 -1.42439 -1.35114
0.9900 -1.73271 -1.66001 -1.58838 -1.51808 -1.44942 -1.38267 -1.31815
0.9800 -1.60604 -1.54886 -1.49188 -1.43529 -1.37929 -1.32412 -1.26999
0.9750 -1.55914 -1.50712 -1.45507 -1.40314 -1.35153 -1.30042 -1.25004
0.9600 -1.44813 -1.40720 -1.36584 -1.32414 -1.28225 -1.24028 -1.19842
0.9500 -1.38855 -1.35299 -1.31684 -1.28019 -1.24313 -1.20578 -1.16827
0.9000 -1.16574 -1.14712 -1.12762 -1.10726 -1.08608 -1.06413 -1.04144
0.8000 -0.85607 -0.85426 -0.85161 -0.84809 -0.84369 -0.83841 -0.83223
0.7000 -0.60412 -0.61146 -0.61815 -0.62415 -0.62944 -0.63400 -0.63779
0.6000 -0.36889 -0.38186 -0.39434 -0.40638 -0.41794 -0.42899 -0.43949
0.5704 -0.29961 -0.31368 -0.32740 -0.34075 -0.35370 -0.36620 -0.37824
0.5000 -0.13199 -0.14807 -0.16397 -0.17968 -0.19517 -0.21040 -0.22535
0.4296 0.04397 0.02693 0.00987 -0.00719 -0.02421 -0.04116 -0.05803
0.4000 0.12199 0.10486 0.08763 0.07032 0.05297 0.03560 0.01824
0.3000 0.41309 0.39729 0.38111 0.36458 0.34772 0.33054 0.31307
0.2000 0.77986 0.76902 0.75752 0.74537 0.73257 0.71915 0.70512
0.1000 1.33640 1.33889 1.34039 1.34092 1.34047 1.33904 1.33665
0.0500 1.83916 1.85856 1.87683 1.89395 1.90992 1.92472 1.93836
0.0400 1.99311 2.01848 2.04269 2.06573 2.08758 2.10823 2.12768
0.0250 2.30764 2.34623 2.38364 2.41984 2.45482 2.48855 2.52102
0.0200 2.45298 2.49811 2.54206 2.58480 2.62631 2.66657 2.70556
0.0100 2.89101 2.95735 3.02256 3.08660 3.14944 3.21103 3.27134
0.0050 3.31243 3.40109 3.48874 3.57530 3.66073 3.74497 3.82798
0.0020 3.84981 3.96932 4.08802 4.20582 4.32263 4.43839 4.55304
0.0010 4.24439 4.38807 4.53112 4.67344 4.81492 4.95549 5.09505
0.0005 4.63057 4.79899 4.96701 5.13449 5.30130 5.46735 5.63252
0.0001 5.50124 5.72899 5.95691 6.18480 6.41249 6.63980 6.86661

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Section 6

Annex 6.1 continued

Prob. Skew
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
.9999 -1.32774 -1.24728 -1.17520 -1.11054 -1.05239 -.99990
.9995 -1.31944 -1.24235 -1.17240 -1.10901 -1.05159 -.99950
.9990 -1.31275 -1.23805 -1.16974 -1.10743 -1.50568 -.99900
.9980 -1.30279 -1.23132 -1.16534 -1.10465 -1.04898 -.99800
.9950 -1.28167 -1.21618 -1.15477 -1.09749 -1.04427 -.99499
.9900 -1.25611 -1.19680 -1.14042 -1.08711 -1.03695 -.98995
.9800 -1.21716 -1.16584 -1.11628 -1.06864 -1.02311 -.97980
.9750 -1.20059 -1.15229 -1.10537 -1.06001 -1.01640 -.97468
.9600 -1.15682 -1.11566 -1.07513 -1.03543 -.99672 -.95918
.9500 -1.13075 -1.09338 -1.05631 -1.01973 -.98381 -.94871
.9000 -1.01810 -.99418 -.96977 -.94496 -.91988 -.89464
.8000 -.82516 -.81720 -.80837 -.79868 -.78816 -.77686
.7000 -.64080 -.64300 -.64436 -.64488 -.64453 -.64333
.6000 -.44942 -.45873 -.46739 -.47538 -.48265 -.48917
.5704 -.38977 -.40075 -.41116 -.42095 -.43008 -.43854
.5000 -.23996 -.25422 -.26808 -.28150 -.29443 -.30685
.4296 -.07476 -.09132 -.10769 -.12381 -.13964 -.15516
.4000 .00092 -.01631 -.03344 -.05040 -.06718 -.08371
.3000 .29535 .27740 .25925 .24094 .22250 .20397
.2000 .69050 .67532 .65959 .64335 .62662 .60944
.1000 1.33330 1.32900 1.32376 1.31760 1.31054 1.30259
.0500 1.95083 1.96213 1.97227 1.98124 1.98906 1.99573
.0400 2.14591 2.16293 2.17873 2.19332 2.20670 2.21888
.0250 2.55222 2.58214 2.61076 2.63810 2.66413 2.68888
.0200 2.74325 2.77964 2.81472 2.84848 2.88091 2.91202
.0100 3.33035 3.38804 3.44438 3.49935 3.55295 3.60517
.0050 3.90973 3.99016 4.06926 4.14700 4.22336 4.29832
.0020 4.66651 4.77875 4.88971 4.99937 5.10768 5.21461
.0010 5.23353 5.37087 5.50701 5.64190 5.77549 5.90776
.0005 5.79673 5.95990 6.12196 6.28285 6.44251 6.60090
.0001 7.09277 7.31818 7.54272 7.76632 7.98888 8.21034
-

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Annex 6.2. Outlier Test Deviates (KN) at 10 Percent Significance Level

(Source: Bulletin 17B, referred in HDS2)

Sample KN Sample KN Sample KN Sample KN

Size value Size value Size value Size value

10 2.036 45 2.727 80 2.940 115 3.064

11 2.088 46 2.736 81 2.945 116 3.067
12 2.134 47 2.744 82 2.949 117 3.070
13 2.165 48 2.753 83 2.953 118 3.073
14 2.213 49 2.760 84 2.957 119 3.075
15 2.247 50 2.768 85 2.961 120 3.078
16 2.279 51 2.775 86 2.966 121 3.081
17 2.309 52 2.783 87 2.970 122 3.083
18 2.335 53 2.790 88 2.973 123 3.086
19 2.361 54 2.798 89 2.977 124 3.089
20 2.385 55 2.804 90 2.989 125 3.092
21 2.408 56 2.811 91 2.984 126 3.095
22 2.429 57 2.818 92 2.889 127 3.097
23 2.448 58 2.824 93 2.993 128 3.100
24 2.467 59 2.831 94 2.996 129 3.102
25 2.487 60 2.837 95 3.000 130 3.104
26 2.502 61 2.842 96 3.003 131 3.107
27 2.510 62 2.849 97 3.006 132 3.109
28 2.534 63 2.854 98 3.011 133 3.112
29 2.549 64 2.860 99 3.014 134 3.114
30 2.563 65 2.866 100 3.017 135 3.116
31 2.577 66 2.871 101 3.021 136 3.119
32 2.591 67 2.877 102 3.024 137 3.122
33 2.604 68 2.883 103 3.027 138 3.124
34 2.616 69 2.888 104 3.030 139 3.126
35 2.628 70 2.893 105 3.033 140 3.129
36 2.639 71 2.897 106 3.037 141 3.131
37 2.650 72 2.903 107 3.040 142 3.133
38 2.661 73 2.908 108 3.043 143 3.135
39 2.671 74 2.912 109 3.046 144 3.138
40 2.682 75 2.917 110 3.049 145 3.140
41 2.692 76 2.922 111 3.052 146 3.142
42 2.700 77 2.927 112 3.055 147 3.144
43 2.710 78 2.931 113 3.058 148 3.146
44 2.720 79 2.935 114 3.061 149 3.148

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Drainage Design Manual Appendices

Appendix 9.1 Different Shapes of Culverts

Source: FHWA

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Appendix 9.2 Submerged, unsubmerged and transition zones

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Appendix 9.3: Nomograph for the calculation of headwater depth

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Appendix 9.4: Nomograph for the calculation of headwater depth

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Appendix 9.5 Nomograph for the determination of headwater depth

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Appendix 9.6 Entrance Loss Coefficient (Outlet Control, Full or Partially

Full)

2
He = Ke (V /2g)

Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficient ke

Pipe, concrete
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
End-section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = 1/12D) 0.2
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Beveled edges, 33.7˚ or 45˚ bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe, or pipe-arch, corrugated metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
End-section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7˚ or 45˚ bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides) square-edged at crown 0.7
Wingwalls, 10˚ to 25˚ or 30˚ to 75˚ to barrel, square-edged at crown 0.5
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension 0.2
Beveled edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 30˚ to 75˚ to barrel, crown edge rounded to radius
of 1/12 barrel dimension, or beveled top edge 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2

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Appendix 9.7 Recommended Manning’s n Values for Pipes

Type of Conduit Wall Description Manning’s n

Concrete Pipe Smooth Walls 0.010-0.013
Concrete Boxes Smooth Walls 0.012-0.015
Corrugated Metal Pipes and Boxes, 68mm x 13mm corrugations 0.022-0.027
Annular or Helical Pipe 150mm x 25 mm corrugations 0.022-0.025
125mm x 25mm corrugations 0.025-0.026
75mm x 25mm corrugations 0.027-0.028
150mm x 50 mm structural plate 0.033-0.035
230mm x 64mm structural plate 0.033-0.037
Corrugated Metal Pipes, Helical 68mm x 13mm corrugations 0.012-0.024
Corrugations, Full Circular Flow
Spiral Rib Metal Smooth Walls 0.012-0.013

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Appendix 9.8 Flow-Chart summarising the calculation procedure for

design of culverts

Assemble Site data,

profile, cross-section,
design criteria, hydrology,
channels…

Using one of the nomographs

Select design alternative : Select design (Use charts in Appendix 9.3 -9.5
Shape, size, material… discharge Qd according to the type of culvert)
determine
HW/D and HW.

Is
The approach Yes
Consider design option
velocity V
depending on the results.
negligible ?

No
Yes Hwi = HW
Hwi = HW-V²/2g

Do you
have enough values to Yes
plot performance
curve ? Compute the Tailwater depth
TW

No Yes

Are results in
Calculate critical depth (dc)
agreement with cons-
traints and assump- using in Appendix 9.11 -9.12
tions ?

Ho= Max (TW,dc+D/2)

Compute Outlet velocity Vo

and depth dn
Determine Ke (Appendix 9.6)

Compute total discharge : Detrmine loss H through the culvert

Qt=Qd+Qr using Equation 9.6 for a full
barrel.(V=Q/Section)

Compute drainage Qr=0 Calculate outlet control

over roadway Qr. headwater HWoi=H+Ho-SoL

Yes
No
HWc= HWi Yes HWi> Hwoi ?
HWc-HWov>0 ? Inlet control
( HWov=height of road
above inlet invert) No
Yes
HWc= Hwoi HWoi>1.2D ?
Outlet control

No
Approximation has to
Source : ERA be checked (see Step 8)


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Appendix 9.9 Form for entering data for culvert design

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Appendix 9.10 Critical Depth for Circular Pipe

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Appendices

Appendix 9.11 Critical Depth for Rectangular Sections

1,6

1,4

1,2
Critical Depth-dc (Meters)

0,8

0,6 dc CANNOT EXCEED TOP OF PIPE

0,4

0,2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q/B

4,5

4
Critical Depth-dc (Meters)

3,5

2,5 dc CANNOT EXCEED TOP OF PIPE

1,5

1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Q/B

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Appendices

Appendix 9.12 Head losses for concrete pipe culvert

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Appendix 9.13 Head losses for C.M. pipe culverts

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Appendix 9.14 Head losses for concrete box culverts

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Appendix 9.15 Type A End Walls

Source : AASHTO Model Drainage Manual

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Appendix 9.16 Type B End Walls

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Appendix 9.17 Type A inlets

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Appendix 9.18 Curb Drop Inlet

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162
Appendix 9.19 Capacity of Concrete Pipe Culverts

3
Capacity of pipes at different slopes (m /s) n=0.015

Diameter (inches)

Slope (%) 30" 36" 42" 48"

Drainage Design Manual

Single Double Triple Single Double Triple Single Double Triple Single Double Triple

Ministry of Works and Transport

0.50 0.50 1.00 1.50 0.90 1.80 2.70 1.40 2.80 4.20 1.90 3.80 5.70
0.60 0.54 1.08 1.62 1.00 2.00 3.00 1.50 3.00 4.50 2.00 4.00 6.00
0.70 0.58 1.16 1.74 1.05 2.10 3.15 1.60 3.20 4.80 2.20 4.40 6.60
0.80 0.62 1.24 1.86 1.10 2.20 3.30 1.70 3.40 5.10 2.40 4.80 7.20
0.90 0.66 1.32 1.98 1.15 2.30 3.45 1.80 3.60 5.40 2.55 5.10 7.65
1.00 0.71 1.42 2.13 1.30 2.60 3.90 1.90 3.80 5.70 2.70 5.40 8.10
1.10 0.74 1.48 2.22 1.34 2.68 4.02 1.98 3.96 5.94 2.81 5.62 8.43
1.20 0.77 1.54 2.31 1.38 2.76 4.14 2.06 4.12 6.18 2.92 5.84 8.76
1.30 0.80 1.60 2.40 1.42 2.84 4.26 2.14 4.28 6.42 3.03 6.06 9.09
1.40 0.85 1.70 2.55 1.46 2.92 4.38 2.22 4.44 6.66 3.14 6.28 9.42
1.50 0.89 1.78 2.67 1.50 3.00 4.50 2.30 4.60 6.90 3.25 6.50 9.75
1.60 0.93 1.86 2.79 1.56 3.12 4.68 2.38 4.76 7.14 3.34 6.68 10.02
1.70 0.97 1.94 2.91 1.62 3.24 4.86 2.46 4.92 7.38 3.43 6.86 10.29
1.80 1.02 2.04 3.06 1.68 3.36 5.04 2.54 5.08 7.62 3.52 7.04 10.56
1.90 1.06 2.12 3.18 1.74 3.48 5.22 2.62 5.24 7.86 3.61 7.22 10.83
2.00 1.10 2.20 3.30 1.80 3.60 5.40 2.70 5.40 8.10 3.70 7.40 11.10
Appendices

Ministry of Works and Transport

 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

Appendix 9.20 Capacity of Box Culverts for Different Slopes

CAPACITY OF BOX CULVERTS AT DIFFERENT SLOPES (m3/s)
n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
n( Height(m)
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 2.00 3.24 4.52 5.80 7.09 8.39 9.69 10.99

1.50 3.55 5.90 8.33 10.81 13.32 15.84 18.37 20.91
2.00 5.24 8.88 12.70 16.62 20.60 24.62 28.68 32.75
2.50 7.03 12.08 17.46 23.02 28.70 34.45 40.26 46.11
3.00 8.88 15.45 22.52 29.88 37.44 45.12 52.89 60.74
0.5

3.50 10.77 18.94 27.81 37.11 46.69 56.47 66.39 76.42

4.00 12.70 22.52 33.28 44.62 56.36 68.39 80.62 93.01
4.50 14.65 26.17 38.89 52.38 66.39 80.79 95.47 110.37
5.00 16.62 29.88 44.62 60.33 76.72 93.61 110.86 128.41
6.00 20.60 37.44 56.36 76.72 98.11 120.26 142.99 166.18
1.00 2.19 3.55 4.95 6.35 7.77 9.19 10.61 12.04
1.50 3.89 6.46 9.13 11.84 14.59 17.35 20.12 22.91
2.00 5.74 9.72 13.91 18.20 22.57 26.98 31.41 35.87
2.50 7.70 13.24 19.13 25.22 31.44 37.74 44.11 50.51
3.00 9.72 16.93 24.67 32.73 41.01 49.42 57.94 66.54
0.6

3.50 11.80 20.75 30.46 40.65 51.14 61.86 72.73 83.72

4.00 13.91 24.67 36.45 48.88 61.74 74.92 88.32 101.89
4.50 16.05 28.67 42.60 57.38 72.73 88.50 104.59 120.91
5.00 18.20 32.73 48.88 66.09 84.05 102.54 121.45 140.66
6.00 22.57 41.01 61.74 84.05 107.47 131.73 156.64 182.04
1.00 2.37 3.84 5.34 6.86 8.39 9.93 11.46 13.01
1.50 4.20 6.98 9.86 12.79 15.75 18.74 21.74 24.74
2.00 6.20 10.50 15.02 19.66 24.38 29.14 33.93 38.75
2.50 8.31 14.30 20.66 27.24 33.96 40.77 47.64 54.56
3.00 10.50 18.28 26.65 35.36 44.29 53.38 62.59 71.87
0.7

3.50 12.74 22.41 32.90 43.90 55.24 66.81 78.56 90.43

4.00 15.02 26.65 39.37 52.80 66.69 80.92 95.39 110.05
4.50 17.33 30.97 46.01 61.97 78.56 95.60 112.97 130.59
5.00 19.66 35.36 52.80 71.39 90.78 110.76 131.18 151.93
6.00 24.38 44.29 66.69 90.78 116.08 142.29 169.19 196.63
1.00 2.53 4.10 5.71 7.34 8.97 10.61 12.26 13.90
1.50 4.49 7.46 10.54 13.67 16.84 20.03 23.24 26.45
2.00 6.63 11.23 16.06 21.02 26.06 31.15 36.27 41.42
2.50 8.89 15.28 22.09 29.12 36.30 43.58 50.93 58.33
3.00 11.23 19.54 28.48 37.80 47.35 57.07 66.91 76.83
0.8

3.50 13.62 23.96 35.17 46.94 59.06 71.43 83.98 96.67

4.00 16.06 28.48 42.09 56.44 71.30 86.51 101.98 117.65
4.50 18.53 33.11 49.19 66.25 83.98 102.20 120.77 139.61
5.00 21.02 37.80 56.44 76.32 97.05 118.41 140.23 162.42
6.00 26.06 47.35 71.30 97.05 124.10 152.11 180.87 210.20
1.00 2.68 4.35 6.06 7.78 9.52 11.26 13.00 14.75
1.50 4.76 7.91 11.18 14.50 17.86 21.25 24.65 28.06
2.00 7.03 11.91 17.03 22.30 27.64 33.04 38.47 43.94
2.50 9.43 16.21 23.43 30.89 38.50 46.22 54.02 61.87
3.00 11.91 20.73 30.21 40.09 50.22 60.53 70.97 81.49
0.9

3.50 14.45 25.41 37.31 49.78 62.64 75.76 89.07 102.53

4.00 17.03 30.21 44.64 59.87 75.62 91.75 108.16 124.79
4.50 19.65 35.11 52.18 70.27 89.08 108.39 128.09 148.08
5.00 22.30 40.09 59.87 80.94 102.93 125.59 148.74 172.28
6.00 27.64 50.22 75.62 102.93 131.63 161.34 191.84 222.96
1.00 2.83 4.59 6.39 8.20 10.03 11.87 13.70 15.54
1.50 5.02 8.34 11.78 15.29 18.83 22.40 25.98 29.58
2.00 7.41 12.55 17.96 23.50 29.13 34.82 40.55 46.31
2.50 9.94 17.09 24.69 32.56 40.59 48.72 56.94 65.21
3.00 12.55 21.85 31.85 42.26 52.94 63.81 74.80 85.90
1.0

3.50 15.23 26.78 39.33 52.47 66.03 79.86 93.89 108.08

4.00 17.96 31.85 47.06 63.10 79.71 96.72 114.02 131.54
4.50 20.72 37.01 55.00 74.07 93.90 114.26 135.02 156.09
5.00 23.50 42.26 63.10 85.32 108.50 132.38 156.79 181.59
6.00 29.13 52.94 79.71 108.50 138.75 170.07 202.22 235.02

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n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 2.97 4.81 6.70 8.60 10.52 12.44 14.37 16.30

1.50 5.26 8.74 12.36 16.03 19.75 23.49 27.25 31.02
2.00 7.77 13.17 18.83 24.65 30.56 36.52 42.53 48.57
2.50 10.42 17.92 25.90 34.15 42.57 51.10 59.72 68.40
3.00 13.17 22.92 33.40 44.32 55.53 66.92 78.46 90.09
1.1

3.50 15.98 28.09 41.24 55.04 69.25 83.76 98.48 113.36

4.00 18.83 33.40 49.36 66.18 83.60 101.44 119.58 137.96
4.50 21.73 38.82 57.68 77.69 98.48 119.83 141.61 163.71
5.00 24.65 44.32 66.18 89.49 113.80 138.84 164.44 190.46
6.00 30.56 55.53 83.60 113.80 145.52 178.37 212.09 246.49
1.00 3.10 5.03 7.00 8.99 10.99 13.00 15.01 17.03
1.50 5.49 9.13 12.91 16.75 20.63 24.54 28.46 32.40
2.00 8.12 13.75 19.67 25.75 31.92 38.15 44.42 50.73
2.50 10.89 18.72 27.05 35.66 44.46 53.38 62.38 71.44
3.00 13.75 23.94 34.89 46.29 57.99 69.90 81.94 94.10
1.2

3.50 16.69 29.34 43.08 57.48 72.33 87.48 102.85 118.40

4.00 19.67 34.89 51.55 69.13 87.32 105.95 124.90 144.09
4.50 22.69 40.55 60.25 81.14 102.86 125.16 147.91 170.99
5.00 25.75 46.29 69.13 93.47 118.86 145.02 171.75 198.93
6.00 31.92 57.99 87.32 118.86 151.99 186.30 221.52 257.45
1.00 3.22 5.23 7.28 9.35 11.44 13.53 15.62 17.72
1.50 5.72 9.51 13.43 17.43 21.47 25.54 29.62 33.72
2.00 8.45 14.31 20.47 26.80 33.22 39.71 46.24 52.80
2.50 11.33 19.48 28.15 37.12 46.27 55.55 64.92 74.36
3.00 14.31 24.91 36.31 48.18 60.36 72.75 85.29 97.94
1.3

3.50 17.37 30.54 44.84 59.83 75.28 91.05 107.05 123.23

4.00 20.47 36.31 53.66 71.95 90.88 110.27 130.00 149.97
4.50 23.62 42.20 62.71 84.46 107.06 130.27 153.95 177.97
5.00 26.80 48.18 71.95 97.28 123.71 150.94 178.76 207.05
6.00 33.22 60.36 90.88 123.71 158.19 193.91 230.56 267.96
1.00 3.35 5.43 7.56 9.71 11.87 14.04 16.21 18.39
1.50 5.93 9.87 13.94 18.09 22.28 26.50 30.74 34.99
2.00 8.77 14.85 21.25 27.81 34.47 41.21 47.98 54.80
2.50 11.76 20.22 29.22 38.52 48.02 57.65 67.37 77.16
3.00 14.85 25.85 37.68 50.00 62.64 75.50 88.51 101.64
1.4

3.50 18.02 31.69 46.53 62.09 78.12 94.49 111.10 127.88

4.00 21.25 37.68 55.68 74.67 94.32 114.44 134.90 155.63
4.50 24.51 43.79 65.07 87.64 111.10 135.19 159.76 184.69
5.00 27.81 50.00 74.67 100.96 128.38 156.64 185.51 214.87
6.00 34.47 62.64 94.32 128.38 164.17 201.23 239.27 278.07
1.00 3.46 5.62 7.82 10.05 12.29 14.53 16.78 19.04
1.50 6.14 10.21 14.43 18.72 23.06 27.43 31.82 36.22
2.00 9.08 15.38 21.99 28.78 35.68 42.65 49.67 56.72
2.50 12.17 20.93 30.24 39.87 49.71 59.68 69.74 79.87
3.00 15.38 26.76 39.00 51.76 64.84 78.15 91.62 105.20
1.5

3.50 18.66 32.80 48.16 64.27 80.87 97.81 114.99 132.37

4.00 21.99 39.00 57.64 77.29 97.63 118.45 139.64 161.10
4.50 25.37 45.33 67.36 90.72 115.00 139.94 165.37 191.17
5.00 28.78 51.76 77.29 104.50 132.89 162.13 192.02 222.41
6.00 35.68 64.84 97.63 132.89 169.93 208.29 247.66 287.83

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n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 3.58 5.80 8.08 10.38 12.69 15.01 17.33 19.66

1.50 6.34 10.55 14.90 19.34 23.82 28.33 32.86 37.41
2.00 9.37 15.88 22.71 29.73 36.85 44.05 51.30 58.58
2.50 12.57 21.61 31.23 41.18 51.34 61.63 72.03 82.49
3.00 15.88 27.64 40.28 53.45 66.97 80.71 94.62 108.65
1.6

3.50 19.27 33.88 49.74 66.38 83.52 101.01 118.77 136.71

4.00 22.71 40.28 59.53 79.82 100.83 122.34 144.22 166.38
4.50 26.20 46.82 69.57 93.69 118.77 144.53 170.79 197.44
5.00 29.73 53.45 79.82 107.93 137.25 167.45 198.32 229.70
6.00 36.85 66.97 100.83 137.25 175.50 215.12 255.79 297.27
1.00 3.69 5.98 8.33 10.70 13.08 15.47 17.87 20.27
1.50 6.54 10.87 15.36 19.93 24.55 29.20 33.87 38.56
2.00 9.66 16.37 23.41 30.64 37.99 45.41 52.88 60.38
2.50 12.96 22.28 32.19 42.45 52.92 63.53 74.24 85.03
3.00 16.37 28.49 41.52 55.10 69.03 83.19 97.53 112.00
1.7

3.50 19.86 34.92 51.27 68.42 86.09 104.12 122.42 140.92

4.00 23.41 41.52 61.36 82.28 103.93 126.10 148.66 171.50
4.50 27.01 48.26 71.71 96.58 122.43 148.97 176.04 203.51
5.00 30.64 55.10 82.28 111.25 141.47 172.60 204.42 236.77
6.00 37.99 69.03 103.93 141.47 180.90 221.74 263.66 306.42
1.00 3.79 6.16 8.57 11.01 13.46 15.92 18.38 20.85
1.50 6.73 11.19 15.81 20.51 25.26 30.05 34.86 39.68
2.00 9.94 16.84 24.09 31.53 39.09 46.72 54.41 62.13
2.50 13.33 22.93 33.13 43.68 54.45 65.37 76.39 87.49
3.00 16.84 29.32 42.73 56.70 71.03 85.61 100.36 115.25
1.8

3.50 20.44 35.93 52.76 70.40 88.58 107.14 125.97 145.00

4.00 24.09 42.73 63.14 84.66 106.94 129.76 152.97 176.47
4.50 27.79 49.66 73.79 99.38 125.97 153.29 181.15 209.41
5.00 31.53 56.70 84.66 114.47 145.57 177.61 210.35 243.63
6.00 39.09 71.03 106.94 145.57 186.15 228.17 271.30 315.31
1.00 3.90 6.32 8.80 11.31 13.83 16.35 18.89 21.43
1.50 6.91 11.49 16.24 21.07 25.96 30.87 35.81 40.77
2.00 10.22 17.30 24.75 32.40 40.16 48.00 55.90 63.84
2.50 13.70 23.55 34.04 44.88 55.94 67.16 78.49 89.89
3.00 17.30 30.12 43.90 58.25 72.97 87.95 103.11 118.40
1.9

3.50 21.00 36.92 54.21 72.33 91.01 110.08 129.42 148.98

4.00 24.75 43.90 64.87 86.98 109.87 133.32 157.16 181.31
4.50 28.55 51.02 75.81 102.10 129.43 157.49 186.11 215.15
5.00 32.40 58.25 86.98 117.61 149.56 182.48 216.11 250.31
6.00 40.16 72.97 109.87 149.56 191.25 234.42 278.74 323.95
1.00 4.00 6.49 9.03 11.60 14.19 16.78 19.38 21.98
1.50 7.09 11.79 16.66 21.62 26.63 31.68 36.74 41.83
2.00 10.48 17.75 25.39 33.24 41.20 49.25 57.35 65.50
2.50 14.05 24.17 34.92 46.04 57.40 68.91 80.53 92.23
3.00 17.75 30.90 45.04 59.76 74.87 90.24 105.79 121.48
2.0

3.50 21.54 37.88 55.61 74.21 93.38 112.94 132.78 152.85

4.00 25.39 45.04 66.55 89.24 112.73 136.78 161.24 186.02
4.50 29.30 52.34 77.78 104.75 132.79 161.59 190.95 220.74
5.00 33.24 59.76 89.24 120.67 153.45 187.22 221.73 256.81
6.00 41.20 74.87 112.73 153.45 196.22 240.51 285.98 332.36

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) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 4.10 6.65 9.26 11.89 14.54 17.19 19.86 22.53

1.50 7.27 12.08 17.07 22.15 27.29 32.46 37.65 42.86
2.00 10.74 18.19 26.02 34.06 42.22 50.47 58.77 67.11
2.50 14.40 24.76 35.78 47.18 58.81 70.61 82.52 94.50
3.00 18.19 31.67 46.15 61.24 76.72 92.46 108.40 124.48
2.1

3.50 22.07 38.81 56.99 76.04 95.68 115.73 136.06 156.62

4.00 26.02 46.15 68.19 91.45 115.51 140.16 165.22 190.61
4.50 30.02 53.64 79.70 107.34 136.07 165.58 195.66 226.19
5.00 34.06 61.24 91.45 123.65 157.24 191.84 227.20 263.16
6.00 42.22 76.72 115.51 157.24 201.06 246.45 293.04 340.57
1.00 4.19 6.81 9.47 12.17 14.88 17.60 20.33 23.06
1.50 7.44 12.37 17.47 22.67 27.93 33.22 38.54 43.87
2.00 10.99 18.62 26.63 34.86 43.21 51.65 60.15 68.69
2.50 14.74 25.35 36.62 48.29 60.20 72.27 84.46 96.73
3.00 18.62 32.41 47.24 62.68 78.52 94.64 110.95 127.41
2.2

3.50 22.59 39.73 58.33 77.83 97.93 118.45 139.27 160.31

4.00 26.63 47.24 69.80 93.60 118.23 143.45 169.11 195.10
4.50 30.73 54.90 81.57 109.87 139.27 169.47 200.27 231.52
5.00 34.86 62.68 93.60 126.55 160.94 196.35 232.55 269.35
6.00 43.21 78.52 118.23 160.94 205.79 252.25 299.94 348.58
1.00 4.29 6.96 9.69 12.44 15.21 17.99 20.78 23.57
1.50 7.61 12.64 17.87 23.18 28.56 33.97 39.40 44.85
2.00 11.24 19.04 27.23 35.64 44.18 52.81 61.50 70.24
2.50 15.07 25.92 37.45 49.38 61.55 73.89 86.36 98.90
3.00 19.04 33.14 48.30 64.09 80.29 96.77 113.45 130.27
2.3

3.50 23.10 40.62 59.64 79.58 100.13 121.11 142.40 163.91

4.00 27.23 48.30 71.37 95.70 120.89 146.68 172.91 199.48
4.50 31.42 56.13 83.41 112.34 142.40 173.28 204.77 236.72
5.00 35.64 64.09 95.70 129.40 164.55 200.77 237.78 275.40
6.00 44.18 80.29 120.89 164.55 210.42 257.92 306.68 356.42
1.00 4.38 7.11 9.89 12.71 15.54 18.38 21.23 24.08
1.50 7.77 12.92 18.25 23.68 29.17 34.70 40.25 45.82
2.00 11.48 19.45 27.82 36.41 45.14 53.95 62.83 71.75
2.50 15.40 26.47 38.25 50.44 62.88 75.48 88.21 101.03
3.00 19.45 33.85 49.34 65.47 82.02 98.85 115.89 133.07
2.4

3.50 23.60 41.49 60.92 81.29 102.29 123.72 145.46 167.44

4.00 27.82 49.34 72.90 97.76 123.49 149.83 176.63 203.77
4.50 32.09 57.34 85.20 114.75 145.46 177.01 209.17 241.81
5.00 36.41 65.47 97.76 132.18 168.09 205.08 242.89 281.33
6.00 45.14 82.02 123.49 168.09 214.94 263.47 313.27 364.08
1.00 4.47 7.25 10.10 12.97 15.86 18.76 21.67 24.58
1.50 7.93 13.18 18.63 24.17 29.77 35.41 41.08 46.76
2.00 11.72 19.85 28.39 37.16 46.07 55.06 64.12 73.23
2.50 15.71 27.02 39.04 51.48 64.17 77.04 90.03 103.11
3.00 19.85 34.55 50.35 66.82 83.71 100.89 118.28 135.82
2.5

3.50 24.08 42.35 62.18 82.97 104.40 126.27 148.46 170.89

4.00 28.39 50.35 74.41 99.78 126.03 152.92 180.27 207.98
4.50 32.75 58.52 86.96 117.12 148.46 180.66 213.49 246.80
5.00 37.16 66.82 99.78 134.91 171.56 209.31 247.90 287.13
6.00 46.07 83.71 126.03 171.56 219.38 268.90 319.73 371.59

166
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 4
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 4.56 7.40 10.30 13.23 16.17 19.13 22.10 25.06

1.50 8.09 13.44 19.00 24.65 30.36 36.12 41.89 47.69
2.00 11.95 20.24 28.95 37.90 46.98 56.15 65.39 74.68
2.50 16.02 27.55 39.81 52.50 65.44 78.57 91.81 105.15
3.00 20.24 35.23 51.35 68.14 85.37 102.89 120.62 138.51
2.6

3.50 24.56 43.19 63.41 84.61 106.46 128.77 151.40 174.27

4.00 28.95 51.35 75.88 101.75 128.53 155.95 183.84 212.09
4.50 33.40 59.68 88.68 119.44 151.40 184.24 217.71 251.68
5.00 37.90 68.14 101.75 137.58 174.96 213.46 252.81 292.81
6.00 46.98 85.37 128.53 174.96 223.72 274.23 326.07 378.95
1.00 4.65 7.54 10.49 13.48 16.48 19.50 22.52 25.54
1.50 8.24 13.70 19.36 25.12 30.94 36.80 42.69 48.60
2.00 12.18 20.63 29.51 38.62 47.87 57.22 66.64 76.10
2.50 16.33 28.08 40.57 53.50 66.69 80.06 93.56 107.16
3.00 20.63 35.90 52.33 69.44 86.99 104.85 122.92 141.15
2.7

3.50 25.03 44.01 64.62 86.23 108.49 131.22 154.28 177.59

4.00 29.51 52.33 77.33 103.69 130.98 158.92 187.35 216.13
4.50 34.04 60.82 90.37 121.71 154.29 187.75 221.86 256.48
5.00 38.62 69.44 103.69 140.20 178.29 217.52 257.62 298.39
6.00 47.87 86.99 130.98 178.29 227.98 279.45 332.28 386.17
1.00 4.73 7.68 10.69 13.73 16.79 19.85 22.93 26.01
1.50 8.39 13.95 19.71 25.58 31.51 37.48 43.47 49.49
2.00 12.40 21.01 30.05 39.33 48.75 58.27 67.86 77.49
2.50 16.63 28.59 41.32 54.48 67.91 81.53 95.28 109.12
3.00 21.01 36.56 53.29 70.71 88.59 106.77 125.17 143.74
2.8

3.50 25.49 44.82 65.80 87.81 110.48 133.63 157.11 180.85

4.00 30.05 53.29 78.74 105.59 133.38 161.84 190.78 220.10
4.50 34.66 61.93 92.03 123.95 157.12 191.19 225.93 261.19
5.00 39.33 70.71 105.59 142.77 181.56 221.52 262.35 303.87
6.00 48.75 88.59 133.38 181.56 232.17 284.58 338.37 393.26
1.00 4.82 7.81 10.88 13.97 17.08 20.21 23.34 26.47
1.50 8.54 14.20 20.06 26.03 32.07 38.14 44.24 50.37
2.00 12.62 21.38 30.58 40.02 49.61 59.30 69.06 78.87
2.50 16.92 29.10 42.05 55.44 69.12 82.98 96.97 111.06
3.00 21.38 37.21 54.23 71.97 90.16 108.66 127.39 146.28
2.9

3.50 25.94 45.61 66.97 89.36 112.44 135.99 159.89 184.05

4.00 30.58 54.23 80.14 107.46 135.74 164.70 194.16 224.00
4.50 35.28 63.03 93.66 126.14 159.90 194.57 229.93 265.81
5.00 40.02 71.97 107.46 145.30 184.77 225.44 267.00 309.24
6.00 49.61 90.16 135.74 184.77 236.27 289.61 344.36 400.22
1.00 4.90 7.95 11.06 14.21 17.37 20.55 23.73 26.92
1.50 8.69 14.44 20.41 26.48 32.62 38.79 45.00 51.23
2.00 12.84 21.74 31.10 40.71 50.46 60.32 70.24 80.21
2.50 17.21 29.60 42.77 56.39 70.30 84.39 98.62 112.95
3.00 21.74 37.85 55.16 73.20 91.70 110.52 129.56 148.78
3.0

3.50 26.38 46.39 68.11 90.89 114.36 138.32 162.63 187.20

4.00 31.10 55.16 81.51 109.30 138.06 167.52 197.48 227.83
4.50 35.88 64.11 95.26 128.30 162.63 197.90 233.86 270.35
5.00 40.71 73.20 109.30 147.78 187.93 229.29 271.56 314.53
6.00 50.46 91.70 138.06 187.93 240.31 294.57 350.25 407.06

167
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 5
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 4.98 8.08 11.25 14.44 17.66 20.89 24.13 27.37

1.50 8.83 14.68 20.74 26.92 33.15 39.44 45.74 52.07
2.00 13.05 22.10 31.62 41.38 51.30 61.32 71.40 81.54
2.50 17.50 30.09 43.48 57.32 71.46 85.79 100.25 114.82
3.00 22.10 38.47 56.07 74.41 93.21 112.34 131.71 151.24
3.1

3.50 26.82 47.16 69.24 92.39 116.25 140.60 165.32 190.29

4.00 31.62 56.07 82.86 111.11 140.35 170.29 200.74 231.59
4.50 36.47 65.17 96.83 130.42 165.32 201.17 237.73 274.82
5.00 41.38 74.41 111.11 150.23 191.04 233.08 276.05 319.73
6.00 51.30 93.21 140.35 191.04 244.29 299.43 356.04 413.79
1.00 5.06 8.21 11.43 14.68 17.94 21.22 24.51 27.81
1.50 8.97 14.91 21.07 27.35 33.69 40.07 46.48 52.91
2.00 13.26 22.46 32.12 42.04 52.12 62.30 72.55 82.85
2.50 17.78 30.57 44.17 58.24 72.60 87.16 101.86 116.66
3.00 22.46 39.09 56.97 75.60 94.70 114.14 133.81 153.66
3.2

3.50 27.25 47.91 70.35 93.87 118.11 142.85 167.96 193.34

4.00 32.12 56.97 84.18 112.88 142.59 173.01 203.96 235.30
4.50 37.06 66.21 98.38 132.50 167.97 204.39 241.53 279.22
5.00 42.04 75.60 112.88 152.63 194.10 236.81 280.47 324.85
6.00 52.12 94.70 142.59 194.10 248.19 304.23 361.74 420.41
1.00 5.14 8.34 11.60 14.90 18.22 21.55 24.89 28.24
1.50 9.11 15.15 21.40 27.77 34.21 40.69 47.20 53.73
2.00 13.46 22.81 32.62 42.69 52.93 63.26 73.67 84.13
2.50 18.05 31.04 44.86 59.14 73.73 88.51 103.44 118.47
3.00 22.81 39.69 57.85 76.77 96.17 115.91 135.89 156.04
3.3

3.50 27.67 48.66 71.44 95.33 119.94 145.07 170.56 196.34

4.00 32.62 57.85 85.49 114.63 144.80 175.70 207.12 238.95
4.50 37.63 67.24 99.91 134.56 170.57 207.56 245.28 283.55
5.00 42.69 76.77 114.63 155.00 197.11 240.48 284.81 329.88
6.00 52.93 96.17 144.80 197.11 252.04 308.94 367.35 426.93
1.00 5.21 8.46 11.78 15.13 18.50 21.88 25.27 28.66
1.50 9.25 15.37 21.72 28.19 34.72 41.30 47.91 54.53
2.00 13.67 23.15 33.11 43.34 53.72 64.21 74.78 85.40
2.50 18.33 31.51 45.53 60.03 74.84 89.84 104.99 120.25
3.00 23.15 40.29 58.72 77.92 97.62 117.65 137.93 158.39
3.4

3.50 28.09 49.39 72.51 96.76 121.75 147.25 173.13 199.29

4.00 33.11 58.72 86.77 116.36 146.98 178.34 210.23 242.54
4.50 38.20 68.25 101.41 136.58 173.14 210.68 248.96 287.81
5.00 43.34 77.92 116.36 157.33 200.07 244.10 289.10 334.84
6.00 53.72 97.62 146.98 200.07 255.83 313.59 372.87 433.35
1.00 5.29 8.58 11.95 15.35 18.77 22.20 25.64 29.08
1.50 9.38 15.60 22.04 28.60 35.23 41.90 48.61 55.33
2.00 13.87 23.49 33.59 43.97 54.51 65.15 75.87 86.64
2.50 18.59 31.97 46.19 60.91 75.93 91.16 106.53 122.00
3.00 23.49 40.88 59.58 79.06 99.04 119.37 139.95 160.70
3.5

3.50 28.50 50.11 73.57 98.17 123.52 149.40 175.66 202.20

4.00 33.59 59.58 88.04 118.06 149.13 180.94 213.30 246.08
4.50 38.76 69.24 102.89 138.58 175.66 213.76 252.60 292.01
5.00 43.97 79.06 118.06 159.63 202.99 247.66 293.32 339.73
6.00 54.51 99.04 149.13 202.99 259.57 318.17 378.31 439.67

168
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 6
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 5.37 8.71 12.12 15.57 19.03 22.51 26.00 29.49

1.50 9.52 15.82 22.35 29.01 35.73 42.50 49.30 56.12
2.00 14.06 23.82 34.07 44.59 55.28 66.08 76.95 87.87
2.50 18.86 32.42 46.85 61.77 77.01 92.45 108.04 123.73
3.00 23.82 41.46 60.43 80.18 100.45 121.06 141.93 162.98
3.6

3.50 28.90 50.82 74.61 99.56 125.28 151.52 178.15 205.07

4.00 34.07 60.43 89.29 119.73 151.24 183.51 216.33 249.57
4.50 39.30 70.23 104.35 140.54 178.16 216.79 256.18 296.16
5.00 44.59 80.18 119.73 161.89 205.87 251.18 297.48 344.55
6.00 55.28 100.45 151.24 205.87 263.25 322.68 383.68 445.91
1.00 5.44 8.83 12.29 15.78 19.30 22.82 26.36 29.90
1.50 9.65 16.04 22.66 29.41 36.22 43.08 49.98 56.89
2.00 14.26 24.15 34.54 45.21 56.04 66.99 78.01 89.08
2.50 19.12 32.87 47.50 62.62 78.07 93.72 109.53 125.44
3.00 24.15 42.03 61.26 81.29 101.83 122.73 143.89 165.23
3.7

3.50 29.30 51.52 75.64 100.94 127.00 153.61 180.61 207.90

4.00 34.54 61.26 90.52 121.38 153.33 186.04 219.31 253.01
4.50 39.85 71.20 105.79 142.48 180.61 219.78 259.72 300.24
5.00 45.21 81.29 121.38 164.12 208.71 254.64 301.58 349.30
6.00 56.04 101.83 153.33 208.71 266.88 327.13 388.97 452.06
1.00 5.51 8.94 12.45 15.99 19.55 23.13 26.71 30.30
1.50 9.78 16.25 22.97 29.80 36.71 43.66 50.65 57.65
2.00 14.45 24.47 35.00 45.81 56.79 67.89 79.05 90.28
2.50 19.37 33.31 48.13 63.47 79.12 94.98 111.00 127.13
3.00 24.47 42.60 62.08 82.38 103.20 124.38 145.82 167.45
3.8

3.50 29.69 52.21 76.66 102.29 128.71 155.67 183.03 210.69

4.00 35.00 62.08 91.73 123.01 155.39 188.54 222.26 256.41
4.50 40.38 72.15 107.21 144.39 183.04 222.73 263.20 304.27
5.00 45.81 82.38 123.01 166.33 211.51 258.06 305.63 353.99
6.00 56.79 103.20 155.39 211.51 270.46 331.52 394.19 458.13
1.00 5.58 9.06 12.61 16.20 19.81 23.43 27.06 30.70
1.50 9.91 16.47 23.27 30.19 37.19 44.23 51.31 58.41
2.00 14.64 24.79 35.46 46.41 57.54 68.77 80.09 91.46
2.50 19.63 33.75 48.76 64.29 80.15 96.22 112.45 128.79
3.00 24.79 43.15 62.89 83.46 104.55 126.01 147.73 169.64
3.9

3.50 30.08 52.89 77.66 103.63 130.39 157.71 185.42 213.44

4.00 35.46 62.89 92.93 124.62 157.42 191.00 225.16 259.76
4.50 40.91 73.09 108.61 146.28 185.43 225.64 266.64 308.25
5.00 46.41 83.46 124.62 168.50 214.28 261.43 309.63 358.62
6.00 57.54 104.55 157.42 214.28 274.00 335.86 399.35 464.12
1.00 5.66 9.18 12.77 16.41 20.06 23.73 27.41 31.09
1.50 10.03 16.68 23.56 30.57 37.66 44.80 51.96 59.15
2.00 14.82 25.11 35.91 47.00 58.27 69.65 81.11 92.62
2.50 19.88 34.18 49.38 65.11 81.17 97.45 113.88 130.43
3.00 25.11 43.70 63.69 84.52 105.88 127.61 149.61 171.80
4.0

3.50 30.46 53.57 78.65 104.95 132.05 159.72 187.79 216.16

4.00 35.91 63.69 94.12 126.21 159.42 193.43 228.03 263.07
4.50 41.43 74.03 109.99 148.14 187.79 228.52 270.04 312.18
5.00 47.00 84.52 126.21 170.65 217.01 264.76 313.57 363.19
6.00 58.27 105.88 159.42 217.01 277.49 340.13 404.43 470.03

169
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 7
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 5.73 9.29 12.93 16.61 20.31 24.02 27.75 31.47

1.50 10.16 16.88 23.85 30.95 38.13 45.35 52.61 59.89
2.00 15.01 25.42 36.36 47.59 58.99 70.51 82.12 93.77
2.50 20.12 34.60 50.00 65.92 82.18 98.66 115.30 132.05
3.00 25.42 44.24 64.49 85.57 107.20 129.20 151.47 173.93
4.1

3.50 30.84 54.23 79.63 106.25 133.69 161.70 190.12 218.85

4.00 36.36 64.49 95.29 127.78 161.40 195.84 230.86 266.34
4.50 41.95 74.94 111.36 149.99 190.13 231.35 273.39 316.05
5.00 47.59 85.57 127.78 172.77 219.70 268.05 317.47 367.70
6.00 58.99 107.20 161.40 219.70 280.94 344.36 409.46 475.87
1.00 5.80 9.40 13.09 16.81 20.56 24.32 28.08 31.86
1.50 10.28 17.09 24.14 31.33 38.59 45.90 53.24 60.61
2.00 15.19 25.73 36.80 48.16 59.71 71.37 83.11 94.91
2.50 20.37 35.02 50.60 66.72 83.18 99.86 116.69 133.65
3.00 25.73 44.78 65.27 86.61 108.50 130.76 153.30 176.04
4.2

3.50 31.22 54.89 80.59 107.54 135.31 163.66 192.42 221.50

4.00 36.80 65.27 96.44 129.32 163.36 198.21 233.66 269.57
4.50 42.45 75.85 112.71 151.80 192.43 234.16 276.71 319.89
5.00 48.16 86.61 129.32 174.86 222.36 271.30 321.31 372.16
6.00 59.71 108.50 163.36 222.36 284.34 348.53 414.42 481.64
1.00 5.86 9.51 13.24 17.01 20.80 24.60 28.42 32.23
1.50 10.40 17.29 24.43 31.70 39.05 46.44 53.88 61.33
2.00 15.37 26.03 37.23 48.73 60.41 72.21 84.09 96.03
2.50 20.61 35.43 51.20 67.51 84.16 101.04 118.08 135.23
3.00 26.03 45.31 66.04 87.63 109.78 132.31 155.12 178.12
4.3

3.50 31.59 55.54 81.55 108.81 136.92 165.60 194.70 224.12

4.00 37.23 66.04 97.58 130.85 165.29 200.56 236.43 272.76
4.50 42.96 76.75 114.05 153.60 194.71 236.93 279.98 323.67
5.00 48.73 87.63 130.85 176.93 225.00 274.51 325.12 376.56
6.00 60.41 109.78 165.29 225.00 287.71 352.66 419.33 487.34
1.00 5.93 9.62 13.40 17.21 21.04 24.89 28.74 32.61
1.50 10.52 17.49 24.71 32.07 39.50 46.98 54.50 62.04
2.00 15.55 26.33 37.67 49.30 61.11 73.05 85.07 97.14
2.50 20.85 35.84 51.79 68.29 85.13 102.21 119.44 136.79
3.00 26.33 45.84 66.80 88.64 111.05 133.84 156.91 180.18
4.4

3.50 31.95 56.18 82.49 110.07 138.50 167.51 196.95 226.71

4.00 37.67 66.80 98.71 132.37 167.20 202.88 239.16 275.91
4.50 43.45 77.64 115.36 155.38 196.96 239.67 283.22 327.41
5.00 49.30 88.64 132.37 178.98 227.60 277.69 328.88 380.92
6.00 61.11 111.05 167.20 227.60 291.03 356.74 424.17 492.97
1.00 6.00 9.73 13.55 17.40 21.28 25.17 29.07 32.97
1.50 10.64 17.69 24.99 32.43 39.95 47.51 55.11 62.74
2.00 15.72 26.63 38.09 49.85 61.80 73.87 86.03 98.24
2.50 21.08 36.25 52.38 69.06 86.10 103.36 120.79 138.34
3.00 26.63 46.35 67.56 89.65 112.31 135.35 158.68 182.22
4.5

3.50 32.31 56.82 83.42 111.32 140.06 169.40 199.18 229.27

4.00 38.09 67.56 99.83 133.86 169.09 205.17 241.86 279.03
4.50 43.94 78.52 116.67 157.13 199.18 242.38 286.42 331.11
5.00 49.85 89.65 133.86 181.00 230.17 280.82 332.59 385.22
6.00 61.80 112.31 169.09 230.17 294.32 360.77 428.97 498.54

170
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Ministry of Works and Transport 8
Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 6.07 9.84 13.70 17.60 21.51 25.45 29.39 33.34

1.50 10.76 17.88 25.27 32.79 40.39 48.04 55.72 63.43
2.00 15.90 26.92 38.51 50.41 62.49 74.69 86.98 99.33
2.50 21.32 36.65 52.96 69.83 87.05 104.50 122.12 139.87
3.00 26.92 46.87 68.30 90.64 113.55 136.85 160.44 184.23
4.6

3.50 32.67 57.45 84.34 112.55 141.61 171.28 201.38 231.81

4.00 38.51 68.30 100.93 135.34 170.96 207.43 244.54 282.11
4.50 44.43 79.38 117.96 158.87 201.38 245.06 289.59 334.77
5.00 50.41 90.64 135.34 183.00 232.71 283.93 336.27 389.48
6.00 62.49 113.55 170.96 232.71 297.58 364.75 433.71 504.05
1.00 6.13 9.95 13.85 17.79 21.75 25.72 29.71 33.70
1.50 10.87 18.08 25.54 33.14 40.82 48.56 56.33 64.12
2.00 16.07 27.22 38.93 50.95 63.16 75.50 87.92 100.40
2.50 21.55 37.05 53.53 70.58 87.99 105.63 123.45 141.38
3.00 27.22 47.37 69.04 91.62 114.77 138.33 162.17 186.22
4.7

3.50 33.02 58.07 85.26 113.76 143.14 173.13 203.55 234.31

4.00 38.93 69.04 102.02 136.81 172.81 209.68 247.18 285.16
4.50 44.91 80.24 119.23 160.59 203.56 247.71 292.72 338.39
5.00 50.95 91.62 136.81 184.98 235.23 287.00 339.90 393.69
6.00 63.16 114.77 172.81 235.23 300.79 368.70 438.40 509.50
1.00 6.20 10.05 13.99 17.97 21.98 26.00 30.02 34.06
1.50 10.99 18.27 25.81 33.49 41.26 49.07 56.92 64.80
2.00 16.24 27.50 39.34 51.49 63.83 76.30 88.85 101.46
2.50 21.77 37.44 54.10 71.33 88.92 106.75 124.75 142.88
3.00 27.50 47.87 69.77 92.59 115.99 139.79 163.89 188.19
4.8

3.50 33.37 58.68 86.16 114.97 144.66 174.96 205.71 236.79

4.00 39.34 69.77 103.10 138.25 174.64 211.90 249.80 288.18
4.50 45.39 81.09 120.49 162.28 205.72 250.33 295.81 341.97
5.00 51.49 92.59 138.25 186.93 237.72 290.03 343.50 397.85
6.00 63.83 115.99 174.64 237.72 303.98 372.60 443.04 514.89
1.00 6.26 10.16 14.14 18.16 22.21 26.26 30.33 34.41
1.50 11.10 18.46 26.08 33.84 41.68 49.58 57.51 65.47
2.00 16.41 27.79 39.75 52.02 64.49 77.09 89.77 102.52
2.50 22.00 37.83 54.66 72.07 89.84 107.86 126.04 144.36
3.00 27.79 48.37 70.50 93.55 117.19 141.24 165.59 190.14
4.9

3.50 33.72 59.29 87.05 116.16 146.16 176.77 207.84 239.25

4.00 39.75 70.50 104.17 139.69 176.45 214.09 252.38 291.17
4.50 45.86 81.93 121.74 163.97 207.85 252.92 298.88 345.52
5.00 52.02 93.55 139.69 188.87 240.18 293.04 347.06 401.98
6.00 64.49 117.19 176.45 240.18 307.13 376.46 447.63 520.23
1.00 6.32 10.26 14.28 18.34 22.43 26.53 30.64 34.76
1.50 11.22 18.64 26.34 34.18 42.11 50.08 58.10 66.13
2.00 16.57 28.07 40.15 52.55 65.15 77.87 90.68 103.56
2.50 22.22 38.21 55.21 72.80 90.75 108.95 127.32 145.82
3.00 28.07 48.86 71.21 94.50 118.38 142.68 167.27 192.08
5.0

3.50 34.06 59.89 87.93 117.34 147.64 178.57 209.95 241.67

4.00 40.15 71.21 105.23 141.10 178.24 216.27 254.95 294.12
4.50 46.32 82.76 122.98 165.63 209.96 255.49 301.91 349.02
5.00 52.55 94.50 141.10 190.79 242.62 296.01 350.58 406.06
6.00 65.15 118.38 178.24 242.62 310.24 380.28 452.17 525.51

171
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 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 6.39 10.36 14.42 18.53 22.65 26.80 30.95 35.10

1.50 11.33 18.83 26.60 34.52 42.53 50.58 58.67 66.79
2.00 16.74 28.35 40.55 53.07 65.80 78.65 91.58 104.59
2.50 22.44 38.59 55.76 73.52 91.66 110.04 128.59 147.27
3.00 28.35 49.35 71.92 95.44 119.56 144.10 168.93 193.99
5.1

3.50 34.40 60.49 88.81 118.51 149.11 180.34 212.04 244.08

4.00 40.55 71.92 106.27 142.51 180.01 218.42 257.48 297.05
4.50 46.78 83.59 124.20 167.28 212.05 258.03 304.92 352.50
5.00 53.07 95.44 142.51 192.69 245.03 298.96 354.07 410.10
6.00 65.80 119.56 180.01 245.03 313.33 384.07 456.67 530.74
1.00 6.45 10.46 14.56 18.71 22.87 27.06 31.25 35.45
1.50 11.44 19.01 26.86 34.86 42.94 51.07 59.25 67.44
2.00 16.90 28.63 40.95 53.59 66.44 79.41 92.48 105.61
2.50 22.66 38.97 56.31 74.24 92.55 111.11 129.85 148.71
3.00 28.63 49.83 72.62 96.37 120.72 145.50 170.58 195.88
5.2

3.50 34.73 61.08 89.68 119.66 150.56 182.10 214.11 246.46

4.00 40.95 72.62 107.31 143.90 181.77 220.55 260.00 299.95
4.50 47.24 84.40 125.41 168.91 214.12 260.55 307.89 355.94
5.00 53.59 96.37 143.90 194.57 247.42 301.88 357.53 414.10
6.00 66.44 120.72 181.77 247.42 316.39 387.81 461.13 535.92
1.00 6.51 10.56 14.70 18.89 23.09 27.32 31.55 35.79
1.50 11.55 19.19 27.12 35.19 43.35 51.56 59.81 68.09
2.00 17.06 28.90 41.34 54.11 67.07 80.17 93.36 106.62
2.50 22.88 39.34 56.85 74.95 93.44 112.17 131.09 150.13
3.00 28.90 50.30 73.32 97.29 121.88 146.89 172.21 197.75
5.3

3.50 35.07 61.66 90.53 120.81 152.00 183.85 216.16 248.82

4.00 41.34 73.32 108.34 145.28 183.51 222.66 262.48 302.82
4.50 47.69 85.21 126.61 170.53 216.17 263.04 310.84 359.34
5.00 54.11 97.29 145.28 196.43 249.79 304.76 360.95 418.06
6.00 67.07 121.88 183.51 249.79 319.42 391.52 465.54 541.05
1.00 6.57 10.66 14.84 19.06 23.31 27.57 31.84 36.12
1.50 11.66 19.38 27.38 35.52 43.76 52.05 60.37 68.73
2.00 17.22 29.17 41.73 54.61 67.70 80.93 94.24 107.62
2.50 23.09 39.71 57.38 75.66 94.31 113.23 132.32 151.54
3.00 29.17 50.78 74.01 98.20 123.02 148.27 173.83 199.61
5.4

3.50 35.40 62.24 91.38 121.94 153.43 185.57 218.19 251.16

4.00 41.73 74.01 109.35 146.64 185.23 224.75 264.95 305.66
4.50 48.14 86.01 127.80 172.13 218.19 265.51 313.76 362.72
5.00 54.61 98.20 146.64 198.27 252.14 307.63 364.34 421.99
6.00 67.70 123.02 185.23 252.14 322.41 395.20 469.91 546.13
1.00 6.63 10.76 14.98 19.24 23.53 27.83 32.14 36.45
1.50 11.76 19.55 27.63 35.85 44.16 52.53 60.93 69.36
2.00 17.38 29.44 42.11 55.12 68.33 81.67 95.11 108.61
2.50 23.31 40.08 57.91 76.35 95.18 114.27 133.54 152.94
3.00 29.44 51.25 74.69 99.11 124.16 149.64 175.43 201.45
5.5

3.50 35.72 62.81 92.23 123.06 154.85 187.28 220.20 253.47

4.00 42.11 74.69 110.36 147.99 186.94 226.82 267.39 308.48
4.50 48.58 86.80 128.98 173.72 220.21 267.96 316.65 366.06
5.00 55.12 99.11 147.99 200.10 254.46 310.46 367.69 425.88
6.00 68.33 124.16 186.94 254.46 325.39 398.84 474.24 551.16

172
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 10
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 6.69 10.86 15.11 19.41 23.74 28.08 32.43 36.78

1.50 11.87 19.73 27.88 36.18 44.56 53.00 61.48 69.99
2.00 17.54 29.71 42.49 55.62 68.95 82.41 95.97 109.59
2.50 23.52 40.44 58.43 77.04 96.04 115.30 134.75 154.32
3.00 29.71 51.71 75.36 100.00 125.28 150.99 177.02 203.27
5.6

3.50 36.05 63.38 93.06 124.18 156.25 188.98 222.19 255.76

4.00 42.49 75.36 111.36 149.33 188.63 228.87 269.81 311.27
4.50 49.02 87.59 130.15 175.29 222.20 270.38 319.52 369.37
5.00 55.62 100.00 149.33 201.91 256.76 313.27 371.02 429.73
6.00 68.95 125.28 188.63 256.76 328.33 402.45 478.53 556.15
1.00 6.75 10.95 15.25 19.59 23.95 28.33 32.72 37.11
1.50 11.97 19.91 28.13 36.50 44.96 53.47 62.03 70.61
2.00 17.69 29.97 42.87 56.11 69.56 83.14 96.82 110.57
2.50 23.73 40.80 58.95 77.73 96.90 116.33 135.94 155.70
3.00 29.97 52.17 76.03 100.89 126.40 152.34 178.59 205.08
5.7

3.50 36.37 63.95 93.89 125.28 157.64 190.66 224.17 258.04

4.00 42.87 76.03 112.35 150.66 190.31 230.91 272.21 314.04
4.50 49.46 88.37 131.30 176.85 224.17 272.79 322.36 372.66
5.00 56.11 100.89 150.66 203.71 259.05 316.06 374.32 433.55
6.00 69.56 126.40 190.31 259.05 331.25 406.03 482.79 561.09
1.00 6.81 11.05 15.38 19.76 24.16 28.57 33.00 37.44
1.50 12.08 20.08 28.37 36.82 45.35 53.94 62.57 71.23
2.00 17.85 30.23 43.24 56.60 70.17 83.87 97.67 111.53
2.50 23.93 41.15 59.47 78.41 97.74 117.34 137.13 157.06
3.00 30.23 52.62 76.70 101.77 127.50 153.67 180.15 206.87
5.8

3.50 36.68 64.50 94.71 126.38 159.01 192.32 226.12 260.29

4.00 43.24 76.70 113.33 151.97 191.97 232.93 274.59 316.78
4.50 49.89 89.14 132.45 178.39 226.13 275.17 325.17 375.91
5.00 56.60 101.77 151.97 205.49 261.31 318.82 377.59 437.34
6.00 70.17 127.50 191.97 261.31 334.14 409.58 487.00 565.99
1.00 6.87 11.15 15.51 19.93 24.37 28.82 33.29 37.76
1.50 12.18 20.25 28.62 37.13 45.74 54.40 63.11 71.84
2.00 18.00 30.49 43.62 57.09 70.77 84.59 98.51 112.49
2.50 24.14 41.51 59.98 79.08 98.58 118.35 138.31 158.40
3.00 30.49 53.08 77.36 102.65 128.59 154.99 181.70 208.65
5.9

3.50 37.00 65.06 95.52 127.46 160.38 193.97 228.06 262.53

4.00 43.62 77.36 114.31 153.28 193.62 234.92 276.94 319.50
4.50 50.32 89.90 133.59 179.92 228.07 277.53 327.96 379.14
5.00 57.09 102.65 153.28 207.25 263.55 321.55 380.83 441.09
6.00 70.77 128.59 193.62 263.55 337.01 413.09 491.18 570.85
1.00 6.93 11.24 15.64 20.10 24.57 29.06 33.57 38.08
1.50 12.29 20.42 28.86 37.45 46.13 54.86 63.64 72.44
2.00 18.15 30.75 43.98 57.57 71.37 85.30 99.34 113.44
2.50 24.34 41.86 60.48 79.75 99.41 119.35 139.48 159.74
3.00 30.75 53.52 78.01 103.51 129.68 156.29 183.23 210.41
6.0

3.50 37.31 65.61 96.33 128.54 161.73 195.61 229.99 264.74

4.00 43.98 78.01 115.27 154.57 195.25 236.91 279.28 322.19
4.50 50.74 90.66 134.72 181.44 230.00 279.87 330.73 382.34
5.00 57.57 103.51 154.57 209.00 265.78 324.27 384.04 444.81
6.00 71.37 129.68 195.25 265.78 339.85 416.58 495.33 575.67

173
Ministry of Works and Transport
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 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 7.21 11.70 16.28 20.92 25.57 30.25 34.94 39.63

1.50 12.79 21.26 30.04 38.97 48.01 57.10 66.24 75.40
2.00 18.90 32.01 45.78 59.92 74.28 88.79 103.39 118.07
2.50 25.34 43.57 62.95 83.00 103.47 124.22 145.17 166.26
3.00 32.01 55.71 81.19 107.74 134.97 162.68 190.71 219.00
6.5

3.50 38.83 68.29 100.26 133.79 168.33 203.60 239.38 275.55

4.00 45.78 81.19 119.98 160.88 203.22 246.58 290.68 335.35
4.50 52.81 94.36 140.22 188.85 239.39 291.30 344.24 397.95
5.00 59.92 107.74 160.88 217.53 276.63 337.51 399.73 462.98
6.00 74.28 134.97 203.22 276.63 353.73 433.59 515.55 599.17
1.00 7.48 12.14 16.90 21.71 26.54 31.39 36.26 41.13
1.50 13.27 22.06 31.17 40.45 49.82 59.26 68.74 78.25
2.00 19.61 33.21 47.51 62.18 77.08 92.14 107.30 122.53
2.50 26.29 45.21 65.33 86.14 107.38 128.91 150.65 172.54
3.00 33.21 57.81 84.26 111.81 140.07 168.82 197.91 227.27
7.0

3.50 40.30 70.86 104.05 138.84 174.69 211.28 248.42 285.95

4.00 47.51 84.26 124.51 166.96 210.90 255.89 301.66 348.01
4.50 54.81 97.93 145.51 195.98 248.43 302.30 357.23 412.97
5.00 62.18 111.81 166.96 225.74 287.07 350.25 414.82 480.45
6.00 77.08 140.07 210.90 287.07 367.09 449.96 535.02 621.79
1.00 7.74 12.57 17.49 22.47 27.47 32.49 37.53 42.57
1.50 13.74 22.83 32.26 41.87 51.57 61.34 71.15 81.00
2.00 20.30 34.38 49.18 64.36 79.79 95.37 111.06 126.83
2.50 27.22 46.80 67.62 89.16 111.15 133.44 155.94 178.60
3.00 34.38 59.84 87.22 115.73 144.99 174.74 204.86 235.24
7.5

3.50 41.71 73.35 107.70 143.71 180.82 218.70 257.14 295.99

4.00 49.18 87.22 128.88 172.82 218.30 264.87 312.24 360.22
4.50 56.73 101.36 150.62 202.86 257.15 312.91 369.77 427.47
5.00 64.36 115.73 172.82 233.67 297.15 362.54 429.37 497.32
6.00 79.79 144.99 218.30 297.15 379.97 465.75 553.79 643.62
1.00 8.00 12.98 18.06 23.20 28.37 33.56 38.76 43.97
1.50 14.19 23.58 33.32 43.24 53.26 63.35 73.49 83.65
2.00 20.96 35.51 50.79 66.47 82.41 98.50 114.70 130.99
2.50 28.11 48.33 69.84 92.08 114.79 137.81 161.05 184.45
3.00 35.51 61.80 90.08 119.53 149.74 180.47 211.58 242.96
8.0

3.50 43.08 75.76 111.23 148.42 186.75 225.87 265.57 305.70

4.00 50.79 90.08 133.10 178.48 225.46 273.56 322.48 372.04
4.50 58.59 104.69 155.56 209.51 265.58 323.17 381.89 441.48
5.00 66.47 119.53 178.48 241.33 306.89 374.43 443.46 513.63
6.00 82.41 149.74 225.46 306.89 392.43 481.02 571.96 664.72
1.00 8.24 13.38 18.62 23.92 29.25 34.59 39.95 45.32
1.50 14.62 24.31 34.35 44.57 54.90 65.30 75.75 86.23
2.00 21.61 36.60 52.35 68.52 84.94 101.53 118.23 135.02
2.50 28.97 49.82 71.99 94.92 118.33 142.06 166.01 190.13
3.00 36.60 63.71 92.85 123.21 154.35 186.03 218.09 250.44
8.5

3.50 44.41 78.09 114.65 152.99 192.50 232.82 273.74 315.10

4.00 52.35 92.85 137.20 183.98 232.40 281.98 332.41 383.49
4.50 60.40 107.91 160.34 215.96 273.75 333.12 393.65 455.07
5.00 68.52 123.21 183.98 248.76 316.34 385.95 457.10 529.44
6.00 84.94 154.35 232.40 316.34 404.51 495.83 589.56 685.18

174
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Ministry of Works and Transport 12
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 8.48 13.77 19.16 24.61 30.09 35.60 41.11 46.63

1.50 15.05 25.01 35.34 45.86 56.49 67.19 77.94 88.73
2.00 22.23 37.66 53.87 70.51 87.40 104.47 121.66 138.94
2.50 29.81 51.26 74.08 97.67 121.76 146.17 170.82 195.64
3.00 37.66 65.55 95.54 126.78 158.82 191.42 224.41 257.70
9.0

3.50 45.70 80.35 117.98 157.42 198.08 239.57 281.68 324.24

4.00 53.87 95.54 141.18 189.31 239.13 290.15 342.05 394.61
4.50 62.15 111.04 164.99 222.22 281.69 342.77 405.06 468.26
5.00 70.51 126.78 189.31 255.97 325.51 397.14 470.36 544.78
6.00 87.40 158.82 239.13 325.51 416.24 510.20 606.65 705.05
1.00 8.72 14.14 19.69 25.29 30.92 36.57 42.24 47.91
1.50 15.46 25.70 36.31 47.12 58.04 69.03 80.08 91.16
2.00 22.84 38.69 55.35 72.44 89.80 107.34 125.00 142.74
2.50 30.63 52.67 76.11 100.35 125.09 150.18 175.50 201.00
3.00 38.69 67.35 98.16 130.25 163.18 196.67 230.56 264.76
9.5

3.50 46.95 82.55 121.21 161.74 203.51 246.14 289.40 333.12

4.00 55.35 98.16 145.05 194.50 245.69 298.10 351.42 405.42
4.50 63.85 114.08 169.51 228.31 289.41 352.17 416.16 481.10
5.00 72.44 130.25 194.50 262.98 334.43 408.03 483.24 559.71
6.00 89.80 163.18 245.69 334.43 427.64 524.18 623.27 724.37
1.00 8.94 14.51 20.20 25.94 31.72 37.52 43.33 49.16
1.50 15.86 26.37 37.25 48.34 59.55 70.83 82.16 93.53
2.00 23.44 39.70 56.78 74.32 92.13 110.13 128.24 146.45
2.50 31.43 54.04 78.08 102.95 128.34 154.08 180.06 206.22
3.00 39.70 69.10 100.71 133.64 167.41 201.77 236.55 271.64
10.0

3.50 48.17 84.70 124.36 165.94 208.79 252.53 296.92 341.78

4.00 56.78 100.71 148.81 199.55 252.07 305.85 360.55 415.95
4.50 65.51 117.04 173.92 234.24 296.93 361.32 426.97 493.59
5.00 74.32 133.64 199.55 269.82 343.12 418.63 495.80 574.25
6.00 92.13 167.41 252.07 343.12 438.75 537.80 639.47 743.18
1.00 9.16 14.87 20.70 26.58 32.50 38.45 44.40 50.37
1.50 16.25 27.02 38.17 49.54 61.02 72.58 84.19 95.84
2.00 24.02 40.68 58.19 76.15 94.41 112.84 131.41 150.07
2.50 32.20 55.37 80.01 105.50 131.51 157.89 184.51 211.32
3.00 40.68 70.81 103.20 136.94 171.55 206.76 242.39 278.34
10.5

3.50 49.36 86.79 127.43 170.04 213.95 258.77 304.25 350.22

4.00 58.19 103.20 152.49 204.48 258.29 313.40 369.45 426.22
4.50 67.13 119.93 178.21 240.02 304.26 370.24 437.52 505.78
5.00 76.15 136.94 204.48 276.48 351.59 428.96 508.04 588.43
6.00 94.41 171.55 258.29 351.59 449.59 551.08 655.26 761.54
1.00 9.38 15.22 21.18 27.21 33.27 39.35 45.45 51.55
1.50 16.63 27.65 39.07 50.70 62.45 74.28 86.17 98.09
2.00 24.58 41.64 59.55 77.95 96.63 115.50 134.50 153.60
2.50 32.96 56.67 81.89 107.98 134.61 161.60 188.85 216.29
3.00 41.64 72.47 105.63 140.16 175.59 211.62 248.10 284.89
11.0

3.50 50.52 88.83 130.43 174.04 218.98 264.86 311.41 358.46

4.00 59.55 105.63 156.08 209.29 264.37 320.77 378.15 436.25
4.50 68.71 122.76 182.41 245.67 311.42 378.95 447.81 517.69
5.00 77.95 140.16 209.29 282.99 359.86 439.06 520.00 602.28
6.00 96.63 175.59 264.37 359.86 460.17 564.05 670.68 779.46

175
Ministry of Works and Transport
Ministry of Works and Transport 13
 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 9.59 15.56 21.66 27.82 34.02 40.24 46.47 52.71

1.50 17.01 28.27 39.95 51.84 63.86 75.95 88.11 100.30
2.00 25.13 42.57 60.89 79.70 98.80 118.10 137.53 157.05
2.50 33.70 57.95 83.74 110.41 137.63 165.23 193.10 221.15
3.00 42.57 74.10 108.00 143.31 179.53 216.38 253.67 291.30
11.5

3.50 51.65 90.83 133.36 177.95 223.91 270.81 318.41 366.52

4.00 60.89 108.00 159.58 214.00 270.31 327.98 386.65 446.06
4.50 70.25 125.52 186.51 251.19 318.42 387.47 457.88 529.32
5.00 79.70 143.31 214.00 289.35 367.95 448.93 531.69 615.82
6.00 98.80 179.53 270.31 367.95 470.51 576.73 685.75 796.98
1.00 9.80 15.89 22.12 28.42 34.75 41.10 47.47 53.85
1.50 17.37 28.88 40.81 52.96 65.23 77.59 90.00 102.45
2.00 25.67 43.49 62.20 81.41 100.93 120.64 140.48 160.43
2.50 34.43 59.20 85.54 112.78 140.59 168.79 197.25 225.91
3.00 43.49 75.69 110.32 146.39 183.39 221.03 259.13 297.56
12.0

3.50 52.77 92.78 136.23 181.78 228.72 276.64 325.25 374.40

4.00 62.20 110.32 163.02 218.60 276.13 335.04 394.96 455.65
4.50 71.76 128.22 190.52 256.59 325.27 395.80 467.72 540.71
5.00 81.41 146.39 218.60 295.57 375.87 458.58 543.12 629.06
6.00 100.93 183.39 276.13 375.87 480.63 589.13 700.50 814.12
1.00 10.00 16.22 22.58 29.00 35.47 41.95 48.45 54.96
1.50 17.73 29.48 41.65 54.05 66.58 79.19 91.86 104.56
2.00 26.20 44.38 63.49 83.09 103.01 123.12 143.38 163.74
2.50 35.14 60.42 87.30 115.11 143.49 172.27 201.32 230.57
3.00 44.38 77.25 112.60 149.41 187.18 225.59 264.47 303.70
12.5

3.50 53.85 94.70 139.04 185.53 233.44 282.34 331.96 382.12

4.00 63.49 112.60 166.38 223.11 281.82 341.95 403.11 465.05
4.50 73.24 130.86 194.45 261.89 331.97 403.96 477.37 551.86
5.00 83.09 149.41 223.11 301.66 383.62 468.04 554.32 642.03
6.00 103.01 187.18 281.82 383.62 490.54 601.28 714.95 830.91
1.00 10.20 16.54 23.03 29.58 36.17 42.78 49.41 56.05
1.50 18.08 30.06 42.48 55.12 67.89 80.76 93.68 106.64
2.00 26.72 45.26 64.74 84.74 105.05 125.56 146.22 166.98
2.50 35.83 61.61 89.03 117.39 146.33 175.68 205.30 235.13
3.00 45.26 78.78 114.83 152.37 190.88 230.06 269.71 309.71
13.0

3.50 54.92 96.57 141.79 189.20 238.06 287.93 338.54 389.69

4.00 64.74 114.83 169.67 227.52 287.40 348.72 411.09 474.26
4.50 74.69 133.45 198.30 267.07 338.55 411.96 486.82 562.78
5.00 84.74 152.37 227.52 307.64 391.21 477.31 565.30 654.75
6.00 105.05 190.88 287.40 391.21 500.25 613.19 729.10 847.36
1.00 10.39 16.86 23.47 30.14 36.86 43.60 50.35 57.11
1.50 18.43 30.63 43.29 56.17 69.19 82.29 95.46 108.67
2.00 27.23 46.13 65.98 86.35 107.05 127.95 149.01 170.16
2.50 36.52 62.79 90.72 119.62 149.12 179.03 209.21 239.61
3.00 46.13 80.29 117.01 155.27 194.52 234.44 274.85 315.61
13.5

3.50 55.97 98.41 144.49 192.81 242.60 293.42 344.98 397.11

4.00 65.98 117.01 172.91 231.86 292.88 355.36 418.92 483.29
4.50 76.11 135.99 202.07 272.16 345.00 419.81 496.10 573.50
5.00 86.35 155.27 231.86 313.50 398.67 486.40 576.07 667.22
6.00 107.05 194.52 292.88 398.67 509.78 624.87 742.99 863.50

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n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 10.58 17.17 23.90 30.70 37.53 44.40 51.27 58.16

1.50 18.77 31.20 44.08 57.20 70.46 83.80 97.21 110.66
2.00 27.73 46.97 67.19 87.94 109.01 130.30 151.74 173.28
2.50 37.19 63.94 92.39 121.82 151.86 182.31 213.05 244.01
3.00 46.97 81.76 119.16 158.12 198.09 238.74 279.89 321.40
14.0

3.50 56.99 100.22 147.14 196.34 247.05 298.80 351.31 404.40

4.00 67.19 119.16 176.08 236.11 298.25 361.88 426.61 492.16
4.50 77.51 138.49 205.78 277.15 351.33 427.51 505.20 584.03
5.00 87.94 158.12 236.11 319.25 405.98 495.33 586.64 679.47
6.00 109.01 198.09 298.25 405.98 519.14 636.33 756.63 879.35
1.00 10.77 17.47 24.32 31.24 38.20 45.18 52.18 59.19
1.50 19.10 31.75 44.86 58.21 71.70 85.29 98.93 112.62
2.00 28.22 47.80 68.38 89.49 110.94 132.61 154.43 176.35
2.50 37.84 65.07 94.02 123.97 154.55 185.54 216.82 248.33
3.00 47.80 83.21 121.27 160.92 201.59 242.97 284.85 327.09
14.5

3.50 58.00 101.99 149.75 199.82 251.42 304.09 357.53 411.56

4.00 68.38 121.27 179.19 240.29 303.53 368.29 434.16 500.87
4.50 78.88 140.94 209.42 282.06 357.55 435.08 514.14 594.37
5.00 89.49 160.92 240.29 324.90 413.17 504.09 597.02 691.49
6.00 110.94 201.59 303.53 413.17 528.33 647.60 770.02 894.91
1.00 10.95 17.77 24.74 31.77 38.85 45.95 53.07 60.20
1.50 19.43 32.29 45.63 59.21 72.93 86.75 100.62 114.55
2.00 28.70 48.62 69.54 91.02 112.84 134.88 157.07 179.37
2.50 38.49 66.18 95.63 126.09 157.19 188.71 220.53 252.57
3.00 48.62 84.63 123.34 163.67 205.04 247.12 289.71 332.68
15.0

3.50 58.99 103.73 152.31 203.23 255.72 309.29 363.65 418.59

4.00 69.54 123.34 182.26 244.40 308.72 374.58 441.58 509.43
4.50 80.23 143.35 213.00 286.88 363.66 442.52 522.93 604.53
5.00 91.02 163.67 244.40 330.46 420.23 512.71 607.23 703.31
6.00 112.84 205.04 308.72 420.23 537.36 658.67 783.18 910.21
1.00 11.13 18.06 25.15 32.30 39.49 46.71 53.95 61.20
1.50 19.75 32.83 46.38 60.19 74.14 88.18 102.29 116.44
2.00 29.18 49.42 70.69 92.53 114.70 137.10 159.66 182.33
2.50 39.13 67.28 97.21 128.18 159.79 191.83 224.18 256.75
3.00 49.42 86.03 125.38 166.38 208.43 251.21 294.50 338.18
15.5

3.50 59.97 105.45 154.82 206.59 259.95 314.40 369.66 425.51

4.00 70.69 125.38 185.27 248.44 313.82 380.78 448.88 517.86
4.50 81.56 145.72 216.53 291.62 369.67 449.83 531.57 614.52
5.00 92.53 166.38 248.44 335.92 427.18 521.19 617.26 714.94
6.00 114.70 208.43 313.82 427.18 546.24 669.56 796.13 925.26
1.00 11.31 18.35 25.55 32.82 40.12 47.46 54.81 62.18
1.50 20.06 33.35 47.12 61.15 75.32 89.59 103.92 118.30
2.00 29.65 50.21 71.83 94.01 116.54 139.30 162.22 185.25
2.50 39.75 68.35 98.77 130.23 162.34 194.90 227.76 260.86
3.00 50.21 87.40 127.39 169.04 211.76 255.23 299.22 343.59
16.0

3.50 60.93 107.14 157.30 209.90 264.11 319.43 375.57 432.32

4.00 71.83 127.39 188.24 252.42 318.85 386.87 456.06 526.14
4.50 82.86 148.05 219.99 296.29 375.58 457.03 540.08 624.35
5.00 94.01 169.04 252.42 341.29 434.01 529.53 627.14 726.38
6.00 116.54 211.76 318.85 434.01 554.98 680.27 808.87 940.06

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) n = 0.017

)
(%

m
Height(m)
n(
pe

a 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

o

Sp
Sl

1.00 11.49 18.64 25.94 33.32 40.75 48.20 55.66 63.14

1.50 20.37 33.87 47.85 62.10 76.49 90.98 105.53 120.14
2.00 30.10 50.99 72.94 95.47 118.35 141.46 164.73 188.12
2.50 40.37 69.41 100.30 132.25 164.86 197.92 231.30 264.90
3.00 50.99 88.76 129.36 171.66 215.05 259.18 303.86 348.92
16.5

3.50 61.87 108.80 159.74 213.15 268.20 324.38 381.39 439.02

4.00 72.94 129.36 191.15 256.33 323.79 392.87 463.13 534.30
4.50 84.15 150.35 223.40 300.88 381.41 464.12 548.45 634.03
5.00 95.47 171.66 256.33 346.58 440.74 537.74 636.87 737.64
6.00 118.35 215.05 323.79 440.74 563.59 690.82 821.41 954.64
1.00 11.66 18.92 26.33 33.83 41.36 48.92 56.50 64.09
1.50 20.68 34.38 48.57 63.03 77.64 92.35 107.12 121.94
2.00 30.56 51.76 74.04 96.90 120.13 143.59 167.21 190.95
2.50 40.98 70.46 101.81 134.24 167.34 200.90 234.77 268.88
3.00 51.76 90.09 131.31 174.24 218.28 263.08 308.42 354.17
17.0

3.50 62.80 110.43 162.14 216.36 272.23 329.26 387.13 445.63

4.00 74.04 131.31 194.03 260.18 328.66 398.77 470.10 542.33
4.50 85.41 152.61 226.76 305.41 387.14 471.10 556.70 643.57
5.00 96.90 174.24 260.18 351.80 447.37 545.82 646.44 748.73
6.00 120.13 218.28 328.66 447.37 572.06 701.21 833.76 968.99
1.00 11.83 19.19 26.72 34.32 41.96 49.64 57.32 65.03
1.50 20.98 34.88 49.28 63.95 78.77 93.70 108.69 123.72
2.00 31.00 52.52 75.12 98.32 121.88 145.68 169.65 193.74
2.50 41.57 71.48 103.29 136.20 169.78 203.83 238.20 272.81
3.00 52.52 91.41 133.23 176.79 221.47 266.92 312.93 359.34
17.5

3.50 63.72 112.05 164.51 219.52 276.21 334.07 392.78 452.13

4.00 75.12 133.23 196.86 263.98 333.46 404.60 476.96 550.25
4.50 86.66 154.83 230.07 309.87 392.80 477.98 564.83 652.96
5.00 98.32 176.79 263.98 356.93 453.90 553.79 655.88 759.67
6.00 121.88 221.47 333.46 453.90 580.41 711.44 845.93 983.14
1.00 12.00 19.47 27.10 34.81 42.56 50.34 58.14 65.95
1.50 21.28 35.37 49.98 64.86 79.89 95.03 110.23 125.48
2.00 31.44 53.26 76.18 99.71 123.61 147.75 172.06 196.49
2.50 42.16 72.50 104.76 138.13 172.19 206.72 241.58 276.68
3.00 53.26 92.71 135.12 179.29 224.61 270.71 317.37 364.44
18.0

3.50 64.62 113.63 166.84 222.63 280.13 338.81 398.35 458.54

4.00 76.18 135.12 199.65 267.73 338.19 410.34 483.73 558.06
4.50 87.89 157.03 233.33 314.26 398.37 484.76 572.84 662.23
5.00 99.71 179.29 267.73 362.00 460.34 561.65 665.18 770.44
6.00 123.61 224.61 338.19 460.34 588.65 721.53 857.93 997.09
1.00 12.16 19.74 27.47 35.29 43.15 51.03 58.94 66.86
1.50 21.57 35.86 50.67 65.75 80.99 96.34 111.75 127.21
2.00 31.88 54.00 77.23 101.09 125.31 149.79 174.43 199.20
2.50 42.75 73.50 106.20 140.03 174.57 209.57 244.91 280.50
3.00 54.00 93.98 136.98 181.77 227.71 274.44 321.74 369.46
18.5

3.50 65.52 115.20 169.15 225.70 283.99 343.48 403.85 464.87

4.00 77.23 136.98 202.41 271.42 342.85 416.00 490.40 565.76
4.50 89.10 159.20 236.55 318.60 403.86 491.44 580.74 671.36
5.00 101.09 181.77 271.42 366.99 466.69 569.39 674.36 781.07
6.00 125.31 227.71 342.85 466.69 596.77 731.49 869.77 1010.84

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 Drainage Design Manual Appendices

n = 0.017
)

)
(%

m
Height(m)

n(
pe

a
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
o

Sp
Sl

1.00 12.33 20.00 27.84 35.76 43.73 51.72 59.73 67.76

1.50 21.86 36.34 51.35 66.64 82.08 97.63 113.25 128.92
2.00 32.31 54.72 78.27 102.44 127.00 151.80 176.77 201.87
2.50 43.32 74.49 107.63 141.91 176.91 212.39 248.20 284.26
3.00 54.72 95.25 138.82 184.21 230.77 278.13 326.06 374.42
19.0

3.50 66.39 116.75 171.42 228.73 287.80 348.09 409.27 471.11

4.00 78.27 138.82 205.12 275.06 347.45 421.58 496.98 573.35
4.50 90.30 161.33 239.73 322.87 409.28 498.04 588.54 680.37
5.00 102.44 184.21 275.06 371.92 472.95 577.04 683.41 791.55
6.00 127.00 230.77 347.45 472.95 604.78 741.31 881.44 1024.41
1.00 12.49 20.26 28.20 36.23 44.30 52.39 60.51 68.64
1.50 22.15 36.82 52.02 67.51 83.15 98.91 114.73 130.60
2.00 32.73 55.44 79.29 103.78 128.66 153.78 179.08 204.51
2.50 43.89 75.46 109.04 143.77 179.22 215.16 251.44 287.98
3.00 55.44 96.49 140.63 186.61 233.78 281.76 330.33 379.32
19.5

3.50 67.26 118.27 173.66 231.72 291.56 352.64 414.62 477.27

4.00 79.29 140.63 207.81 278.66 352.00 427.09 503.48 580.85
4.50 91.48 163.44 242.86 327.09 414.63 504.55 596.23 689.27
5.00 103.78 186.61 278.66 376.78 479.14 584.58 692.35 801.90
6.00 128.66 233.78 352.00 479.14 612.68 751.00 892.97 1037.80
1.00 12.65 20.52 28.56 36.69 44.86 53.06 61.28 69.52
1.50 22.43 37.29 52.69 68.37 84.21 100.17 116.19 132.27
2.00 33.14 56.14 80.30 105.10 130.29 155.74 181.36 207.11
2.50 44.45 76.42 110.43 145.60 181.51 217.90 254.65 291.65
3.00 56.14 97.72 142.42 188.99 236.76 285.35 334.53 384.15
20.0

3.50 68.12 119.78 175.87 234.68 295.28 357.14 419.90 483.35

4.00 80.30 142.42 210.45 282.21 356.48 432.53 509.89 588.24
4.50 92.64 165.53 245.96 331.26 419.92 510.98 603.83 698.05
5.00 105.10 188.99 282.21 381.58 485.24 592.03 701.17 812.12
6.00 130.29 236.76 356.48 485.24 620.49 760.56 904.34 1051.02

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Drainage Design Manual Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.1 Bridge Hydraulics Definition Sketch

Source: HDS-1

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Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.2 Bridge Flow Types

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Drainage Design Manual
Design Manual Appendix for Appendices
Section 10

Appendix 10.3 Cross-section Locations for Stream Crossing with a

Single Waterway Opening

Source: AASHTO Model Drainage Manual

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Design Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.4 Flow-chart for scour assessment procedure

Determine design discharge

Determine bed material size that will resist movement

Develop water surface for fixed bed conditions

Assess profile bed scour changes

Asses plan form scour changes

Adjust fixed bed hydraulic variable and parameters

Method 1 Method 2
Yes Is armouring or an No
expanding reach of
concern ?

Select a trial bridge opening and compute Estimate contraction scour using
the bridge hydraulics empirical contraction formula (8.1)

Estimate contraction scour or deposition

Revise the channel’s geometry and the

channel’s hydraulics

Yes
Does the revision lead
to a variation of more
than 5% in velocity,
elevation or flow depth?

No
Plot the scour and aggradation depths on a cross section

Can scour Is the scour

countermeasures acceptable?
be used?

Yes
Ye s

Pre-design the bridge

Check bridge stability

Ministry of Works and Transport

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Drainage Design Manual Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure For Stage Discharge Relationship at a Bridge Site

Case: Hydraulic Analysis of Crossing at a Bridge Site

Design Parameters:

Roughness coefficient, n = 0.030

Average slope of stream, s = 0.00460
Datum Level = 770.00 m R=A/P
Bed level = 774.071 m
Surveyor's High Flood Mark, HFM = 776.635 m Q = 1/n*A*R2/3*S1/2

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7 Col. 8 Col. 9 Col. 10 Col.11
Stage DH Aw (m2) Circumf.(m) Lw (m) P (m) R (m) Q (m3/s) H (m) V (m/s) Fr
774.571 0.500 3.692 25.552 12.712 12.840 0.2875 3.636 0.5000 0.985 0.44
775.071 0.500 10.522 29.593 14.609 14.985 0.7022 18.793 1.0000 1.786 0.57
775.571 0.500 18.301 33.635 16.506 17.129 1.0684 43.239 1.5000 2.363 0.62
776.071 0.500 27.028 37.676 18.402 19.274 1.4023 76.552 2.0000 2.832 0.64
776.571 0.500 36.575 40.606 19.640 20.965 1.7446 119.831 2.5000 3.276 0.66
777.071 0.500 46.617 42.900 20.512 22.388 2.0823 171.852 3.0000 3.686 0.68
777.571 0.500 57.070 45.176 21.370 23.807 2.3972 231.102 3.5000 4.049 0.69
778.071 0.500 69.506 55.398 26.345 29.053 2.3924 281.086 4.0000 4.044 0.65

STAGE DISCHARGE
STAGE CURVE
DISCHARGE CURVE
778.50

778.00

777.50

777.00
Stage (m)

776.50

776.00

775.50

775.00

774.50

774.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
DISCHARGE Q [ m3/s]

3
50 years design discharge, Q50 = 246 m /s Corresponding V = 4.05 m/s
From graph above;
Stage corresponding to Q50 = 777.600 m
Area of water, Aw = 60.7 m2

Computed flood level, FLQ50 = 777.60 m Lowest Bed Level = 774.07 m

Computed Depth of water, Y1 = 3.529 m or 11.58 ft
Surveyor's High Flood Mark, HFM = 776.635 m
Take a Design Flood Level, DFL = 777.600 m
Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure for stage-discharge relationship at a bridge site
Max. Water height, Hw = 3.529 m
Free board (Clearance) = 1 m
Structure Depth = 1.5 m assuming 20m clear span bridge.

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Drainage Design Manual Appendix for Section 10
Preliminary Grade Elevation = 780.100 m
Take Minimum Grade Elev. = 780.100 m H from Bed to Grade = 6.03 m

Recommended opening

1X20 m clear spans is sufficinet to convey the design discharge.

Recommended scour depth

Span required to avoid any constriction = 21.5 m from river profile at maximum flood level.

Clear span provided taking hydraulic

and highway geometrical considerations = 20.0 m

Since the actual clear span provided is less than the limiting span for constriction,
a scour computation is necessary to place the abutments below the scour depth.
Hence, a constriction scour based on Laursen is adopted as shown below:

Scour based on Laursen.

y1= 3.53 m
(1/6) (1/3)
Vc = 10.95y1 *D50
D50 = 15 mm
Vc = 1.84 m/s where Vc is the critical velocity which will
V= 4.1 m/s upstream transport the D50 or smaller.

Vc<V, Live Bed Scour Exists

Yu Yc
Wu [ft] Wc [ ft] Q1 [cfs] Qc [cfs] K1 Ys [m]
[ft] [ft]
11.58 14.73582 70.5381 65.616798 6949.889 8687.361 0.69 0.96

Where:
Y1 = depth of upstream flow (ft)
D50 = diameter at which 50% of the river bed material passes (ft)
Vc = critical velocity (ft/s)
V = mean velocity (ft/s)
Yu = average depth in the upstream main channel (ft)
Yc = average depth in the contracted section (ft)
= Yu*(Qc/Q1)6/7*(W u/127.9528)k1
W u = bottom width of the upstream main channel (ft)
W c = bottom width of the contracted section (ft)
Q1 = flow in the upstream channel transporting sediments (cfs)
Qc = flow in the contracted channel (cfs)
K1 = exponent based on mode of bed material transport.
Ys = Yc - Yu

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Drainage Design Manual Appendix for Section 10

Take, ys = 1.50 m
Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure for stage-discharge at a bridge site

Backwater Computation

Q= 246 m3/s = 8687.41 ft3/s

Unconstricted area, A = 60.7 m2 = 653.26 ft2
Constricted area = 54.32 m2 = 584.71 ft2

By Molesworth's Formula:

Afflux, h1* =ha =(V2/17.9+0.015)*((A/a)2-1)

Where ha = Afflux in meters
V = velocity of approach in m/s V= 4.05 m/s
A = natural waterway area at the site in m2 A= 60.7 m2
a = contracted area in m2 a= 54.3 m2

Therefore, ha = 0.23 m

Hence, afflux h1* = 0.23 m

Grade Elevation = 780.10 m

DFL = 777.60 m
The height from normal water surface to finished road
grade level is 2.50 m

With the grade level 780.10 m ,since the afflux h1* is less than 2.50 m, the grade is in
a safe level and there is no risk of overtopping. Therefore, a bridge 1X20 m span is sufficient
for this crossing.

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Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure for Stage Discharge Relationship at a Bridge Site

The following are surveyed values for the determination of the curve:

Surveyors Flood Mark, River Bed Level , Slope of River Bed at the Site Hydraulic Roughness
Coefficient

A worked example is given in the next page. To facilitate discussion of calculation procedure,
the table is divided into 11 columns. The column labels will be used to write
necessary equations.

Col. 1 Stages starting from river bed to a height above the surveyors flood mark is given in
column 1. The range is subdivided in 0.5 m intervals.

Col. 2 Differences between consecutive stages in column 1 are entered in this column.

Col. 3 Area upto the given stage is measured and registered in this column. The surveyed
cross-section of the river is used for the purpose.

Col. 4 Circumference of cross-sectional area for the given stage is measured.

Col. 5 Length of water surface from bank to bank is measured and registered in this column.

Col. 6 Wetted perimeter is calculated as the difference between circumference and length of
a given stage.

Col. 6 = Col. 4 – Col. 5

Col. 7 Hydraulic Radius calculated as area divided by wetted perimeter

Col. 7 = Col. 3 Col. 6

Col. 8 Discharge Calculated using Manning’s equation:

Col. 8 =(1 n) Col. 3 ( Col. 7)2/3 Slope1/2

Col. 9 Water Depth is calculated as the difference between given stage and river bed Level

Col. 9 = Col. 1 – river bed level

Col. 10 Velocity is calculated as discharge divided by area

Col. 10 = Col. 8 Col. 3

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Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.4 Calculation Procedure for Stage Discharge Relationship at a Bridge Site

Col. 11 Froude Number is calculated based on the following formula

V Col .10
F 
gy 9.81xCol.9

After Completing the above calculation, stage-discharge curve is constructed by plotting Col.
8 versus Col.1.

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Drainage Design Manual Appendices

Appendix 10.5 Normal Crossing: Spillthrough Abutments

Source : AASHTO Model Drainage Manual

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Drainage Design Manual
Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10-6 Guide Bank Detail

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 Drainage
Drainage Design
Design Manual
Manual Appendix for Section 10
Appendices

Appendix 10.7 Nomograph for determining length of guide bank

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Drainage Design Manual
Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.8 Rock Slope Protection

Class of Rock Protection Section Thickness, T

Velocity (m/s)
Wc (tonne) (m)
<2 None -
2.0-2.6 Facing 0.50
2.6-2.9 Light 0.75
2.9-3.9 1/4 1.00
3.9-4.5 1/2 1.25
4.5-5.1 1.0 1.60
5.1-5.7 2.0 2.00
5.7-6.4 4.0 2.50
>6.4 Special -

Design of Rock Slope Protection

Minimum
Rock Mass Percentage of
Rock Class Rock Size* (m)
(kg) Rock Larger
Than
Facing 0.40 100.00 0
0.30 35.00 50
0.15 2.50 90
Light 0.55 250.00 0
0.40 100.00 50
0.20 10.00 90
1/4 tonne 0.75 500.00 0
0.55 250.00 50
0.30 35.00 90
1/2 tonne 0.90 1000.00 0
0.70 450.00 50
0.40 100.00 90
1 tonne 1.15 2000.00 0
0.90 1000.00 50
0.55 250.00 90
2 tonne 1.45 4000.00 0
1.15 2000.00 50
0.75 500.00 90
4 tonne 1.80 8000.00 0
1.45 4000.00 50
0.90 1000.00 90

Standard Classes of Rock Slope Protection

* Assuming a specific gravity of 2.65 and spherical shape

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Drainage Design Manual
Manual Appendices
Appendix for Section 10

Appendix 10.9 Approximate Length of Embankment Protected by Spurs

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