7/2/2020 An Introduction to Railway Drydocks and Transfer Systems

An Introduction to Railway Drydocks

and Transfer Systems
from Crandall Dry Dock Engineers

Five Generations of Dry Dock Engineers

From 1854 to 1935, over 180 railway dry docks had been constructed in the United States,
Canada and abroad by the first four generations of Crandalls. Since 1935, Crandall Dry Dock
Engineers, Inc. has designed and installed with conspicuous success more than 75 railway dry
docks both for private concerns and government agencies, at home and abroad.

To those interested in the origin of the railway dry dock as distinguished from the English-type slipway, mention
is appropriate of the innovations introduced in 1854 by William Hazard Crandall and his son, Horace J.
Crandall, on an installation in East Boston.
These included higher keel blocks and a deck over the cradle, which
provided a working platform under the vessel for more efficient work at all
stages of the tide. Previously men had worked from the ground, over and
around the cradle beams, which were often submerged at high tide.
Docking platforms, or "plank walks," were introduced, supported by
uprights fastened to each side of the cradle; these platforms were above
water when the cradle was lowered, so that men could walk along them
while handling lines for warping and centering vessels and pulling the
bilge blocks. .
Also, this railway dry dock at East Boston was probably the first such to use steam as motive power instead of
men and horses, and it undoubtedly was the first one to have a pile foundation.

This facility, which may be called the first railway dry dock, was still operating in 1950, having passed through
several reconditionings in its 96 years of service

Basics of Railway Dry Docks

The railway dry dock differs from both the floating dry dock and the basin or graving dry dock in that it is a
mechanical means of hoisting a ship out of water to an elevation above the highest tides, where it rests on a
structure fixed to the ground. The vertical lift is similar except that its platform is not supported directly by the
ground.

The railway has a cradle that is lowered into the water along an inclined track until the vessel to be drydocked
can be floated over it. The cradle is then hauled up the track with the vessel, which grounds out on suitable
blocks, until the cradle deck is clear of the water. The cradle is designed to support the docked vessel and to
distribute its weight to the track.

The track must be constructed with a smooth gradient and supported by an adequate foundation. The track and
foundation provide the basic support of the cradle at all times. If the ship exerts heavy load concentrations, these
are transmitted directly to the track and foundation by the cradle. Therefore the foundation, track, roller or wheel
system, and cradle structure must be designed to take the highest expected concentration of load. In a railway
dry dock, the line of the keel blocks can be different from the line of the track so as to conform to the more

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common trim of vessels. Thus, the slope of the track may be gentle or steep to suit local conditions, yet the
vessels are lifted on practically an even keel.

The declivity of the track may vary from one in two to one in thirty, depending on site conditions, available
space, river or tidal currents, variations in water level, and desired lifting capacity.

A major improvement was the development of track constructed on a vertical circular curve so as to cause the
cradle to rotate as it travels from outshore to inshore. This rotation makes it possible for the keel blocks and
cradle deck to be on a declivity when submerged and horizontal in the up position, for ease of side or end
transfer.

In a few instances, all of the characteristics and restrictions dovetail naturally. The railways at Boulogne-sur-
Mer, France, have curved tracks which are steep at the outshore end because they have limited longitudinal
space and limited water depth at high tide; an important fraction of the vessels of interest there draw much more
water aft than forward.

It is very important when lifting a ship out of water that the top of the keel blocks be close to parallel to the
ship's keel when contact is made; otherwise tipping forces develop which, in severe cases, could make the ship
unstable.

The sequence of events in drydocking is that first the vessel is firmly grounded on keel blocks; then while it is
still largely waterborne, the bilge supports are placed against the hull, after which the cradle is pulled inshore,
making all of the vessel accessible. Hauling up the inclined track is accomplished by means of powerful
machinery and chains, which pull the cradle with its superimposed vessel on a system of free rollers or wheels.
The speed and economy of this operation represent an advantage of railway dry docks over other systems.

The hauling machine and chains are sensitive only to the total live and dead load and to friction associated with
the rollers or wheels. When more than one chain is used, the chain loading must be equalized to assure that no
single chain is overstressed because of variation in chain pitch.

Railway dry dock cradles are of three types of construction: all wood, composite, and steel. In the composite
type the cradle superstructure is steel, with the transverse beams, deck, docking platforms, and blocks of wood;
in the steel cradle, only the deck and blocks are wood. Most new cradles are steel. Of whichever type, the cradle
is a structure of unique design in that it must have strength and stability and yet at the same time by flexible in
longitudinal bending and in torsion to accommodate the irregularities of the track and the ship.

Tracks may be of the two-, three-, or four-way type. Usually the portion above water is concrete; the submerged
portion used to be timber, effectively protected against marine borers as necessary, but nowadays, for cost
reasons, steel tracks are more and more common.

If vessels are to be repaired with dispatch and efficiency, there must be free access for light and air, so that
workmen may properly execute their tasks. A railway dry dock places a vessel above the level of the yard, and
since it is open on all sides, there is free circulation of air and good illumination. The deck is substantially at
yard level independent of tide, and materials and staging can be handled conveniently from the adjacent yard.
Equipment and material can be moved easily on the cradle when there is a flush deck, made possible by
providing recessed metal troughs for the bilge block chains to run in (not desirable in regions of heavy snow and
freezing if the dock must be operated in winter).

Workmen can step directly from the dock to the yard, and all work can be readily supervised. Under such
conditions the most efficient work is possible.

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Control of fixed charges and operating costs, and efficiency in repairing vessels are vital elements in successful
shipyard operation. In the most favorable size range, the cost of a railway dry dock is ordinarily about one-half
or less than that of a floating dry dock, and an even smaller fraction of that of a basin dock. The economic life of
a railway dry dock is about the same as that of a floating dock constructed of similar materials.

In the absence of marked inflation, an annual reserve of 4 percent is usually adequate to meet ordinary
maintenance, periodic repair, and ample sinking fund requirements.

Side-Haul Railway Dry Docks

Longitudinal haul with side transfer.

The side-haul railway is selected when required by conditions peculiar to many rivers - rivers often subject to
wide ranges of water level, with periods of low water lasting several months, interspersed with shorter periods of
high water. The vessels plying such rivers are of necessity shallow-draft, flat-bottomed craft of light
construction, which may have to be drydocked at any river stage. To meet the requirements, side-haul railway
dry docks are constructed on relatively steep gradients providing sufficient vertical movement to permit
drydocking at all stages. Since they have certain inherent disadvantages, are comparatively expensive, and are
not particularly well adapted for ocean-going vessels, they should be chosen only after careful study indicates
that other types are unsuitable.

The principal technical disadvantage of the usual side-haul dock consisting of several cradles, each handled by
one or two parts of chain or wire rope, is that the load on any part cannot be adequately determined, so that it is
fundamentally impossible to use an equalizing system. In consequence it is necessary to use oversize chains or
wire ropes to allow for possible overload.

The 300-ton dock designed for the French government and installed at Dordrecht, Holland, after World War II,
was designed with a single, unitary cradle, using only two hauling chains. By this means, the load on each chain
can be readily determined, and no differential movement of the chains can affect the load on them.

That railway, which has a transfer system, was installed to permit production-line erection of prefabricated
Rhine barges supplied from the United States and Canada. It is useful in the longer run for docking these craft,
with the transfer system available for those requiring extensive repair.

Transfer Systems
Transfer of vessels longitudinally or sideways from railway dry dock cradles has been accomplished since early
in the century. Transfer of heavier ships has become popular in the last 30 to 40 years because of the needs
created by prefabricated ship construction and assembly-line procedures and also the attractiveness of multiple
docking and winter storage possibilities.

The relatively low cost of transfer systems using one railway dry dock as the basic lifting and launching facility
makes transfer very advantageous for large-scale developments. The cost varies greatly depending on
arrangement, number of berths, and selectivity required, but in general one transfer berth including a transfer
cradle will cost from 10% to 30% of the cost of the railway itself.

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Transfer of a ship on a horizontal plane applies the same principles of rolling and hauling used in railway dry
docks, but with the difference that no component of gravity pull needs to be overcome - only friction forces.
Thus the effort needed is only about 20% of that required to pull a ship up a 5% incline.

The transfer system for a ship consists of a series of ways bearing on the ground or on pile foundations, which
support one or more cars or cradles carrying the ship. Suitable blocking is provided between the ship and cradle
to give headroom and clearance for working on the hull and to distribute the vessel weight as much as possible.
The transfer cars are either fitted with wheels or travel on a free-roller system to keep friction low. For vessels
up to about 400 tons, flanged wheels traveling on heavy crane rails can be used, but beyond this capacity the free
roller system is preferable because of the heavy loads. Up to 1500 tons capacity, the choice between side and
longitudinal transfer is largely a matter of convenience with respect to site conditions. For smaller vessels, the
longitudinal system has proved very economical, especially if only a single spur track is used.

Large railways using heavy multiple-chain hauling machines are not well adapted to end transfer because the
transfer cradles would have to pass over the machinery itself.

Also, at sites with little or no tide variation, track extensions are necessary, which usually preclude the use of
longitudinal transfer.

When full selectivity of storage spaces provided by two-directional transfer is required, then the cost of end
transfer is about equal to the cost of side transfer.

With two-directional transfer, the second direction of movement is accomplished at a lower level than the cradle
deck level of the initial transfer. This permits the car for the one direction to be superposed on the car for other
direction.

Side transfer can be provided for an existing cradle where the ship's keel is on a declivity. This addition to an
older railway dry dock is generally limited to only one or two berths. It has permitted shipyards with old World
War II cradles to greatly increase their capacity at very modest cost. It has also enabled yards that formerly
launched ships on greased ways to abandon the risky and costly launch in favor of the controlled lowering, with
the added advantage of near horizontal construction.

Hauling Machines

Hauling machines for railway dry docks have been developed for this particular use. A machine consists of a
train of gears, now operated by electric motors but earlier using steam, turning one or more toothed chain wheels
driving the hauling chain.

Each hauling chain is arranged, in conjunction with a smaller "backing chain," in an endless system attached to
the cradle. The hauling chain passes around its chain wheel, and the backing chain passes through a submerged
sheave.

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Enclosed oil-bath speed reducers are used to eliminate unnecessary noise and the danger of open high-speed
gears, and to insure adequate lubrication with maximum cleanliness. Automatic brakes protect against cradles
running away because of human or electrical failure. Interlocks are provided to prevent operating in reverse
against the stop pawl or forward with the cradle against a head wall; their function is extremely important, since
gear damage could result that would put the railway out of operation for several months.

Sometimes a railway dry dock cradle will surge during the hauling operation. Assuming a roller system in good
condition and proper support for hauling chain, the surging can usually be eliminated by a moderate increase of
the hauling speed. Naturally the increased speed will require greater horsepower, but it will also reduce the
hauling and lowering times.

Years ago steam served as motive power, offering the advantages of true autonomy and a wide range of speeds.
The switch to electricity - for new installations and by conversion of old ones - permitted the use of electric
brakes, limit switches, and overload protection, and eliminated the need to fire boilers prior to operation.

Ship transfer Machinery

For transfer to a single berth, it is generally most economical to utilize a power take-off from the main railway
dry dock hauling machine. In the case of longitudinal transfer, this can be accomplished by mounting a gypsy on
the speed reducer for pulling with wire rope. For side transfer, the preferred way is by a double-drum winch
driven by the hauling machine motor, with a wire rope passing through fairleads to block and tackle for pulling
sideways.

When there is an extensive transfer system, a separate, independent winch is far more practical. IF a cross-
transfer table is to be used, this winch can be mounted as part of it so as to be able to pull the table sideways and
to effect longitudinal transfer onto and off the cross transfer.

Wire rope is economical for transfer operations since good mechanical advantage can be obtained by using
multiple-sheave blocks. If the cables should break, the result is not catastrophic because the vessel is being
moved in a horizontal plane.

For transfer of a very heavy ship, possibly from land to a floating dry dock, machinery and chains of the size
used for a large railway dry dock - say 5,000 tons - can propel horizontally a ship up to 25,000 tons, taking
advantage of the low friction that is characteristic of the free roller system used for railway dry dock cradles.
Another means that has proved economical is use of hydraulic cylinders connected to an electric power source
by long umbilical cables.

Chains, Rollers and Maintenance

Steel hauling chains manufactured to accurate pitch and uniform link dimensions are the key hauling cables for
pulling railway dry dock cradles. The enormous tensile strength of the chains and ease of connection with
special Crandall hauling shackles, as strong or stronger than the chain itself, provide a suitable, durable and
economical cable far more satisfactory than the best wire rope. These chains, fitted over alloy steel chain wheels
having a small pitch diameter, permit hailing very heavy loads with relatively small hauling machines.

It is possible by caliper measurements to determine the strength and corresponding safe live load that a chain can
pull at any stage of wear. This ability to measure the strength is a major advantage that chain ahs over wire rope.

If properly lubricated with thin or medium-weight oil that can flow into the grip of the links, a chain can have its
useful life doubled. Experience has shown that some steel chains are capable of pulling capacity loads even after
30 years of continuous use.

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It is particularly important to protect chain from abrasion caused by sliding through sand, gravel or silt. Before
the adoption of metal chain slides, chains ran in wooden troughs; sand would become embedded in the wood
causing accelerated chain wear. The metal slides cover only the track cross ties, allowing debris to drop away
from the chain. In some installations, it may be wise to provide a means for washing the sand off the incoming
chain with fresh water.

A chain swivel with grease-packed ball bearings is used between hauling and backing chains to permit a loaded
chain to rotate freely and prevent backing chain twist from being transmitted to the hauling chain. In the absence
of such a device, excessive twist could cause a chain to jump its sprocket wheel.

Present-day roller systems consist of steel-angle frames with welded-in malleable iron bushings to hold the roller
pintles. The holes are punched or drilled with extreme precision, resulting in greatly reduced roller friction,
elimination of roller flange failure, reduction or elimination of cradle surging, and, most important, reduction of
the chance of derailment. The connector used between frames allows proper self-alignment to take place and
makes it easy to connect and disconnect frames under water.

The reason for using rollers for railway dry docks of any significant capacity is that a friction coefficient as low
as 1-2 percent can be achieved. Small railways of less than 150 tons' capacity are usually provided with wheels
rather than rollers. The necessity of having to have divers retrieve slipped roller frames is thus avoided, and
steeper track gradients are possible. On the other hand, wheels of the fixed-axle type have at least 2-1/2 times the
friction of rollers and so require heavier chain and more powerful machinery.

It is important to maintain railway dry docks properly to avoid derailment or structural failure due to excessive
wear and deterioration caused by corrosion, marine borer attack, and rot. Preventive maintenance also extends
the economic life of the equipment. It is wise to have a regular program of maintenance and to have periodic
inspections by qualified dry dock personnel.

The practice of sandblasting steel vessels presents a serious problem in railway dry dock maintenance. It has
been largely overcome by sheathing the cradle decks to prevent the sand from falling to the ways below. It is still
necessary, however, to remove sand where it has accumulated along the side of the track and beyond the fantail
of the cradle.

Another design feature that is useful for flexible dry dock operation also contributes to making maintenance
more practical. A divided cradle allows docking one large ship or two smaller craft. In the latter case it is often
possible to have one ship docked for a long period on the forward section, while the aft section serves for short-
period hauls. For larger railways in locations having small tides, the divided cradle solves the problem of cradle
maintenance, since it is a simple matter to float away the bow cradle and then haul the after cradle clear of the
water. Dividing the cradle does require that hauling chains be secured to the forward end of the outshore cradle
and that the inshore cradle be held by latches, but the cost of the extra chain and anchoring system may well be
worth while.

The Bridles Roller System

When a railway dry dock travels on a system of free rollers, the roller frames, which are made in sections 12 to
15 feel long, have some tendency to slip down the inclined ways gradually. Thus a diver must retrieve the
outshore frames from time to time and place them at the inshore end of the system. If the rotation is not too
frequent the inconvenience is acceptable, and it at least has the good effect of keeping he rate of wear even for
all rollers.

The steeper the track gradient, however, the greater is the slippage; and if there is little or no tide, access to the
outermost frames is difficult. In such cases, a special wire rope or chain bridle can be arranged, one end attached

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to the cradle and the other to the track, passing through the other frame train so that the half-speed behavior of
the roller frames is precisely maintained.

Difficult Drydocking
More and more new vessels with unconventional hull shapes are being constructed. When these are to be
drydocked, they often pose difficult problems of stability, load concentration, access, and blocking. Among such
craft are hydrofoil vessels, catamarans, and surface warships with deep-draft propellers and sound detecting
devices.

Railway dry dock cradles can be designed and built so as to cope with some of these problems. The outshore
section can have an access basin to receive sonar domes or similar protuberances. The wedge shape of the cradle
provides the space in the undercarriage to put in a basin that remains flooded while the dock is operative and is
only dewatered in the full-up position when needed. At sites with adequate tide range, the basin can be omitted
so long as the cradle beams are designed to be removable in way of deep hull projects.

Where the undercarriage is shallow, spaces located in the cradle runners can be inserted to provided room for
rudders and propellers.

Hydrofoil vessels having fixed foils can be drydocked easily on railway dry docks by allowing the extending
foils to project beyond and below the cradle deck. In other types of dry docks the platform must be made wider
than the foil span, which makes the facility too costly.

Cradles equipped with releasing bilge and keel blocks, sliding retractable keel blocks and means to remove
blocks, beams or uprights easily, permit many types of vessels to be accommodated with minimum loss of time
and minimum manpower.

Construction Procedures
The construction of a railway dry dock involves several radically different skills so that it is rare that a single
contractor can undertake the entire project with his own forces. The work is usually divided into two basic parts
- the water construction and the land construction.

The contractor undertaking the water construction is generally responsible for dredging and excavation
underwater, driving the pile foundation or putting in concrete footings, building the timber track, and placing it
on the piles or installing the steel track.

Usually the construction of the underwater track and foundation is carried out in the wet, using divers to cut off
wooden piles and to place the track to line and grade; rarely this work can be carried out in the dry.

In the past we used timber construction entirely for this underwater portion of the track, since timber was
available and economical and had indefinite life in the seawater when adequately protected against marine
borers. More recently many designs have called for steel track because suitable timber has become more difficult
to procure and has risen in price disproportionately.

In either case, the practice is to prefabricate the track in the dry to assure the necessary precision of alignment
and then install it.

Crandall ahs experienced diving crews to carry out pile cutting, place the track to the specified lien and grade,
and do any replace shimming. The kill and know-how of doing track work underwater are vital to achieving
economy and speed of construction. Once properly built and installed, a timber track underwater has from 30 to
40 years of life before any major maintenance is required; a steel track ahs a similar life expectancy, damaged
more by salt water than fresh.
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The land portion of the work may be undertaken by another contractor or the shipyard itself. This work consists
of construction of the concrete track and machine foundation, installation of the machinery, installation of the
roller system on the track, and erection and fitting out of the cradle.

The structural steel cradle is generally fabricated and painted by a steel fabricating shop, and when possible, the
same shop is asked to do the erection so that the responsibility for the work is under one contract.

Construction of a railway dry dock requires substantial time, and procurement of the cradle and machinery is a
long lead-time activity. Planning and early specification of the elements are therefore very important to get the
job done in the least time at the best cost. Crandall is set up to furnish the machinery, roller frames or only their
castings, chains, bilge block equipment, chain gear, and other miscellaneous parts that are special and not readily
available on the open market. Refinement of our designs over the years has resulted in superior products for the
purpose, which combine our design and specification of suitable materials with quality control inspection so that
everything fits properly and functions with no problems in the very hostile environment of the sea.

Restoration and Enlargement of Railway Dry Docks

Some parts of a railway dry dock, such as the pile foundation and the machinery foundation, do not deteriorate
as the dock is used. Others - the hauling machine, electric motor, and underwater timber ways - can last up to
100 years and thus outlive several times the useful life of the cradle, chains, roller system, and rail plates. Since
the more durable parts represent over half the cost of a new facility, it is economical to rebuild or restore older
facilities, replacing inadequate parts with improved, modern equipment.

As an example, the older docks had timber cradles. When one of these requires replacement, we find it is more
economical today to use a steel frame, which reduces the weight and therefore increases the useful capacity. A
1000-ton wooden cradle for a 5000-ton dock might be replaced by one in steel weighing 600 tons, raising the
lifting capacity to 5400 tons.

In a rebuilding project we often increase the capacity additionally by making the new cradle and the track longer
- the load per lineal foot cannot exceed the foundation's original capacity, but the total load can go up (larger
hauling chain may also be required) This approached helped Norfolk Shipbuilding and Drydock Corp. to
increase the capacity of its large railway from 4500 to 5200 tons.

It is sometimes possible to extend the range of haulable vessels by widening the cradle, without foundation
strengthening or other major modifications. The Ferguson Industries 2000-ton railway at Pictou, Nova Scotia
was first widened to take North Umberland ferries and then lengthened to take CNR ferries, both without any
long down time of the dry dock.

It may be worthwhile to reinforce the foundation and provide stronger track and cradle structure for greater load
per foot and perhaps greater total weight. In the case of the 5000-ton railway dry dock of Marine Industries LTD.
At Sorel, Quebec, the capacity per lineal foot was increased form 14 to 19 tons per foot. The reconstruction
consisted largely of track and foundation reinforcement, with a cradle having heavier, stiffer beams.

As a wartime facility it was intended to haul river vessels and to launch hulls of new vessels built in the adjacent
transfer area. Today it must be capable of launching vessels finished and ready for sea or of drydocking ocean
ships with much heavier load per foot of length than before. In this case the transfer ways also required
reinforcement.

Vertical Lifting versus Inclined Ways

Vertical lifting can be considered as a limiting, special case of the railway dry dock, in the sense that the slope is
infinite. The cradle becomes a platform, the track disappears, and the hauling machine, rather than hauling only
a component of the weight, must lift the entire ship and platform. Since no inclined ways exist to provide
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support, the uplift, rather than begin applied at the 1/3 points on the beams, is applied at the side extremities of
the platform. Because of this difference in where the lift is exerted, extra strength is required for the platform
beans (compared to the cradle beams) to keep the transverse bending within acceptable limits. The extra strength
is achieved at the cost of much higher dead weight.

A common method of providing uplift is by a number of wirerope winches on each side of the platform. The
same problems of overloading can occur as with a marine railway; any severe load concentrations on the
platform must be supported by the cables going to the hoists in the way of these loads. Failure of cables, hoists,
or platform beams results in catastrophic damage to the vessel; and weakening of wire ropes cannot be detected
as can wear or stretch of hauling chains.

The railway dry dock has the basic advantage over vertical lifting devices that the cradle lis supported form
below, so that the transverse bending of the steel frame amounts to only 25% of that of a lift's platform.
Furthermore, if a hauling chain should break, the cradle is free to roll down its ways with no damage to the dock
or vessel. With respect to space occupancy, the lift proper requires less than the marine railway, but the
advantage is gained at the cost of building expensive walls or constructing the lift offshore with a longitudinal
trestle going inshore. With the trestle solution, about as much space is required as for a steep-slope railway, and
protection of long piles is a problem. Either the trestle or the walls result in a total installation cost greater than
that of the railway.

Actually the inclined track of a railway dry dock is generally not a liability because it usually follows the natural
slope of the existing bottom and so it is not a navigational hazard.

In summary, the reasons for choosing a railway dry dock over a lift are as follows:

Inclined ways provide a large mechanical advantage with positive support from the ground at all stages of
lift;
The machinery and chains are affected only by total weight, and any variation in load distribution is taken
by the track and foundation;
The fact that the cradle can move on its track allows access to any part of the track or foundation for
maintenance and mud removal.

Crandall Dry Dock Engineers home page

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