AKI School of Engineering Floors

Chapter (4)
Floors

SUB-TITLE Pages

4.1 Functions of a floor

4.2 Solid ground floors
4.3 Suspended ground floors
4.4 Relative merits of solid and suspended ground floors
4.5 Suspended timber upper floors
4.6 Strutting
4.7 Common finishes to concrete floors
4.8 Timber Floor Surfaces

AIM

- The candidate will be able to do the following after this chapter;

 Describe the factors determining the level of ground floors.

 Identify the locations of damp proof courses and damp proof membranes for solid and
suspended timber/concrete ground floors.
 Describe the details of timber upper floors
(i.e., trimming, strutting, and damp proofing)
 Describe the common finishes to concrete floors.
 Describe the timber floor surfaces.

4.1 FUNCTIONS OF A FLOOR

- The primary functions of a ground floor are;

(1) To carry the loads which may be imposed on it
(2) To prevent dampness entering the building from the ground
(3) To provide thermal insulation
(4) To prevent the growth of vegetable matter within the building
(5) To provide a suitable wearing surface.

(1) The floor carries the majority of the internally imposed loading and must therefore have
sufficient strength and stability safely to carry and transmit those loads to the walls or the
subsoil. The loads which are imposed vary with the nature of occupancy of any given
room and the floor should be designed accordingly.

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(2) The ground floor construction is in many cases in contact with the subsoil, and dampness
will rise from the ground by capillary action, entering the building from underneath. The
construction must therefore be such that this passage of moisture is prevented.

(3) Although warm air rises, heat can nevertheless be conducted from the building by floors
in contact with the ground. Although it is not essential, it is preferable to incorporate
some form of insulation in the floor structure, especially where underfloor heating is to
be installed.

(4) In damp and humid conditions, the growth of vegetable matter flourishes. It is stated in
Chapter 2 (Foundations) that topsoil is removed from the site before the start of
construction work, but this does not mean that all roots will have been removed nor does
it mean that seeds will not find their way on to the cleared site. It is therefore essential to
prevent the growth of vegetable matter which may in time have a detrimental affect on
the materials used in floor construction. There are THREE methods of preventing
growth:

(a) Removing the humid conditions by suitable ventilation

(b) Preventing growth by covering the area with a dense concrete layer 100 mm thick
(c) A Combination of (i) and (ii).

(5) The suitability of a wearing surface, the surface which initially carries the load
will depend upon the use to which a particular floor will be put, i.e., wearing surfaces
which are suitable for a living room may not be suitable for a factory, because the natures
of the loading and use are different.

Factors determining the level of ground floors

(1) Height above ground level

(2) Protection against rising damp
(3) Slope of site

Types of ground-floor construction

(1) Solid ground floor - One in which the whole of the floor area is in contact
with the subsoil.

(2) Suspended floor - One which spans over a certain area.

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4.2 SOLID GROUND FLOORS

A solid ground floor comprises several layers of material which are built up from the
formation level, the layers being hardcore, blinding, damp-proof membranes, concrete slab,
wearing surface, and finish.

Hardcore is spread, leveled, and rolled over the formation to provide a suitable base for
the construction. The hardcore comprises large particles which have rough edges, and the
surface, even after rolling, is unsuitable to receive in-situ concrete. The main reason is that
when the concrete, especially that having a high water-cement ratio, is compacted, the water
together with the fine particles of cement and sand known as grout will flow into the voids in the
hardcore, thereby reducing the strength of the concrete. It is therefore necessary to prevent this
loss of grout by sealing the voids or by introducing some form of barrier membrane. However,
the membrane may well be punctured during the concreting operation if it is laid directly on the
jagged hardcore. The blinding is either fine quarry waste or dry weak concrete which is placed
over the hardcore, serving both to fill the voids in the hardcore in the surface region and also to
provide a relatively smooth surface on which to cast the slab.
The damp proof membrane (d.p.m) may be placed either above or below that slab. If
placed below, the d.p.m is usually in the form of a polythene sheet which will not only act as a
d.p.m but will also prevent loss of grout from the concrete slab when cast. If placed on top of the
slab, the d.p.m may be in the form of a polythene sheet, a coating of bituminous-paint, or
asphalt. In all cases of solid ground floor construction, there is a possibility of moisture in the
ground by passing the damp-proof course (d.p.c) in the foundation walls, and it is therefore
essential that d.p.m in the solid ground floor is lapped with the d.p.c in the surrounding walls.
The concrete slab is cast to a depth suitable for transferring the floor loads to the ground,
the surface being finished in a variety of ways depending upon the type of construction to be
placed on top. A tamped finish provides a rough surface to which the wearing surface can easily
be keyed, while a floated finish provides a floated finish provides a smooth surface to which a
surface d.p.m can be applied. The slab acts as a raft, in a similar manner to a raft foundation, and
should not be built into the surrounding walls, because, if any ground settlement took place
under the slab, a void would be formed and the slab would be subjected to loading conditions for
which it had not been designed.
The wearing surface usually takes the form of a cement- sand screed, 1:3 mix, the
thickness of which varies from 25 to 65 mm. This screed serves to

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(a) Take out any surface irregularities in the concrete bed

(b) Provide a suitable surface to receive the finishes
(c) Adjust the level of the floor so that differing floor-finish thicknesses are
accommodated
(d) Provide insulation
(e) Accommodate service pipes and cables.

Solid Ground Floor Construction

4.3 SUSPENDED GROUND FLOORS

A suspended ground floor is one which is not directly in contact with the ground but
spans from one wall to another. The wall which supports the floor may continue up to higher
levels or may be constructed to support only the ground floor – in the latter case, the walls are
known as dwarf or sleeper walls.
After removal of the vegetable soil from the site and construction of the external load-
bearing walls, a layer of hardcore is spread, consolidated, and topped with suitable blinding
material over the floor area. A bed of concrete is then placed on the hardcore and the top surface
is smoothed over with the back of a spade or shovel.

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The sleeper walls may have their own strip foundations or may be constructed from the
concrete bed. The regulations require that there is a space above the upper surface of the
concrete of not less than 75 mm to the underside of the suspended timbers, and such space must
be clear of debris and have adequate through ventilation

Suspended Ground Floor Construction

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In order to provide adequate ventilation, air-bricks must be inserted in the external walls
of the building, and the sleeper walls are constructed in a honey-comb manner, thereby allowing
free air circulation.
Ventilation is essential in order to keep the moisture content of the timber floor members
below 20% of their dry weight. Above that level, fugal growth may take place, causing a
weakening of the timber and leading to eventual collapse.
A damp proof course is placed on top of the sleeper wall so that moisture from the
ground cannot reach and affect the timber wall-plate which spreads the load from the floor to the
wall.
The floor consists of timber boards or other suitable sheet material such as chipboard,
supported by bearers or joists. These joists are spaced at 400-600 mm centres, the spacing
depending on the weight which the floor had to support, the size of the joists, and the span of the
joist from one wall to the next.
The softwood boards are fixed at right angles to the joists and have tongued and grooved
joints. They should be cramped tightly together and then nailed to the joists, the nails being
punched well below the surface.
It is usual to leave a small gap between the timber floor and the surrounding walls; this
allows the floor to expand, contract, and flex without rubbing against the wall, and at the same
time prevents direct contact of the timber with a surface which may be damp. The gap is masked
by the skirting board which is fixed to the wall.

4.4 RELATIVE MERITS OF SOLID AND SUSPENDED GROUND FLOORS

4.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Floors

Advantages of solid floors

(1) The floor is completely damp-proof, if provided the membrane is not punctured.
(2) The floor and raft foundation can be the same unit.
(3) There are no under-floor draughts.
(4) There is no likelihood of rot occurring in the construction.
(5) No expansion or contraction joints are required because of slab size in domestic
construction.
(6) The construction had good fire-resisting qualities.
(7) Heat losses can be reduced to acceptable levels
(8) It is a cheap form of construction on level sites.

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Disadvantages of solid floors

(1) The slightest break in the d.p.m will allow dampness to penetrate and will be expensive
to locate and rectify.
(2) The construction is expensive on sloping sites, where a large amount of fill would be
required.
(3) Once completed, services are difficult to alter or increase, unless provision had been
made.
(4) A cold floor results unless some form of insulation is included in the construction.
(5) There is no facility for under-floor storage.
(6) The floor, being dense, will transmit certain sounds.

4.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Suspended Floors

Advantages of suspended floors

(1) The floor is unlikely to be affected by dampness.

(2) Where any deterioration takes place, it can soon be treated and remedied.
(3) Services are easy to locate and adapt.
(4) The floor can flex and take up small ground movements.
(5) The construction will be cheaper on sloping sites.
(6) There is a facility for under-floor storage.

Disadvantages of suspended floors

(1) Deterioration will take place if either the ventilation is cut off or excessive dampness is
present.
(2) Insulation is required to overcome heat losses resisting from under-floor draughts.
(3) The construction does not have good-fire resisting qualities.
(4) The construction is expensive on level sites.

4.5 SUSPENDED TIMBER UPPER FLOORS

The construction of a suspended timber upper floor is similar to that of the ground floor
in the use of joists and boards; however, there are no honeycomb sleeper walls, the joists being
built into or on the load bearing internal and external walls. There is also a need to travel from
one level to another and the floor must be constructed in such a manner as to accommodate
stairs, lifts, flues, hearths, etc. This form of construction is known as ‘trimming to opening’.
The sizes of joists used for the upper floor construction are larger than those used for the
ground floor, because the spans have increased and those members which form the framework

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around an opening must be larger as they support the extra load in that area. In order to maintain
a level floor and soffit, this increase in size must be an increase in width, usually of 25 mm. To
keep costs within reason wherever practicable, the joists should span the shortest distance.

The joists which are not affected by the opening are known as the common joists or
bridging joint and those which have been shortened are known as the trimmed joists. The
member of the framework surrounding the opening which supports the trimmed joists is known
as the trimmer joists and the joists which complete the framework and support the trimmer
joists are known as the trimming joists.
There are several methods of jointing the various joists around the opening. The tusk
tenon joint is used to joint the trimmer joists to the trimming joint. It is a strong joint, so
designed that cutting away of timber occurs in the middle section of the trimming joist, where
there is least stress. This joint requires a lot of work in its formation, and therefore expensive.
More common joints are the housed joint, the beveled housed joint, the ship-lap joint, or the
joist hanger.

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Tusk Tenon Joint Housed joint Joist Hanger

Joists which run parallel to and against a wall should be kept approximately 50 mm away
from the wall – this allows for a proper fixing of the finishes both above and below the joist as
well as preventing the possible transmission of any moisture from the wall to the joist.
There are many methods of supporting the joists at a load-bearing wall and the two
current methods most commonly used are those of building the joist into the wall or supporting
the end by means of a joist hanger. In the first instance, the ends of the joist should be treated
with preservatives to prevent deterioration of the timber by the presence of both moisture in the
wall and dampness in cavity in the case of cavity wall construction. The joist should be packed
up to level by means of slate or other damp proof course material.
Galvanized mild steel joist hangers can provide an economical alternative method of
support by reducing the length of joist required, and by keeping the joist away from the wall, the
level of the joist may be adjusted by inserting a packing in the shoe of the hanger or by adjusting
the bend section which is inserted into the wall.
Other methods of supporting the floor joists include corbelling the brickwork or using a
wrought-iron corbel to support a wall plate, or a piece of mild steel angle bolted to the wall.

Corbelling the brickwork

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4.6 STRUTTING

It is used in timber suspended floors to restrict the movements due to twisting and
vibration which could damage ceiling finishes. Strutting should be included if the span of the
floor joists exceeds 2.5 mm and is positioned on the centre line of the span. Max floor span ~ 6
m measured centre to centre of bearing (inner leaf centre line in cavity wall)
There are two methods of strutting: herring-bone strutting and solid strutting.

(1) Herring-bone strutting

- Herringbone struts are a form of cross bracing typically found between floor joists.

- Bracing between parallel rows of joists helps them to stay in place and prevents them
from twisting.

- Herringbone struts can be made of timber or pre-galvanized mild steel.

- They are sometimes used as an alternative to solid block bridging (or noggins / dwangs),
particularly for long-span domestic floors.

- They are generally installed at the centre of a span when floor joists exceed 2.5 m. Spans
exceeding 4.5 m may require two rows spaced at 1/3 and 2/3 span.

- Timber herringbone strutting should be at least 38 x 38mm timber and can only be used
where the spacing between the joists is less than three times the depth of the joist.

(Recommended timber cross-section as BS code is 40 mm x 50 mm)

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Herring-bone strutting

(2) Solid Strutting

- This consists of timber approximately 32 mm thick fixed between the joists and the struts
are either staggered to follow for end nailing or are in line , in which case skew nailing is
used.

- This method is not as good as the herring-bone, but has the advantage of being easier and
cheaper to construct.

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Skew Nailing

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4.7 COMMON FINISHES TO CONCRETE FLOORS

- There are TWO types of finishes for concrete floors recommended as CGI syllabus.

(1) Traditional Floor Screeds

(2) Granolithic Screeds

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4.7.1 Traditional Floor Screeds

A floor screed is usually a cementitious material made from a 1:3 or 1:4.5 ratio of cement
to sharp sand. It may be applied onto either a solid in-situ concrete ground floor slab or onto a
precast concrete floor unit. Screed is laid in three specific methods referred to as: bonded,
unbonded and floating. Below are diagrams showing the various construction of the screed

(1) Bonded Screed Construction

- Bonded screeds should therefore be thin, normally less than 50mm.

- Bonded screed is where a primer is used to adhere the screed to the existing base.
- The screed depth is generally 15mm+ thick.

(2) Unbonded Screed construction

- Unbonded screeds should be thick, normally 70mm or more, and 100mm or more if curling
must be avoided.
- Unbonded screed is applied directly to the concrete base or DPM (damp proof membrane) at
a depth of 50mm+ for traditional screed or at lower depths for modified screeds.
- The use of a DPM allows screed to be laid on to existing bases that are in a poor condition
and another benefit is that it can reduce the drying time as it excludes the concrete base.

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(3) Floating Screed Construction

- Floating screed is screed laid on top of insulation and insulation with underfloor heating.

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SCREED DEFINITIONS

Primers
Primers are used to bond a screed to the base whether a concrete structure, polythene or metal
base. It is important to ensure that the screeding system adheres to the existing base. There is a
wide range of primers available for the different types of screed systems and bases.

Damp Proof Membranes

Damp proof membranes or DPM’s are generally used to separate the screed or insulation from
the concrete base and to prevent rising damp. They are generally available in the form of
polythene sheeting which is laid prior to the screed and/or insulation. Liquid DPM’s are also
available to use in specific situations.

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Insulation
Insulation is used to prevent thermal (heat) and acoustic (noise) loss. 15-20% of all household
heat loss is via the floor. Insulation comes in a wide range of depths, U Values, compressive
strengths (for areas of high foot traffic) and waterproof variants. Polystyrene or EPS insulation
can also be used in some instances to reduce the depth of the screed for cost saving benefits. It is
important to ensure that the insulation is laid correctly so that there are no gaps or movement
that will affect the performance of the floating screed or floor.

4.7.2 Granolithic screeds

Granolithic screed is a floor topping which is placed on to an existing hard base (usually
a concrete slab), to form a durable top surface (i.e., screeds laid directly on the sub-base
concrete).

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It comprises hard aggregates, cement and sand which are blended with water and
sometimes polymers to make a workable mix.
A granolithic screed floor is sometimes topped with a floor covering, such as tiles – but it
can be left as the final floor finish if required.
It refers to the hard aggregates in the screed, which can often be granite – but they are not
necessarily so. Limestone can also be used; and some screeds are available on the market which
contains recycled building materials.
Granolithic screed is used for applications where the surface needs to be hard-wearing
like concrete, yet with a smoother finish. So, it can be used in a wide range of industrial flooring
applications, such as food processing plants, industrial manufacturing and engineering, plus
external pavements and ports.

4.8 TIMBER FLOOR SURFACES

- There are TWO types of timber floor surfaces as recommended as CGI syllabus.

(1) Tongued and grooved timber floor with Secret nailed boarding
(2) Tongued and grooved timber floor with Nail Punched

Nails Punched Secret Nailing or Blind Nailing

Tongued and grooved timber boarding

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Floor Board Fixing

xxx xxx End of The Chapter (4) xxx xxx

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