DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Conventional cooling systems such as those used in refrigerators utilize a compressor and a
working fluid to transfer heat. Thermal energy is absorbed and released as the working Fluid
undergoes expansion and compression and changes phase from liquid to vapor and back,
respectively. Semiconductor thermoelectric coolers (also known as Peltier coolers) offer Several
advantages over conventional systems. They are entirely solid-state devices, with no moving
parts; this makes them rugged, reliable, and quiet. They use no ozone- depleting
chlorofluorocarbons, potentially offering a more environmentally responsible alternative to
conventional refrigeration. They can be extremely compact, much more so than compressor-
based systems. Precise temperature control (< ± 0.1 °C) can be achieved with Peltier coolers.
However, their efficiency is low compared to conventional refrigerators. Thus, they are used in
niche applications where their unique advantages outweigh their low efficiency. Although some
large-scale applications have been considered (on submarines and surface vessels), Peltier
coolers are generally used in applications where small size is needed and the cooling demands
are not too great, such as for cooling electronic components.

The objectives of this study is design and develop a working thermoelectric refrigerator interior
cooling some volume that utilizes the Peltier effect to refrigerate and maintain a selected
temperature. The design requirements are to cool this volume to temperature within a time
period of 6 hrs. and provide retention of at least next half an hour. The design requirement,
options available and the final design of thermoelectric refrigerator for application are
presented
Peltier History Early 19th century scientists, Thomas Seebeck and Jean Peltier, first discovered
the phenomena that are the basis for found that if you placed a temperature gradient across
the junctions of two Dissimilar conductors, electrical current would flow. Peltier, on the other
hand, learned that passing current through two dissimilar electrical conductors, caused heat to
be either emitted or absorbed at the junction of the materials. It was only after mid-20th
Century advancements in semiconductor technology, however, that practical applications for
thermoelectric devices became feasible. With modern techniques, We can now produce
thermo-electric efficient solid state heat-pumping for both cooling and heating; many of these
units can also be used to generate DC power at reduced efficiency. New and often elegant uses
for thermo-electrics continue to be developed each day.

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Basic Block Diagram

Temperature Microcontroller LCD 16X2

sensor

Voltage regulator

Solar Panel Battery Peltier Tile

Figure1.1

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Circuit Diagram

Temperature sensing unit

Figure 1.2

A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or RTD, that provides for

temperature measurement through an electrical signal. A thermocouple (T/C) is made from two
dissimilar metals that generate electrical voltage in direct proportion to changes in
temperature.

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Photovoltaic Module

Figure 1.3

A PV module consists of many PV cells wired in parallel to increase current and in series to
produce a higher voltage. 36 cell modules are the industry standard for large power production.

The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent material) on the
front surface, and with a protective and waterproof material on the back surface. The edges are
sealed for weatherproofing, and there is often an aluminum frame holding everything together
in a mountable unit. In the back of the module there is a junction box, or wire leads, providing
electrical connections.

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CHAPTER 2

HARDWARE REQUIREMENT

1. Temperature sensor
2. Power supply
3. Microcontroller
4. Solar Panel
5. Peltier Tile
6. Battery
7. Capacitors
8. Resistors
9. 16X2 LCD
10. 7805
11. DC cooling Fan

Hardware description
A microcontroller is s a computer on a chip, or if you prefer , a single chip computer .Micro
suggests that the device is small , and controller tells that the device might be used to control
objects , processes , or events . Another term to describe a microcontroller is embedded
controller; because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded
in, the device they control .

You can find microcontroller in all kinds of things these days, any device that measures,
stores, control, calculate or displays information is a candidate for putting a microcontroller
inside. The largest single use for microcontroller is in automobiles – just about ever car
manufactured today include at least one microcontroller for engine control, and often more to
control additional system in the car. In desktop computers, you can find microcontrollers inside
keyboards , modems , printers and other peripherals . In test equipments, microcontroller make

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it easy toad features ability to add features such as ability to store measurements, to create and
store user routines , and to display message and waveforms . Consumer products that use
microcontrollers includes cameras , video recorders , compacts disk players , and ovens . And
these are just few examples .

Microcontrollers are basically LSI chips with millions of logic gates constituting an
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), accompanying registers, bus control circuitry and an
instruction decoder. This is the definition in the strictest sense. Most modern microcontrollers
usually have on chip RAM and ROM and a few peripherals such as timers, serial interfaces such
as a UART(Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter), ports and even ADC’s(Analog to
Digital Converters). A wide variety of microcontrollers is available today. Some are general
purpose, while some are optimized for special applications. A few well known microcontrollers
are Intel’s 8051, 8085, Pentium, Motorola’s 68000 and 68008, Atmel’s AVR series, AMD’s
Athlon, and the relatively new PSoC from Cypress. This tutorial is about the Intel 8051.

A wide variety of microcontrollers are available today. Some are general purpose, while some
are optimized for special applications. A few well known microcontroller of various families are
given below.

Intel’s family – 8051(commercially available as 89C51), 8052, 8031 8085 , Pentium etc

Avr family - ATtiny12 , ATtiny15 , AT90S1200(A) , AT90S2313 , AT90S2323 , AT90S2333,

AT90S2343 , AT90S4414 , AT90S4433 , AT90S4434 , AT90S8515 , ,AT90S8535 ,
ATmega83 , ATmega103 , ATmega161 , ATmega163 ,ATmega603 , etc

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Pic family - PIC16X83 , PIC16X84 , PIC16F84A , PIC16F870 , PIC16F871, PIC16F872

,PIC16F873 , PIC16F874, PIC16F876 , PIC16F877 , PIC16F873A , PIC16F874A ,
PIC16F86A ,PIC16F877A , PIC16F627 , PIC16F628 .

Why use microcontrollers at all?

As we know basic arithmetic and logic functions be also performed using logic gates and
flip-flops(basic storage units), but microcontrollers have certain advantages:

 Simpler construction and control.

 Lower cost.
 Low total area occupied on the circuit board.
 Flexibility – Changes can be made by simply changing the software(code used to program
the microcontroller).
 Software implementation(firmware) is usually easier than its hardware counterpart.

A few important terms

Word or Word size: It is smallest group of bits upon which normal arithmetic operations are
carried out( although there are instructions
operating on individual bits). Memory units store
bits in groups called words. A word moves in and
out of memory as a unit. A memory address is the
location of a word of the memory. Word size is
usually a multiple of 8bits.

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit: This unit performs basic arithmetic and logic functions like add,
subtract and AND, OR etc, on operands stored in memory or registers.

Register: A register is a collection of flip-flops, used to store limited amount of data( a flip-flop
stores one bit) such as status information, pointers etc.

Program and Data Memory: Program memory is that part of the memory where code written
by the user is stored. It also stores constants. This memory is usually the ROM and has to be
programmed using special hardware ( although it can also be programmed in system). It also
stores a program called the “bootstrap loader”, which gets the microcontroller started when
power is first turned on. Some popular types of ROM are EPROM, EEPROM and more recently
Flash. Data memory is that part of the memory hierarchy which is used to store variables defined
by the user and values generated during program execution. This memory is the RAM.

Program Counter: As mentioned previously the user’s code is stored in the ROM. While
executing the program a special register called the Program Counter keeps track of the next
instruction in the program to be fetched. At the start of a program’s execution the Program
Counter stores the address of the first instruction of the program and as each instruction is
executed, it is incremented. This helps the microcontroller in knowing what location to fetch the
next instruction from. The Program Counter is not always incremented. For example when a “
jump to location A” kind of instruction is encountered, the Program Counter stores the address of
“location A”.

Stack Pointer: In simple words a stack is a method of storing data in a particular manner. The
data element that is first to go into a stack is the last to come out of it. The “top” of the stack is
the only place in a stack where addition or deletion can take place. In most microcontrollers the

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stack is stored starting from a special location in the memory. One of the uses of the stack is to
store the contents of the Program Counter when a subroutine is encountered. The Stack Pointer is
a register containing the address of the “top” of the stack.

Addressing Modes: Most of the instructions in a program will mention its operands and their
location i.e. addresses in memory or register space. An address may not always be specified in
absolute terms, i.e. the address may not be the address of the operand. In such cases the mode of
addressing used in the instruction tells the microcontroller how to interpret the address and
calculate the operand’s address. This is done to provide the user flexibility, to shorten the
instruction size( not having to specify the whole address, but only a part of it) etc. For example
the indirect addressing mode is used to specify a memory location where not the operand but its
address is stored.

Interrupts: An interrupt is a way of asking the microcontroller to stop what it is doing and
attend to the source of the interrupt. An example is that of I/O systems in microcontrollers.
These I/O systems issue an interrupt when they receive some data or have completed
transmitting some data. This helps in saving processing time as the microcontroller doesn’t have
to keep checking the I/O systems for an arrival of data or completion of transfer of data. There
can be many other sources of interrupts.

Ports: They are basically gateways through which I/O transfers of a microcontroller take place.
Usually a port has several pins of the microcontroller dedicated to it. In memory terms a port
occupies several bits, usually multiples of 8. There are port registers through which data is
transferred in and out of ports. Ports might be bi-directional or unidirectional.

Oscillator: The microcontroller needs various clocking signals to operate its registers and other peripherals like
the UART. The main clocking signal is provided with the help of an oscillator and associated circuitry.

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CHAPTER 3

Introduction to AVR Microcontroller :-

Microcontroller: Microcontroller can be termed as a single on chip computer which includes

number of peripherals like RAM, EEPROM, Timers etc., required to perform some predefined
task.
 
Register

ADC

USART
CPU Power
Memory
supply

Timers

 
Figure 3.1

Does this mean that the microcontroller is another name for a computer…? The answer is NO!
The computer on one hand is designed to perform all the general purpose tasks on a single
machine like you can use a computer to run a software to perform calculations or you can use a
computer to store some multimedia file or to access internet through the browser, whereas the
microcontrollers are meant to perform only the specific tasks, for e.g., switching the AC off
automatically when room temperature drops to a certain defined limit and again turning it ON
when temperature rises above the defined limit.

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There are number of popular families of microcontrollers which are used in different
applications as per their capability and feasibility to perform the desired task, most common of
these are 8051, AVR and PIC microcontrollers. In this article we will introduce you
with AVR family of microcontrollers.
History of AVR
AVR was developed in the year 1996 by Atmel Corporation. The architecture of AVR was
developed by Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan. AVR derives its name from its developers and
stands for Alf-Egil Bogen Vegard Wollan RISC microcontroller, also known
as Advanced Virtual RISC. The AT90S8515 was the first microcontroller which was based
on AVR architecture however the first microcontroller to hit the commercial market was
AT90S1200 in the year 1997.
 
AVR microcontrollers are available in three categories:
1.      TinyAVR – Less memory, small size, suitable only for simpler applications
2.      MegaAVR – These are the most popular ones having good amount of memory (upto 256
KB), higher number of inbuilt peripherals and suitable for moderate to complex applications.
3.      XmegaAVR – Used commercially for complex applications, which require large program
memory and high speed.
The following table compares the above mentioned AVR series of microcontrollers:
 
Series Name Pins Flash Memory Special Feature
TinyAVR 6-32 0.5-8 KB Small in size
MegaAVR 28-100 4-256KB Extended peripherals
XmegaAVR 44-100 16-384KB DMA , Event System
included
 
What’s special about AVR?
They are fast: AVR microcontroller executes most of the instructions in single execution cycle.
AVRs are about 4 times faster than PICs, they consume less power and can be operated in
different power saving modes. Let’s do the comparison between the three most commonly used
families of microcontrollers.

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  8051 PIC AVR

SPEED Slow Moderate Fast
MEMORY Small Large Large
ARCHITECTURE CISC RISC RISC
ADC Not Present Inbuilt Inbuilt
Timers Inbuilt Inbuilt Inbuilt
PWM Channels Not Present Inbuilt Inbuilt
 
AVR is an 8-bit microcontroller belonging to the family of Reduced Instruction Set Computer
(RISC). In RISC architecture the instruction set of the computer are not only fewer in number
but also simpler and faster in operation. The other type of categorization is CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computers). We will explore more on this when we will learn about the
architecture of AVR microcontrollers in following section.
 
Let’s see what all this means. What is 8-bit? This means that the microcontroller is capable of
transmitting and receiving 8-bit data. The input/output registers available are of 8-bits. The AVR
family controllers have register based architecture which means that both the operands for an
operation are stored in a register and the result of the operation is also stored in a register.
Following figure shows a simple example performing OR operation between two input registers
and storing the value in Output Register. 

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Figure 3.2

The CPU takes values from two input registers INPUT-1 and INPUT-2, performs the logical
operation and stores the value into the OUTPUT register. All this happens in 1 execution cycle.
In our journey with the AVR we will be working on Atmega16 microcontroller, which is a 40-
pin IC and belongs to the megaAVR category of AVRfamily. Some of the features of
Atmega16 are:
·      16KB of Flash memory
·         1KB of SRAM
·         512 Bytes of EEPROM
·         Available in 40-Pin DIP
·         8-Channel 10-bit ADC
·         Two 8-bit Timers/Counters
·         One 16-bit Timer/Counter
·         4 PWM Channels
·         In System Programmer (ISP)
·         Serial USART
·         SPI Interface
·         Digital to Analog Comparator.
 

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Architecture of AVR
The AVR microcontrollers are based on the advanced RISC architecture and consist of 32 x 8-bit
general purpose working registers. Within one single clock cycle, AVR can take inputs from two
general purpose registers and put them to ALU for carrying out the requested operation, and
transfer back the result to an arbitrary register. The ALU can perform arithmetic as well as
logical operations over the inputs from the register or between the register and a constant. Single
register operations like taking a complement can also be executed in ALU. We can see that AVR
does not have any register like accumulator as in 8051 family of microcontrollers; the operations
can be performed between any of the registers and can be stored in either of them.
 
AVR follows Harvard Architecture format in which the processor is equipped with separate
memories and buses for Program and the Data information. Here while an instruction is being
executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory.

PROGRAM

MEMORY

CPU

DATA Memory
 

Figure 3.3
Since AVR can perform single cycle execution, it means that AVR can execute 1 million
instructions per second if cycle frequency is 1MHz. The higher is the operating frequency of the
controller, the higher will be its processing speed. We need to optimize the power consumption
with processing speed and hence need to select the operating frequency accordingly.
 
There are two flavors for Atmega16 microcontroller:
1.      Atmega16:- Operating frequency range is 0 – 16 MHz.
2.      Atmega16L:- Operating frequency range is 0 – 8 MHz.

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If we are using a crystal of 8 MHz = 8 x 10 6 Hertz = 8 Million cycles, then AVR can execute 8
million instructions.
 
Naming Convention.!
The AT refers to Atmel the manufacturer, Mega means that the microcontroller belong to
MegaAVR category, 16 signifies the memory of the controller, which is 16KB.

Figure 3.4

Architecture Diagram: Atmega16

Following points explain the building blocks of Atmega16 architecture:
·           I/O Ports: Atmega16 has four (PORTA, PORTB, PORTC and PORTD) 8-bit input-output
ports.
 
·           Internal Calibrated Oscillator: Atmega16 is equipped with an internal oscillator for driving
its clock. By default Atmega16 is set to operate at internal calibrated oscillator of 1 MHz. The
maximum frequency of internal oscillator is 8Mhz. Alternatively, ATmega16 can be operated
using an external crystal oscillator with a maximum frequency of 16MHz. In this case you need
to modify the fuse bits. (Fuse Bits will be explained in a separate tutorial).
 

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Figure 3.5
·           ADC Interface: Atmega16 is equipped with an 8 channel ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter) with a resolution of 10-bits. ADC reads the analog input for e.g., a sensor input and
converts it into digital information which is understandable by the microcontroller.
 
·           Timers/Counters: Atmega16 consists of two 8-bit and one 16-bit timer/counter. Timers are
useful for generating precision actions for e.g., creating time delays between two operations.
 
·           Watchdog Timer: Watchdog timer is present with internal oscillator. Watchdog timer
continuously monitors and resets the controller if the code gets stuck at any execution action for
more than a defined time interval.
 
·           Interrupts: Atmega16 consists of 21 interrupt sources out of which four are external. The
remaining are internal interrupts which support the peripherals like USART, ADC, Timers etc.
 
·           USART: Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter interface
is available for interfacing with external device capable of communicating serially (data
transmission bit by bit).
 

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·           General Purpose Registers: Atmega16 is equipped with 32 general purpose registers which

are coupled directly with the Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) of CPU.
 
·           Memory: Atmega16 consist of three different memory sections:
 
1.         Flash EEPROM: Flash EEPROM or simple flash memory is used to store the program
dumped or burnt by the user on to the microcontroller. It can be easily erased electrically as a
single unit. Flash memory is non-volatile i.e., it retains the program even if the power is cut-off.
Atmega16 is available with 16KB of in system programmable Flash EEPROM.
 
2.        Byte Addressable EEPROM: This is also a nonvolatile memory used to store data like values
of certain variables. Atmega16 has 512 bytes of EEPROM, this memory can be useful for storing
the lock code if we are designing an application like electronic door lock.
 
3.        SRAM: Static Random Access Memory, this is the volatile memory of microcontroller i.e.,
data is lost as soon as power is turned off. Atmega16 is equipped with 1KB of internal SRAM. A
small portion of SRAM is set aside for general purpose registers used by CPU and some for the
peripheral subsystems of the microcontroller.
 
·           ISP: AVR family of controllers have In System Programmable Flash Memory which can
be programmed without removing the IC from the circuit, ISP allows to reprogram the controller
while it is in the application circuit.
 
·          SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface, SPI port is used for serial communication between two
devices on a common clock source. The data transmission rate of SPI is more than that of
USART.
 
·           TWI: Two Wire Interface (TWI) can be used to set up a network of devices, many devices
can be connected over TWI interface forming a network, the devices can simultaneously transmit
and receive and have their own unique address.
 

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·           DAC: Atmega16 is also equipped with a Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) interface

which can be used for reverse action performed by ADC. DAC can be used when there is a need
of converting a digital signal to analog signal.
 
Various microcontroller of MegaAVR series:
ATmega8 and Atmega32 are other members of MegaAVR series controllers. They are quite
similar to ATmega16 in architecture. Low power version MegaAVR controllers are also
available in markets. The following table shows the comparison between different members of
MegaAVR family:

 
Part RO RA EEPR I/0 Tim Interru OperationVol Operati Packagi
Name M M OM Pi er pts tage ng ng
ns frequen
cy
ATmega 8K 1K 512B 23 3 19 4.5-5.5 V 0-16 28
8 B B MHz
ATmega 8K 1K 512B 23 3 19 2.7-5.5 V 0-8 28
8L B B MHz
ATmega 16K 1K 512B 32 3 21 4.5-5.5 V 0-16 40
16 B B MHz
ATmega 16K 1K 512B 32 3 21 2.7-5.5 V 0-8 40
16L B B MHz
ATmega 32K 2K 1KB 32 3 21 4.5-5.5 V 0-16 40
32 B B MHz
ATmega 32K 2K 1KB 32 3 21 2.7-5.5 V 0-8 40
32L B B MHz

PIN DIAGRAM : -

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Figure 3.6

AVR BASIC CIRCUIT Dagram:-

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Figure 3.7

CHAPTER 4

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Peltier Tile

The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage
and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different temperature
on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. At
the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material to
diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.

This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or change the
temperature of objects. Because the direction of heating and cooling is determined by the
polarity of the applied voltage, thermoelectric devices can be used as temperature controllers.

The term "thermoelectric effect" encompasses three separately identified effects: the Seebeck
effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect. The Seebeck and Peltier effects are different
manifestations of the same physical process; textbooks may refer to this process as the Peltier–
Seebeck effect (the separation derives from the independent discoveries of French physicist
Jean Charles Athanase Peltier and Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck). The
Thomson effect is an extension of the Peltier–Seebeck model and is credited to Lord Kelvin.

Joule heating, the heat that is generated whenever a current is passed through a resistive
material, is related, though it is not generally termed as thermoelectric effect. The Peltier–
Seebeck and Thomson effects are thermodynamically reversible,[1] whereas Joule heating is not.

Peltier effect

Figure 4.1

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The Peltier effect is the presence of heating or cooling at an electrified junction of two different
conductors and is named after French physicist Jean Charles Athanase Peltier, who discovered it
in 1834. When a current is made to flow through a junction between two conductors, A and B,
heat may be generated or removed at the junction. The total heat generated is not determined by
the Peltier effect alone, as it may also be influenced by Joule heating and thermal gradient
effects. The Peltier coefficients represent how much heat is carried per unit charge. Since charge
current must be continuous across a junction, the associated heat flow will develop a
discontinuity if temperatures are different. The Peltier effect can be considered as the back-
action counterpart to the Seebeck effect (analogous to the back-emf in magnetic induction): if a
simple thermoelectric circuit is closed then the Seebeck effect will drive a current, which in turn
(via the Peltier effect) will always transfer heat from the hot to the cold junction.

A typical Peltier heat pump device involves multiple junctions in series, through which a current
is driven. Some of the junctions lose heat due to the Peltier effect, while others gain heat.
Thermoelectric heat pumps exploit this phenomenon, as do thermoelectric cooling devices found
in refrigerators.

Figure 4.2

CHAPTER 5

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SOLAR PANNEL

Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or heat.A
photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar
cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that
generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module
is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from
100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the
same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient
230 W module. There are a few commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of
22% and reportedly also exceeding 24%. A single solar module can produce only a limited
amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically
includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection
wiring, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.

The most common application of solar panels is solar water heating systems.[

Figure 5.1

Cells Semiconductor device that converts sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity

PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective

Modules
laminate and are the fundamental building block of PV systems

PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-

Panels
installable unit

A PV array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV

Array
modules and panels

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Photovoltaic Cell

A single PV cell is a thin semiconductor wafer made of two layers generally made of highly
purified silicon (PV cells can be made of many different semiconductors but crystalline silicon is
the most widely used). The layers have been doped with boron on one side and phosphorous on
the other side, producing surplus of electrons on one side and a deficit of electrons on the other
side.

When the wafer is bombarded by sunlight, photons in the sunlight knock off some of excess
electrons, this makes a voltage difference between the two sides as the excess electrons try to
move to the deficit side. In silicon this voltage is .5 volt

Metallic contacts are made to both sides of the semiconductor. With an external circuit attached
to the contacts, the electrons can get back to where they came from and a current flows through
the circuit. This PV cell has no storage capacity, it simply acts as an electron pump.

The amount of current is determined by the number of electrons that the solar photons knock off.
Bigger cells, more efficient cells, or cells exposed to more intense sunlight will deliver more
electrons.

Photovoltaic Modules

A PV module consists of many PV cells wired in parallel to increase current and in series to
produce a higher voltage. 36 cell modules are the industry standard for large power production.

The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent material) on the front
surface, and with a protective and waterproof material on the back surface. The edges are sealed
for weatherproofing, and there is often an aluminum frame holding everything together in a
mountable unit. In the back of the module there is a junction box, or wire leads, providing
electrical connections.

There are currently four commercial production technologies for PV Modules:

Single Crystalline
This is the oldest and more expensive production technique, but it's also the most efficient
sunlight conversion technology available. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 12%*

Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline
This has a slightly lower conversion efficiency compared to single crystalline but manufacturing
costs are also lower. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 11%*

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String Ribbon
This is a refinement of polycrystalline production, there is less work in production so costs are
even lower. Module efficiency averages 7% to 8%*

Amorphous or Thin Film

Silicon material is vaporized and deposited on glass or stainless steel. The cost is lower than any
other method. Module efficiency averages 5% to 7%*

Photovoltaic Panels

PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. The
modular design of PV panels allows systems to grow as needs change. Modules of different
manufacture can be intermixed without any problem, as long as all the modules have rated
voltage output within 1.0 volt difference.

CHAPTER 6

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POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies
electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply
unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to
mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Here in our application we need a 5v DC power supply
for all electronics involved in the project. This requires step down transformer, rectifier, voltage
regulator, and filter circuit for generation of 5v DC power. Here a brief description of all the
components is given as follows:

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Basic operation

According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin Franklin
and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through electrical
conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor
nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications,
however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the
conventional model is retained.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply

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 DEPARTMENT OF ECE

terminal via the blue (negative) path.

Figure 6.1

When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right
corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the red path to
the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.

Figure 6.2

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In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this
is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC
input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed
backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects
the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always constructed from
discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing the four
diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is
now available with various voltage and current ratings.

OUTPUT SMOOTHING

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to
convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the
bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating"
magnitude (see diagram above).

Figure 6.3

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The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to
lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge.
One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC
component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive
load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be
canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current through
the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur
without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor,
thus moderating the change in output voltage / current.

The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in
some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source is removed.
If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely
discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,
perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as
close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a current large enough to
discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power
waste.

Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as
percentage voltage change from minimum to maximum load, is improved. However in many
cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ = RC where C and R are the
capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that
this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will
produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load.

In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can
then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitor–resistor pairs, often done only for sub-
supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.

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The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the load on
the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and the
current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described above,
current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater than
the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the
diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n
Amps. This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the
AC supply.

In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the bridge
diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned on at
the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series
resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the
power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient.

Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to keep the
current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of an effective
choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment.

Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current from the high
voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent
magnets were then too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's constant magnetic
field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering the power
supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the speaker.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CHAPTER 7

Temperature sensor

Thermister is a special kind of resistor and its resistance depends on the temperature in its
vicinity, Depending on its working, thermistors are divided into two types: Positive Temperature
Coefficient thermistors (PTC) and Negative Temperature Coefficient thermistors (NTC).
PTCs tend to increase their resistance as per the temperature increments while NTCs’ resistance
reduces down with the temperature rise. The circuit mentioned here uses NTC thermistor.

REGULATOR IC (78XX)

It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated
DC current.

Figure 7.1
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered
DC (see in above diagram). It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high
DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage
regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx) 2. variable voltage regulators(LM317) In
fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2. -ve voltage

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regulators POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS This include 78xx voltage regulators. The
most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage
is in (7.5V, 20V).

The Capacitor Filter

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application of the
simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-
current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes, which require very little load
current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the power-supply ripple
frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor (C1) shown in
figure 4-15 is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallel with the load.

Figure 7.2

Full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter.

When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor (C1) must be short and the RC
discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words, the capacitor must charge
up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the input frequency
is high; therefore, the full-wave rectifier output is easier to filter than that of the half-wave
rectifier because of its higher frequency.

For you to have a better understanding of the effect that filtering has on E avg, a comparison of a
rectifier circuit with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views A and B of figure 4-16.
The output waveforms in figure 4-16 represent the unfiltered and filtered outputs of the half-

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wave rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow through the load resistance (R L) each time a diode
conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of output voltage. For the half-wave
rectifier, Eavg is less than half (or approximately 0.318) of the peak output voltage. This value is
still much less than that of the applied voltage. With no capacitor connected across the output of
the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view A has a large pulsating component (ripple) compared
with the average or dc component. When a capacitor is connected across the output (view B), the
average value of output voltage (Eavg) is increased due to the filtering action of capacitor C1.

FILTERED

Figure 7.3

The value of the capacitor is fairly large (several microfarads), thus it presents a relatively low
reactance to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge.

The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting diode,
which is relatively low. Therefore, the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively short. As a
result, when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly and
almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first few cycles. The capacitor
attempts to charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime a diode is conducting, and
tends to retain its charge when the rectifier output falls to zero. (The capacitor cannot discharge
immediately.) The capacitor slowly discharges through the load resistance (R L) during the time
the rectifier is non-conducting.

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The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the value of
the load resistance. If the capacitance and load-resistance values are large, the RC discharge time
for the circuit is relatively long.

A comparison of the waveforms shown in figure 4-16 (view A and view B) illustrates that the
addition of C1 to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage (E avg) and a
reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component (Er) which is normally present across the load
resistance.

Now, let's consider a complete cycle of operation using a half-wave rectifier, a capacitive filter
(C1), and a load resistor (RL). As shown in view A of figure 4-17, the capacitive filter (C1) is
assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating rectified current. The
resistance of RL is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of C1 at the input frequency.
When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the positive half cycle and current flows
through the circuit, allowing C1 to charge. C1 will charge to approximately the peak value of the
input voltage. (The charge is less than the peak value because of the voltage drop across the
diode (D1)). In view A of the figure, the charge on C1 is indicated by the heavy solid line on the
waveform. As illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the negative half cycle because
the anode of D1 is negative with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C1 discharges
through the load resistor (RL). The discharge of C1 produces the downward slope as indicated by
the solid line on the waveform in view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the applied ac voltage
from peak value to zero, the voltage across C1 (and thus across R L) during the discharge period
gradually decreases until the time of the next half cycle of rectifier operation. Keep in mind that
for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast as possible and discharge as little
as possible.

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Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). POSITIVE HALF-CYCLE

Figure 7.4

Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). NEGATIVE HALF-CYCLE

Figure 7.5

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Since practical values of C1 and RL ensure a more or less gradual decrease of the discharge
voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next half cycle of
operation. As a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising ac input voltage at
the anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on C1. The charge on C1 is
the cathode potential of the diode. When the potential on the anode exceeds the potential on the
cathode (the charge on C1), the diode again conducts, and C1 begins to charge to approximately
the peak value of the applied voltage.

After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off and the capacitor will
start to discharge. Since the fall of the ac input voltage on the anode is considerably more rapid
than the decrease on the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly become more positive than the
anode, and the diode ceases to conduct.

Operation of the simple capacitor filter using a full-wave rectifier is basically the same as that
discussed for the half-wave rectifier. Referring to figure 4-18, you should notice that because one
of the diodes is always conducting on. either alternation, the filter capacitor charges and
discharges during each half cycle. (Note that each diode conducts only for that portion of time
when the peak secondary voltage is greater than the charge across the capacitor.)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

Figure 7.5

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DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of the
current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Figure 7.6

Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener
diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the
diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is the
negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION

•Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

•Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

•Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

RESISTORS

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects
to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric
circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three
categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the
third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint

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finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks
as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them work properly
and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors
available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite
small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm.

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

Figure 7.8

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of

electric current, for example a
resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through
the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are explained
under

CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive
coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of
the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the
resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate
the resistor value

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Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5%
tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply
with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more
accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some difference in performance
between these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be
manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire
material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high
frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement.
They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can
become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into account
when designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter
shows infinite high reading.

CAPACITORS

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In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways,
capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work , then
you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce
electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal.

BASIC

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two
metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else
that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. You can easily
make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a
particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work.

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure 7.9

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons
that the battery is producing.

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to
the battery.

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TESTING

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or specia

l digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested
by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode : Continuity Positive probe : One end Negative probe : Second end
Display : `0`(beep sound occur) `OL` Result : Faulty OK

LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode
that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is,
with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons.
This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be
transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is
called electroluminescence.

Figure 7.10

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LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are displayed by
led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown through it in forward bias
condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The positive leg is
longer than negative leg.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

What is an LCD ?

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display used to interface a microcontroller (port) to the
outside world. LCDs can display data in both numeric & alphanumeric format. Further more,
graphic LCDs can display user defined graphic symbols & can be used to display a graphical
plot for any data.
In recent year LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs (seven segment
LEDs or other multisegment LEDs) .

This is due to the following reasons:

1-The declining prices of LCDs

2-The ability to display no.,character , and graphics .This is in

contrast to LEDs which are limited to numbers and few characters

3-Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task of
refreshing the LCD .In contrast , the LEDs must be refreshed by the CPU (or in some other way )
to keep displaying the data.

4-Ease of programming for character and graphics

Types of LCD’s

16x2 – 16 characters per line by two lines

20x1 – 20 characters per line by one lines

20x2 – 20 characters per line by two lines

20x4 -- 20 characters per line by four lines

40x2 -- 40 characters per line by two lines

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In our project we have used a non-graphical LCD (20x4)

Pin Out Diagram

Figure 7.11

There are usually 16 lines coming out of an LCD, out of which, 4 to 8 are data lines, three
are control lines, two are for the backlight while the remaining three are used for Vcc, GND &
contrast setting (Vee).

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Pin NoSymbol Function

01 GND Ground

02 Vcc Power Supply (+5V)

03 Vee Contrast (0-5V) to be provided by means of a POT

04 RS Register Select

05 R/W- Read Write Control

06 EN Enable

07-14 DB Data Bus Lines (4/8 bit)

15-16 K-A Backlighting (K is given +5V while A is grounded)

Functioning of LCD
LCD Busy Concept LCD always takes some time to execute an instruction & for this period, it
cannot process any other instruction. So, it’s imperative to include some time gap between any
two data transfers/instructions to compensate for LCD’s slow pace. The amount of delay to be
introduced is dependent on the instruction & the LCD used & although there are LCD specific
delay algorithms available, any type of a delay loop of say 10 ms will be enough. In our code, we
employ a delay loop which gives a pre-specified delay (provided the crystal frequency is
11.059khz)

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Initializing the LCD To use an LCD you have to initialize it first by sending appropriate
command bytes. Take a look at the Function Set for a standard LCD for the available command
options .

Three bytes are to be sent to the LCD to properly initialize it. Some of the values for the
bytes are optional & as per your requirements:

(a) First Byte : selects 4/8 bit mode (data lines), 1/2 line mode, 5x7/5x10 dot format.Here :
38H = 20H (Instruction) + 10H (8 bit) + 08H (2 line) + 00H (5x7 dot)

(b) Second Byte : toggles display, cursor & cursor blink on/off

Here : 0FH = 08H (instruction) + 04H (display on) + 03H (cursor with blink on)

(c) Third Byte : selects display shift & cursor increment mode

Here : 06H = 04H (instruction) + 02H (display shift off with cursor increment)

Clearing The Display The LCD is cleared once when the unit is switched on. To clear the
display any time, clear command (01H) needs to be issued. This also brings the cursor ot the
home (default) position. It’s a good practice to clear the LCD at the starting as well.

Writing Text Writing a display text to the LCD is as simple as sending the ASCII byte of the
character you want to display & set RS to tell the LCD that it’s a display text. 00H to 0FH
access user defined characters; 10H to 1FH & 80H to 9FH would just display blank characters.
Proper ASCII bytes are displayed in the range of 20H to 7FH, while A0H to DFH & E0H to
FFH display Japanese & Greek characters respectively.

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Memory Mapping An LCD contains several memory locations where it stores the text to be
displayed. The memory map for the LCD is as shown. As can be seen, LCD can show only some
of the total memory locations it has for ex. in the first line it has 00H onwards memory locations
but at anytime can show only 16 of them (in default case from 00H to 0FH). Similarly, the II line
starts from 40H.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LCD

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Figure 7.12

PIN DISCRIPTION OF THE LCD

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I/O Description
PIN SYMBOL
1 --
Vss Ground
2 Vcc -- +5volt power supply

3 Vee -- Power supply to control contrast

4 RS I RS=0 to select command resister

RS=1 to selectdta resister

5 R/W I R/W=0 for write

R/W = 1 for read

6 E I/O Enable

7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus

8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus

9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data bus

10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data bus

11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data bus

12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data bus

13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data bus

14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data bus

15 A -- Backlight (+5V)

16 K -- Backlight (Gnd)

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear

voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give
the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant
value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides
+5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output
pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

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CHAPTER 8
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE

TOOLS: The electronics workbench is an actual place of work with comfortably & conveniently
& should be supplied with compliment of those tools must often use in project building.
Probably the most important device is a soldering tool. Other tool which should be at the
electronic work bench includes a pair of needle nose pliers, diagonal wire cutter, a small knife,
an assortment of screw driver, nut driver, few nuts &
bolts, electrical tape, plucker etc. Diagonal wire
cutter will be used to cut away any excess lead
length from copper side of P.C.B. 7 to cut section of the
board after the circuit is complete. The needle nose pliers
are most often using to bend wire leads & wrap them
in order to form a strong mechanical connection.

MOUNTING & SOLDERING: Soldering is

process of joining together two metallic parts. It is
actually a process of function in which an alloy, the
solder, with a comparatively low melting point
penetrates the surface of the metal being joined &
makes a firm joint between them on cooling &
solidifying.

THE SOLDERING KIT

1. SOLDERING IRON:

As soldering is a process of joining together two metallic parts, the

instrument, which is used, for doing this job is known as soldering Iron. Thus it is meant for
melting the solder and to setup the metal parts being joined. Soldering Iron is rated according to
their wattage, which varies from 10- 200 watts.

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2. SOLDER:

The raw material used for soldering is solder. It is composition of lead & tin. The good
quality solder (a type of flexible naked wire) is 60% Tin +40% Lead which will melt between
180 degree to 200 degree C temperature.

3. FLUXES OR SOLDERING PASTE:

When the points to solder are heated, an oxide film forms. This must be removed at once
so that solder may get to the surface of the metal parts. This is done by applying chemical
substance called Flux, which boils under the heat of the iron remove the oxide formation and
enable the metal to receive the solder.

4. BLADES OR KNIFE:

To clean the surface & leads of components to be soldered is done by this common
instrument.

5. SAND PAPER:

The oxide formation may attack at the tip of your soldering iron & create the problem. To
prevent this, clean the tip with the help of sand paper time to time or you may use blade for
doing this job. Apart from all these tools, the working bench for soldering also includes
desoldering pump, wink wire (used for desoldering purpose), file etc.

HOW TO SOLDER?

Mount components at their appropriate place; bend the leads slightly outwards to prevent
them from falling out when the board is turned over for soldering. No cut the leads so that you
may solder them easily. Apply a small amount of flux at these components leads with the help of
a screwdriver. Now fix the bit or iron with a small amount of solder and flow freely at the point
and the P.C.B copper track at the same time. A good solder joint will appear smooth & shiny. If
all appear well, you may continue to the next solder connections.

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TIPS FOR GOOD SOLDERING

1. Use right type of soldering iron. A small efficient soldering iron (about 10-25 watts with 1/8
or 1/4 inch tip) is ideal for this work.

2. Keep the hot tip of the soldering iron on a piece of metal so that excess heat is dissipated.

3. Make sure that connection to the soldered is clean. Wax frayed insulation and other
substances cause poor soldering connection. Clean the leads, wires, tags etc. before
soldering.

4. Use just enough solder to cover the lead to be soldered. Excess solder can cause a short
circuit.

5. Use sufficient heat. This is the essence of good soldering. Apply enough heat to the
component lead. You are not using enough heat, if the solder barely melts and forms a round
ball of rough flaky solder. A good solder joint will look smooth, shining and spread type. The
difference between good & bad soldering is just a few seconds extra with a hot iron applied
firmly.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering. Follow the circuit
description and components details, leads identification etc. Do not start soldering before
making it confirm that all the components are mounted at the right place.

2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.

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3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.

4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you want it.

5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the components or
board.

6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry or a cold joint.

7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sure about the voltage either dc or ac
while operating the gadget.

8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may short circuit with the
other components. To prevent this use sleeves at the component leads or use sleeved wire
for connections.

9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all the joints are clean
and well shiny.

10. Do make loose wire connections especially with cell holder, speaker, probes etc. Put knots
while connections to the circuit board, otherwise it may get loose.

MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

INTRODUCTION

Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building electronic equipment by any
electronic industry. A number of methods are available for making P.C.B., the simplest method is
of drawing pattern on a copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple
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nail polish on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest of copper
pattern in acid liquid.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :-

* Copper Clad Sheet

* Nail Polish or Paint

* Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)

* Plastic Tray

* Tap Water etc.

PROCEDURE

The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper sheet with say spirit or
trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil etc. and then wash the board under running tap
water. Dry the surface with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for some
time.

Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration such as thickness of
lines/ holes according to the components. Now draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows,
square) as per circuit diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other acid
resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely dried, the marked holes
in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In case there is any shorting of lines due to
spilling of paint, these may be removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after the paint has
dried.

After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be heated to about 60 degree
and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its copper side upwards in a plastic tray of about 15*20
cm. Stirring the solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted copper would take

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about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may be heated again and the process
repeated. The paint on the pattern can be removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a
coat of varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready

REACTION

Fecl + Cu ----- CuCl + Fe

3 3

Fecl + 3H O --------- Fe (OH) + 3HCL

3 2 3

PRECAUTION

1. Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any splashing. Fecl3 is irritating to the
skin and will stain the clothes.

2. Place the board in solution with copper side up.

3. Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by giving see-saw motion to the dish and
solution in it.

4. Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not to boiling. After some time the
unshaded parts change their colour continue to etch. Gradually the base material will
become visible. Etch for two minutes more to get a neat pattern.

5. Don't throw away the remaining Fecl3 solution. It can be used again for next Printed
Circuit Board P.C.B.

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USES

Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a circuit for compactness,
simplicity of servicing and case of interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : Prinked
Circuit Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one side of which
copper patterns are made with holes and from another side, leads of electronic components are
inserted in the proper holes and soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of
electronic components terminals are joined to make electronic circuit.

In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil on the boards during curing.
The copper on the board is about 2 mm thick and weights an ounce per square foot.

The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the following steps (opted
professionally):

* Preparing the layout of the track.

* Transferring this layout photographically M the copper.

* Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the process of etching (chemical
process)

* Drilling holes for components mounting.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are used for housing components to make a circuit, for comactness,
simplicity of servicing and ease of interconnection. Single sided, double sided and double sided
with plated-through-hold (PYH) types of p.c boards are common today.

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Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic paper based material (2) Glass epoxy
material. Both materials are available as laminate sheets with copper cladding.

Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on one or both sides. In both boards,
pasting thin copper foil on the board during curing does this. Boards are prepared in sizes of 1 to
5 metre wide and upto 2 metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to 1.8mm. The copper
on the boards is about 0.2 thick and weighs and ounce per square foot.

Figure 8.1

Software used-
1- Avr Studio

2- PonyProg

AVR Studio(Program Editor):

Instructions for Programming and Compiling C within AVR Studio 4
Open AVR Studio, you should be greeted with the following dialog:
Hit New

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Hit New Project. If this dialog does not show, go to Project -> New Project.
You should see the following dialog:

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Choose AVR GCC for project type and type in a project name. This example will make a
directory called
test\ and a file called test.c. Hit next to choose your platform (you can choose AVR Simulator to
be able to
simulate your project in AVR Studio) then hit Finish.
A new window should come up where you can type in your C code. Notice it will highlight the
proper C
syntax. Type in a sample program like the following:

Compile your file then hit Start Debugging (the play button). Now you can step through your C
code. To
see the assembly code, go to View -> Disassembler. Now you can step through both at the same
time. No
more need for Programmers Notepad or makefiles!

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To open your project again, go to Project -> Open and choose your .aps file.

PonyProg:

To be able to send hex file from your computer to AVR microcontroller you will need to
download and install PonyProg2000. After the installation, the first thing you will need to do is
configure PonyProg to work with our AVR Programmer. To do this go to "Setup" menu and
select "Interface Setup". The following window will be shown and highlighted areas show you
exactly which options should be selected

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In the next step select "AVR micro" and your microcontroller type that you will be programming
(ex. ATmega8).

At this point PonyProg configuration is complete and we can open hex program with which
AVR microcontroller will be flashed. Go to "File" menu, select "Open Program (FLASH)
File ...", and point to the hex file to open it up. You should see hex numbers as shown on the
screen below. If you haven't connected AVR Programmer dongle to your computer's seri

port yet, then now is the time. Make sure that AVR Programmer is physically connected to your
AVR microcontroller through Socket PCB or through ICSP 6-PIN connector. Finally click on the

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highlighted icon "Write Program Memory (FLASH)", or go to "Command" menu and select
"Write Program (FLASH)".

Click on "Yes" button to confirm the programming.

  To be able to send hex file from your computer to AVR microcontroller you will need to download and install
PonyProg2000. After the installation, the first thing you will need to do is configure PonyProg to work with our
AVR Programmer. To do this go to "Setup" menu and select "Interface Setup". The following window will be
shown and highlighted areas show you exactly which options should be selected.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ECE

In the next step select "AVR micro" and your microcontroller type that you will be programming (ex. ATmega8).

At this point PonyProg configuration is complete and we can open hex program with which AVR microcontroller
will be flashed. Go to "File" menu, select "Open Program (FLASH) File ...", and point to the hex file to open it
up. You should see hex numbers as shown on the screen below. If you haven't connected AVR Programmer
dongle to your computer's serial port yet, then now is the time. Make sure that AVR Programmer is physically
connected to your AVR microcontroller through Socket PCB or through ICSP 6-PIN connector. Finally click on
the highlighted icon "Write Program Memory (FLASH)", or go to "Command" menu and select "Write Program
(FLASH)".

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Click on "Yes" button to confirm the programming.

Now sit tight, relax and watch the programming progress on the status bar. PonyProg will program AVR
microcontroller and verify if the hex file was transferred without any errors. For your information this process
shouldn't really take more than 10 to 30 seconds. This depends on the size of the program that you're trying to
flash.

After programming is completed "Write successful" window will be shown letting you know that AVR
microcontroller has been programmed, and is now ready to be used.

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CHAPTER 9

ADVANTAGES
1. An interchange of heating and cooling process can be exercised just by reversing the polarity.

2. The weight per unit refrigeration .is considerably lower than convention al refrigeration
system.

3. These units are much more flexible than conventional units.

4. It can take over-load simply by increasing power input.

5. Simple and fewer parts required.

6. Suitable for low capacity.

7. No moving parts, noiseless.

8. No leakage problem.

9. Compact in size.

10. More reliable.

11. Very long life.

12. Easy control.

DISADVANTAGE

1. Advantageous only for unit smaller capacity.

2. More power is needed to run the system.

3. Low C.O.P.

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APPLICATION
1. Avionics

2. Black box cooling

3. Cold chambers

4. Cold plates

5. Constant temperature baths

6. Dew point hygrometers

7. Electronics package cooling

8. Electrophoresis cell coolers

9. Ice point references

10. Immersion coolers

11. Integrated circuit cooling

12. Long lasting cooling devices

13. Microprocessor cooling

14. Microtome stage coolers

15. Power generators (small)

16. Precision device cooling (lasers and microprocessors)

17. Restaurant portion dispenser

18. Stir coolers

20. Water and beverage coolers

21. Wet process temperature controller

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CONCLUSION
1. Solar-power refrigeration has a good advantage when compared to other
application.

2. Solar Energy being a renewable source of energy proved to efficient as compared to

using electrical energy or steam at the same place.

3. Coefficient Of Performance(cop) for solar refrigeration system is low.

4. Better metrices:size,cost

5. Complexity of solar refrigeration systems requires more size,bulkiness.

6.Low operating costs do not outweigh high initial investment.

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REFFERENCE

1. Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/main page

2.Google.com

3.Roy J Dossat(2002),principle of refrigeration,vol.2

4.Solar Cells and their Applications Second Edition, Lewis Fraas, Larry Partain, Wiley, 2010, ISBN 978-0-470-
44633-1 , Section10.2.

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