Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

12

12.1 Introduction sugar syrup within to give a semi-solid texture.

The nature of the intramolecular bonding is
Gummies and jellies are a class of confections dependent on the type of hydrocolloid, or their
based on a hydrocolloid (sometimes called a sta- combination, used. In some cases, hydrocolloid
bilizer) that provides a network to hold relatively molecules may be covalently bound through
high moisture content sugar syrup. Licorices and strong chemical interactions, whereas in other
licorice-like products mainly use flour as their cases, the hydrocolloid molecules form a physical
source of stabilizer and for this chapter flour will structure, without covalent bonding. Differences
be used in the same context as a hydrocolloid. The in bonding structures among the hydrocolloids
hydrocolloid gel also influences appearance, fla- are what impart the different textural attributes for
vor release, and textural attributes. Traditionally, the wide range of gummy and jelly confections on
the term gummy (sometimes written as gummi) is the market. Mixing hydrocolloids in gummy and
reserved for candies made with gelatin, although jelly candies provides even greater variation in
this practice is not strictly followed around the product texture due to the complex interactions in
world. Candies made with other hydrocolloids are mixed, or composite, gels.
generally called jellies. The most common hydro- The setting rates and physical properties of the
colloids are gelatin, starch, and pectin. Each hydrocolloid candies are also dependent, to some
hydrocolloid imparts its own unique texture and extent, on the nature of the sweeteners used in the
organoleptic properties to the candy. Other hydro- formulation since the sweeteners may impact
colloids (such as agar, gum arabic, carrageenan, gelation properties. Sucrose and corn syrup are
etc.) are often used in mixtures with other hydro- the most common sweeteners used in gummy
colloids to impart new characteristics and tex- and jelly candies, but sugar-free versions based,
tures. Table 12.1 provides a comparison of various for example, on maltitol and HSH can also be
attributes of gummy and jelly candies based on found. Glucose or even fructose, in combination
different stabilizers. with corn syrup, can be used as well. In general,
Gummies, jellies and licorices typically have the presence of these sweeteners raises the melt-
relatively high water content (16–20%), although ing point of the gel and impedes gel formation,
hard gums may be as low as 7–8%. The physico-­ although this is not always true. For example,
chemical properties of these candies arise due to high sugar solids are required for certain types of
the cross-linking of the hydrocolloids into a gel. pectin to form a gel.
Individual hydrocolloid molecules bond together To make jelly candies, sugar and corn syrup
to form a network structure that traps the fluid are typically mixed with the hydrocolloid and

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 329

R.W. Hartel et al., Confectionery Science and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61742-8_12
330 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Table 12.1  Attributes of various hydrocolloids used in gummy and jelly candies
Starch Gelatin Pectin Agar Gum arabic
Usage level (%) 10–30 6–10 1–2 1–2 20–50
Setting temperature (°C) 20–35 30–35 75–85 35–40 20–35
Setting time (hr) 12 12–16 1 12–16 24
Appearance Cloudy, opaque Translucent Clear Mostly clear Translucent
Texture Soft to firm, chewy Elastic, firm Short, tender Short, tender Very firm, hard
Flavor releasea Medium Slow Rapid Rapid Slow
Combinations with Gelatin, pectin, gum Pectin, starch, Starch, Starch, Starch, gelatin
arabic gum arabic gelatin gelatin
Adapted from Carr et al. (1995)
a
Dependent somewhat on hydrophilic nature of flavor molecules
b
High methoxyl (HM) pectin

cooked to the set temperature to give the desired also be used in certain applications for forming
water content. In starch-based jellies and lico- jelly candies and licorice production. Once the
rices, cooking leads to gelatinization of the starch candies have dried and set into the desired condi-
granule and subsequent cooling allows gel for- tions, they are generally given some type of fin-
mation. The majority of pectin-based jellies are ishing process. Sanding with sugar, panning, and
made by heating the sugar syrup in the presence oiling are common types of finishes.
of the hydrocolloid, with acid added just prior to
cooling to induce gel formation at low pH. To
make gelatin gummies, the sweeteners are often 12.2 Formulations
cooked separately from the gelatin, since gelatin and Ingredients
is very heat sensitive. A hydrated gelatin solution
is added to the concentrated sugar syrup after the Gummies, jellies and licorices are relatively sim-
syrup has been allowed to cool, and the mixture ple confections containing sweeteners, hydrocol-
is then cooled to solidify into a gelatin gel matrix. loids, colors, flavors and, sometimes, organic
The excessive heat, especially in batch cooking, acids.
causes the protein to degrade, losing some of its
desirable gel properties. With continuous cook-
ers, solubilized gelatin solution may be added 12.2.1 Sweeteners
prior to cooking the syrup with only minimal
degradation due to the short cooking times and Sucrose and glucose syrup form the bulk of most
relatively low cook temperatures. gummy and jelly candies. They provide sweet-
Once the sweetener and hydrocolloid solution ness and body in the form of a colored, flavored
has been cooked to its final water content, colors, sugar syrup that is held in place by the hydrocol-
flavors and organic acids are typically added loid gel. Sucrose content is generally about
prior to forming. Methods of forming can vary 40–50% of the sweetener solids (dry basis) since
quite widely depending on the candy. Probably these candies should not grain. In general, the
still the most common method of forming gummy high residual water content and high glucose con-
and jelly candies is by depositing the fluid candy tent in gummies and jellies (15–20%) means that
mass into impressions made in dried corn starch the sucrose remains completely solubilized and
in a starch mogul and allowing the candy to set in does not grain.
the drying starch. However, starchless molding Glucose syrup generally makes up 50–60% of
can also be used for forming certain jelly candies. the sweetener solids (dry basis). Typically, either
Some jelly candies, like pectin candies, may still 42 or 63 DE glucose syrup (or some combina-
be slabbed and cut. Extrusion processing may tion) is used. The choice of glucose syrup is
12.2  Formulations and Ingredients 331

based on the desired characteristics of the fin- 12.2.2.1 Starch

ished candy since it can influence texture, sweet- Starch is one of the most common hydrocolloids
ness, flavor release and shelf life. Use of higher used in confections to produce a wide array of
DE glucose syrup leads to softer candy with items from fruit slices to gum drops to jelly bean
lower water activity, but one that may be prone to centers. Starch used in confections in the United
stickiness. States most often comes from corn, but other
For licorice candies, molasses may be added sources (wheat, tapioca, potato, etc.) can also be
to the glucose/flour blend for flavor and color used. Starch granules are a semi-crystalline solid
contribution. Fruit-flavored flour-based candy particle (1–30 μm) composed of amylose and
products generally do not contain molasses amylopectin molecules (see Section 5.1). Starch
since this would offset the fruit flavors. Glucose at levels of 10–15% (dry basis) is added to the
syrup is usually the main sweetener for these sweetener and cooked to cause complete gelatini-
candies with sucrose sometimes used to a lesser zation or complete loss of structure of individual
extent. starch granules; that is, most starch-based jellies
Various sugar-free versions of gummy and contain only fragments of starch granules, with
jelly candies can be found. Typical sweeteners nearly all of the starch molecules dispersed into
used for sugar-free gummies and jellies include the aqueous phase. Sufficient water must be pres-
maltitol or sorbitol as the primary sweetener with ent during the cooking process to ensure gelatini-
maltitol syrup (or hydrogenated starch hydroly- zation, although required water content depends
sate) added to prevent crystallization (in the same on the type of starch, how it has been pre-treated
way that glucose syrup prevents crystallization of (e.g., pre-gelatinized) and the cooking process.
sucrose). Polydextrose may be used as a bulking Lower water content is adequate for higher tem-
agent in sugar-free gummy and jelly candies. perature (pressure) cooking methods, like steam
Choice of sweetener is based on numerous fac- injection (jet cooking), whereas higher water
tors, including caloric content, ease of use, and content is required for batch cooking and coil
cost. Since most sugar alcohols are significantly cookers. When using high-amylose starch, pres-
less sweet than sucrose, a high intensity sweet- sure cooking methods are required to provide
ener is often added. If added to the initial formu- sufficient energy to completely gelatinize the
lation, the high intensity sweetener must be able starch. Different types of starch, with different
to withstand the high temperatures of cooking. ratios of amylose to amylopectin or different
Sucralose is often chosen for this reason. modifications to the physico-chemical structure,
give different textures in starch-based confec-
tions. Typical formulations for starch jelly can-
12.2.2 Stabilizers or Hydrocolloids dies are given in Table 12.2.
Most starch candies are relatively soft and
Gummy, jelly and licorice confections cover a easy to eat, although texture can vary quite widely
broad range of candies with different textural (for example, the jujube is a hard form of a starch
properties, primarily due to the type and amount candy). Starch is also often used in fruit snacks.
of hydrocolloid employed. The type and nature The nature of the starch gel and subsequent prod-
of the sweeteners and the final water content also uct characteristics can vary quite broadly and
play important roles in determining product depend on such parameters as extent of starch
characteristics. The most commonly used hydro- gelatinization, ratio of amylose to amylopectin in
colloids include starch, pectin, and gelatin, the starch, nature of modifications to the starch
although gum arabic and agar can be used as granules, effects of sweeteners on gelatinization,
well. Flour is used in licorice products. See and water content. Due to the nature of starch
Chapter 5 for specific details (chemistry, reac- when it gelatinizes, the finished candy has a rela-
tions, gelation mechanisms, etc.) of each tively opaque or cloudy appearance when com-
hydrocolloid. pared with other gummy and jelly candies.
332 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Table 12.2  Typical formulation (in %) for making sugar- Table 12.3  Typical formulation (in %) for flour-based
sanded starch-based jelly candy (steam injection process) candy (licorice type)
Starch jelly Licorice
Glucose syrup (62 DE)a 45–50 Glucose syrup (42 DE)a 35–50
Sucrose 25–35 Wheat flour/starch 20–35
Water 9–14 Sugar 0–15
Starchb 9–12 Water 25–40
Acid 0.5–1.0 Oil 0.5–1.0
Flavor 0.25–0.5 Acid 0.2–0.5
Color 0.1–0.3 Flavora 0.3–3.0
a
Water content: 20% Color 0.1–0.3
b
Thin boiling starch and high amylose starch a
May be higher for black licorice with licorice extract and
anise flavoring

Numerous modifications of starch have been 12.2.2.3 Gelatin

developed to either enhance processing charac- The firm, elastic nature of gelatin is a desired
teristics or moderate finished textural properties. characteristic in the classic gummy (or gummi)
For example, it is common to use so-called thin bear candy. Gelatin, a protein derived from col-
boiling starch for jelly candies that are deposited. lagen, comes primarily from animal sources
This particular starch modification gives a cooked (cow, pig), although more recently fish gelatins
syrup a range of lower viscosities to allow easier have become available. Gelatin is generally used
depositing. at levels of 5–10% in gummy candies to produce
Most starch jellies are finished by sanding a firm, chewy gel. It is available in various bloom
with sugar or given a soft-panned sugar shell strength numbers. Bloom number is a measure of
(jelly bean). Some starch jelly products may be gel strength with higher numbers (e.g., 250) giv-
oiled to give a smooth surface appearance. ing firmer gels than lower numbers (e.g., 125), at
a given gelatin concentration. See Section
12.2.2.2 Flour 12.4.1.2 for more details. Some typical formula-
Licorice and fruit twist candies are the main cat- tions for gummy candies are given in Table 12.4.
egory of confections based on flour, usually The texture of gummy candies can be manipu-
wheat flour. Wheat flour is often used in licorice lated in numerous ways (see Section 12.4.1.2 for
products and similar fruit-flavored products at more details). The nature (bloom strength) of the
about a 30% level. When cooked, the partially gelatin used, the gelatin concentration, the sweet-
gelatinized starch and denatured protein in flour ener combination (i.e., sucrose to glucose syrup),
form a chewy matrix with the sugars. Table 12.3 and the water content are the primary parameters
gives a typical formulation for licorice-type that affect properties of the finished piece. Based
confections. on the nature of the gelation process, gelatin
In the United States, there is a general miscon- forms clear gels. Gelatin forms a thermorevers-
ception by the consumer that all flour-based chewy ible gel, meaning that gummy candies will lose
candies are called licorice, whether or not they their shape and structure if warmed above the
contain licorice extract. Candy manufacturers, in melting point of the gelatin; thus, storage condi-
recognition of the need for true licorice candy to tions are crucial for gummy candies.
contain licorice extract, typically label these fla- Gummy candies are most often given a shiny
vored (fruit, chocolate, etc.) licorice-like products appearance by finishing with wax dispersed in
as fruit-flavored twists or something to that effect. oil. Gummies can also be sanded with various
Note that there are no regulations or Standard of grades of sugar or a mixture of acid and sugar for
Identity that governs the name licorice. sour gummy candies.
12.2  Formulations and Ingredients 333

Table 12.4  Typical formulation for batch-type gelatin-­ a slower set time is required or an acid note does
based candy
not fit the desired flavor profile.
Gelatin gummy Pectin jellies may be finished by enrobing in
Glucose syrup (42 DE)a 37–42 chocolate, sanding with sugar, or panning to give
Sucrose 31–34 soft sugar shell.
Water (for sugar syrup) 9–12
Gelatin (250 bloom) 5.0–5.5
12.2.2.5 Agar (Agar Agar)
Water (for gelatin hydration) 9–11
An extract derived from certain types of seaweed,
Acid 0.6–0.9
agar is a galactose polymer (or more precisely, a
Flavor 0.3–0.6
family of polymers) that forms a firm gel at very
Color 0.05–0.1
a
low (1–2%) concentrations. In confections, agar
Water content: 20%
gives a short, tender gel that is easy to bite, very
similar to pectin. Agar candies are also clear like
Table 12.5  Typical formulation (in %) for pectin-based
candy
pectin gels, and are often used to make sugar
sanded fruit slices. Agar is also found mixed with
Pectin jelly
a
other hydrocolloids to moderate texture. Due to
Glucose syrup (62 DE) 36–40
the slow setting speed of agar, it is not widely
Sucrose 30–36
used for jelly candies, although certain types of
Water 20–25
Pectin (high methoxyl) 1.3–1.7
fruit slices may be made with agar as the primary
Sucrose (for pectin) 4–6
hydrocolloid.
Acid 0.5–1.0
Flavor 0.3–0.5 12.2.2.6 Gum Arabic (Gum Acacia)
Color 0.05–0.1 Gum arabic (see Section 5.4.4) is the hardened
a
Note that some confectioners prefer 42 DE syrup sap of certain species of the acacia tree. A mix-
ture of saccharides and glycoproteins, gum arabic
has numerous applications in foods, from stabi-
12.2.2.4 Pectin lizer to emulsifier. When used to make jelly can-
Pectin, a galactomannan hydrocolloid derived dies, gum arabic forms a hard gel at levels of
from fruits, is used in fruit slices and some types 30–60%. Gum arabic has been used to make hard
of jelly bean centers. The pectin used in confec- gel cough drops, although its use in jelly candies
tionery jellies most often is extracted either from is fairly limited. This is in part because of price
citrus peels or apple pomace and makes a firm gel volatility and cost for the relatively high usage
at very low concentrations (1–2%). Pectin level, but also related to difficulty in use
imparts a soft, tender mouthfeel, has a short (entrapped air).
break, and gives an extremely clear appearance.
Table  12.5 gives a typical formulation for acid-­
set pectin jelly candy. 12.2.3 Organic Acids
The most common form of pectin used in mak-
ing pectin jelly candies is high methoxy (HM) Organic acids are used to complement fruit fla-
pectin, meaning it has a degree of esterification vors and to make sour jelly candies. About 1–2%
greater than 50% (see Section 5.3). An acid (e.g., acid (citric, malic, lactic, etc.) is added to the for-
citric acid) must be added just prior to forming to mulation, usually after cooking, to enhance fruit
set the pectin gel, which sets very quickly once flavors and/or provide a sour eating experience.
the pH has been lowered sufficiently. Different However, acids contribute to two negative effects
modifications of pectin, based on either extent of in gummy and jelly candies. For example, the
methoxyl substitution or amidation, can be low pH and high temperatures as these candies
obtained that give different gel strengths. Low are processed can lead to excessive degradation
methoxyl pectin may be used in confections when of gelatin and inversion of sucrose.
334 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

The rate of inversion of sucrose at elevated Table 12.6  Approximate composition of block licorice
extract (Nieman 1977)
temperatures is enhanced when pH is reduced
(see Section 1.3.1). The presence of fructose and Component Composition range (%)
glucose due to excessive inversion would lead to Glycyrrhizin 15–18
undesirably sticky candies and reduced elasticity Sugars 7–18
in gummy candies. To minimize inversion, acid is Gums and starch 19–42
Insoluble material 2–16
added after the cook, ideally at lower tempera-
Ash 4–13
tures, just prior to depositing. The formulation
Water 12–17
can also be buffered with sodium lactate or
sodium citrate, which reduces inversion rate
without influencing sour characteristics. For
example, at 80 °C (176 °F) a sugar syrup and up to 3% for some exempt from certification
(65°Brix) with 1% lactic acid has about 20% (“natural”) flavors, although flavor levels may
inversion of the sucrose in 20 min, whereas that vary slightly based on the type of stabilizer used.
level is reduced to less than 1% inversion when a In licorice candies, licorice extract, added at
buffered lactic acid systems is used. The use of a levels from 1.5% to 4%, provides much of the
buffer salt provides the following benefits: (1) flavor. Licorice extract is an aqueous extract from
reduced inversion and thus, enhanced shelf life the root of the licorice shrub. The primary ingre-
due to reduced hygroscopicity, (2) increased acid dient is glycyrrhizin (or glycyrrhizic acid), a
content without lowering pH, (3) reduced gelatin sweetener that is 50 times sweeter than sucrose.
hydrolysis, improved gelatin strength, and less Black licorice extract composition is shown in
gelatin usage, (4) controlled gelling in pectin-­ Table 12.6, although exact composition depends
based candies, and (5) reduced flavor variation. on the region of growth and production methods
Powdered or granulated acids may be used to (Nieman 1977). Licorice extract contains about
sand jelly candies to enhance the sour eating 15–18% glycyrrhizin, although the characteristic
experience. These are typically adding with sand- licorice flavor comes from the hundreds of minor
ing sugar during the finishing stages. Because components also found in the extract. Anise fla-
these acids tend to be hygroscopic, the product vor (aniseed oil) may be added to licorice candy
needs to be dried to about 12–14% moisture to to enhance and extend the licorice extract. Salt is
reduce moisture absorption. also added as a flavor enhancer.
The addition of acid not only provides flavor
enhancement, it is specifically added to reduce
the pH to cause high methoxyl pectin to set. In 12.2.5 Colors
pectin jellies, the acid is added at the end of pro-
cessing, just prior to forming. Once the pH is Typically soluble colors dispersed in water are
reduced, pectin sets into a gel very quickly so used in gummy and jelly candy applications. In
forming must take place immediately after acid most cases, a concentrated solution of dyes is
addition. added after the cooking step, prior to depositing.
The level of coloring agent to add depends on
such factors as thickness of the piece, clarity,
12.2.4 Flavors type of hydrocolloid and the method of finishing
the piece (whether oiling, sugar sanding, etc.).
Flavor attributes depend on the type of gelling Coloring material should be stable to the condi-
agent used and type of organic acid, if present. tions they will be exposed to such as high tem-
Liquid flavors, either water or oil-based, are most peratures and low pH.
common for use in gummy and jelly candies. In black licorice, caramel coloring may be
Typical usage levels for flavors in gummy and used in addition to a black dye. Fruit twists con-
jelly candies are 0.1–0.2% for artificial flavors taining no licorice extract are colored to match
12.3 Processing 335

the flavor, as in red strawberry twists, a common 12.3 Processing

confection in the United States.
The processes for making gummy and jelly can-
dies vary slightly depending on the nature of the
12.2.6 Others hydrocolloid used. They traditionally involve
mixing the sweeteners together, either with or
Many gummy and jelly formulations are now without the hydrocolloid, cooking the syrup to a
made with fruit juice concentrates to promote a set temperature to reach the desired product water
healthier image. These concentrates provide content, cooling the syrup (and adding hydrocol-
sweeteners, and also provide colors and flavors. loid where appropriate, along with colors, flavors
In licorice and licorice-like fruit-twist prod- and acids) prior to forming and finishing the end
ucts, various other ingredients may be added to product. These steps are shown schematically in
moderate product characteristics. For example, a Figure  12.1. In some processes, however, the
small amount of fat or emulsifier (typically cooking step is replaced with a steam injection
monoglycerides) may be added to inhibit sticki- process to attain the final syrup for further form-
ness. A small amount (0.2–0.4%) of gelatin also ing. Formulation requirements are different
may be added as a binder and to retain moisture. between the two processes. Further, formulation
Various humectants may also be added to licorice and cooking requirements for licorice are differ-
and licorice-type products to retain moisture and ent and distinct from gummy and jelly process-
texture. ing. As with most confectionery manufacturing

Figure 12.1 Schematic
of processing steps for
gummy and jelly
confections
336 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

processes, numerous options exist for each of the The water content at the end of the cooking
steps, depending on the scale of operation and stage depends on the method of forming and the
end product characteristics. type of product. Typically, moisture content must
be sufficiently high to give adequate flow (low
viscosity) of the syrup for forming, particularly
12.3.1 Gummies and Jellies when depositing techniques are used. Typical
water content for starch-based candies being
12.3.1.1 Dissolving, Heating deposited into dried starch is 20–25%.
and Cooking
The first steps in many gummy and jelly candy 12.3.1.1.1  Open Kettle Cooking
processing requires mixing the sweeteners fol- Cooking in an open kettle is the simplest method
lowed by cooking the slurry to the appropriate of preparing gummy and jelly candies. Either
temperature to get the desired moisture content. steam, electric heat or gas flame can be used to
The aims of this part of the process are to make provide heat for cooking the sweetener and
sure any crystalline sugars are completely dis- hydrocolloid (except gelatin) with an internal
solved, to solubilize the hydrocolloid (when scraping blade to prevent scorching on the sur-
appropriate), evaporate water, deaerate the syrup, face. The water content in an open kettle for
and ensure the appropriate viscosity for the form- cooking a starch slurry should be about 50% to
ing step. Several methods can be used for cook- ensure complete gelatinization. Due to the high
ing of the sweetener mix for gummy and jelly water content and the long cooking time (30–
candies, including batch kettle cooking, vacuum 45 min), open kettle cooking typically leads to
cooking, swept surface heat exchanger, and coil significant browning of the sugars, which may
cooking. Extrusion cooking is often used for pro- cause off-colors in the finished candies. Also,
cessing flour into licorice products. there can be some restrictions to batch cooking of
The hydrocolloid (starch, pectin, gelatin, etc.) certain types of hydrocolloids. For example, high
is typically heated with the sweetener, sometimes amylose starches cannot be cooked in an open
to induce the physico-chemical changes in the cooker since they require higher temperatures to
hydrocolloid that lead to gelation (i.e., starch). gelatinize. And, the extended cooking times can
For gelatin gummies, hydrated gelatin is some- cause degradation of gelatin, which is why a
times added to the cooked sweetener syrup after hydrated gelatin solution is usually added after
it has cooled somewhat to prevent denaturation of the batch-cooked syrup has cooled slightly.
the protein. However, processes that use short
cooking times often simply add the hydrated gel- 12.3.1.1.2  Pressure Cooking
atin to the slurry prior to cooking. In many con- Pressure cooking is generally used to speed the
tinuous cookers, the time at high temperature is cooking process, with elevated pressure meaning
sufficiently short that gelatin degradation is mini- that higher cook temperatures can be realized.
mized (see Section 11.3.1). Increasing the pressure in the cooking process,
The water content needed for cooking starch whether in a batch kettle or a continuous cooker,
jellies is dependent on the type of starch used and increases the boiling point temperature and
the method for cooking. Starch granules require ­maintains the water in liquid form. This is par-
sufficient water to allow gelatinization, but this ticularly important for starch jellies since the
depends somewhat on the cooking conditions starch has more time to gelatinize at high water
(e.g., pressure). When cooking at atmospheric content and temperature.
pressure in an open kettle, the starch slurry must Pressure cooking can be accomplished in a
contain more water (up to 50% water) than when coil (or static) cooker or a swept-surface heat
cooking in a pressure cooker (minimum 18% exchanger. Extrusion cooking is also a form of
water) to ensure complete gelatinization. pressure cooking. The steam injection process,
12.3 Processing 337

while involving high pressures, does not evapo- the surface (sweep the surface). The annular space
rate water. between the two cylinders is where steam con-
denses to give the heating effect. Only a thin metal
12.3.1.1.2.1  Coil (Static) Cooker wall separates the condensing steam from starch
A static cooker is often used to heat and evapo- slurry inside and this, in combination with the
rate the liquid sweetener mixture for gummy and swept surface action, provides excellent heat
jelly candies. The static cooker is simply a metal transfer in the SSHE, particularly for viscous flu-
coil contained within a steam chest filled with ids like gelatinizing starch. Furthermore, since
high-pressure steam. The sweetener slurry con- there is no contact between starch slurry and
taining the hydrocolloid is pumped through the steam, the SSHE can be used for both heating and
coil with condensation of steam on the outside of evaporation. Generally, the SSHE is operated
the coil causing rapid heating of the slurry. Steam under pressure to maintain water in the liquid
condensate is continually removed from the bot- state until cooking is completed, at which point
tom of the steam chest and either used for heat the starch slurry enters a flash chamber to release
recovery schemes to recover valuable energy or the pressure and water is evaporated (flashed off).
returned to the steam boiler. Although the SSHE is an efficient cooker for
By use of a back-pressure regulator, pressure viscous fluids, the relatively low surface area (for
within the heating coil maintains the water in the heating) and high capital costs limit its applica-
feed slurry in liquid state despite the high tem- tion in the candy industry to those where high
peratures. The residence time within the coil viscosity is needed for subsequent forming steps.
depends on the type of candy being made, The SSHE is quite often used for cooking starch
although typical residence times are on the order slurries and for continuous licorice manufacture
of a minute or two. Once the super-heated slurry (see next section on licorice processing).
exits the back-pressure valve, the water is flashed
off in an expansion chamber with the concen- 12.3.1.1.2.3  Extrusion
trated candy syrup exiting the bottom of the Extrusion cooking is widely used in the snack
chamber, ready for further processing. Flashing food industry and can be used to manufacture
off the water also helps to deaerate the sugar mass. licorice and starch gel pieces. Typically, a twin-­
The static cooker is often used for gelatin screw extruder is used because of the advantages
because it gives a very rapid cook with minimal in flexibility in processing. In a twin-screw
degradation of the protein (due to the short resi- extruder, various operations, including mixing,
dence time) and minimal air entrainment. Thus, cooking, kneading, release of vapors, and addi-
hydrated gelatin can be added directly to the tion of minor ingredients just prior to forming in
batch prior to cooking, making this an efficient the die, can all be accomplished simply by care-
and convenient process for gummy candies. ful selection of the screw elements. This flexibil-
ity has led to increased use of the extruder for
12.3.1.1.2.2  Swept (or Scraped)-Surface Heat various processes, including confectionery pro-
Exchanger cessing. For example, McHugh and Huxsoll
Another cooking method for jelly candies is the (1999) studied extrusion of fruit/starch mixtures
swept-surface heat exchanger (SSHE). The SSHE to form gelled fruit pieces. By controlling the
is comprised essentially of two concentric cylin- temperature profile in the extruder (in six distinct
ders with flow of product through the interior and zones), starch gelatinization could be controlled.
steam through the annular space. The starch slurry They were able to produce gels having either
is pumped through the inner cylinder, which has completely gelatinized starch or with some unge-
an internal dasher with blades that either scrape latinized starch and could thereby control texture
the inside surface of the cylinder or come close to of the resulting fruit gels.
338 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

12.3.1.1.3  Steam Injection Cooker increase in moisture content assuming an initial

A common method of cooking starch slurries slurry solids content of 80%, pre-heated to 93 °C
(sweeteners plus starch granules) for jelly can- (200 °F) and cooked to 165 °C (330 °F). Pre-­
dies is the steam injection cooker. The principle heating of the slurry is very important in deter-
behind this process is shown in Figure 12.2. mining how much water is condensed into the
Steam injection cooking is also advantageous for slurry. A rule of thumb would be that about 1%
processing gelatin slurries because the very short moisture is added to the slurry for each 5 °C
residence time minimizes degradation of the pro- (10 °F) of temperature below boiling point the
tein. The process also minimizes aeration of the slurry is fed into the steam injection head.
gelatin candy mix. Steam injection quickly causes temperature of
In this system, high pressure steam is directly the slurry to increase as the pressure goes up.
infused into a flow of the sugar slurry to provide Between the rapid heat transfer and the shear
rapid heat transfer as steam condenses directly forces within the mixing head, rapid gelatiniza-
into the solution. The amount of steam needed to tion of starch granules occurs so that after just a
condense depends on the input temperature (pre- brief (seconds) residence time in the injection
heating), the type of slurry (heat capacity), and cooker, the cooked starch slurry has been com-
the end-point temperature. Typically, about pletely gelatinized. Most of the water that con-
0.15 kg of steam are condensed per kg of slurry densed from the steam in the mixing head is
being processed, depending on the feed tempera- vaporized when the candy mass is released to
ture, with all but a small fraction of that moisture atmospheric pressure. Again, the injection cooker
flashed off upon pressure release. In some steam does not evaporate water from the slurry; it only
injection systems, this translates to about 1% heats it up to promote starch gelatinization.
Flashing water off after the depressurization valve
also helps to deaerate the candy mixture, leaving
Heated Liquid a bubble-free candy syrup for depositing.
Out
Another important point here is that the steam
used in steam injection cookers must be culinary
steam, meaning it is made from potable water and
processed according to good manufacturing prac-
tices since it will be consumed along with the
Helical food. It must be free of any contaminants that
Injection Flights
Tube
might affect public health or food quality. Specific
regulations apply to culinary steam. For example,
additives used to treat boiler water (i.e., corrosion
resistance, softening, etc.) must come from the
FDA-approved list (see Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 21, Chapter 1, Part 173,
Subpart D, Section 173.310). Boilers, and the
accompanying pipes and fittings, must also meet
all food-grade processing surface requirements
and equipment design standards.

Steam In 12.3.1.2 Forming

There are numerous methods to form gummy and
Unheated jelly candies into the final product shape.
Liquid In
Probably the oldest and simplest method is to
Figure 12.2  Principle of operation of steam injection pour the hot syrup onto a cold table in a slab and
cooker (Courtesy of Pick Heaters) cut the desired pieces from the slab. More often,
12.3 Processing 339

though, the fluid candy syrup is poured or depos- Modern depositing machines have wide rang-
ited into molds and allowed to solidify in the ing capabilities. Multiple depositors can be used
mold. Finally, some jelly-type candies and flour-­ to make several different flavors at the same time
based candies (licorice) are formed by extrusion. (good for mixed flavor bags), make multiple lay-
ers of candy in sequential deposits, inject a center
12.3.1.2.1  Slab and Cut filling within the primary candy deposit, and
One of the simplest methods of forming gummy introduce unique colorful patterns (swirl, etc.) in
and jelly candies is by pouring the hot candy a single deposit.
mass onto a cool surface and allowing the mass to
cool and solidify before cutting into the desired 12.3.1.2.2.1  Starch Molding
pieces. A candy batch may be poured onto cold Dried starch powder (usually corn starch, but
tables (with cooling water circulating beneath the may be wheat or another starch) makes an excel-
stainless steel surface), allowed to solidify and lent molding material since it holds very fine
then cut into the desired shapes for further pro- details. The starch manufacturer adds a small
cessing. Multi-layered candies can be made by amount (0.1%) of mineral oil or vegetable oil to
sequentially layering candy syrups, although the the molding starch to ensure that candies retain
bottom layer must be solidified before another excellent detail in the desired shape and to
layer can be poured on top. This process can also decrease dust release into the room. Properly
be made continuous by pouring the candy mass prepared molding starch also removes some
onto a cooling conveyor with solidification water from the deposited candy syrup, allowing
enhanced as it passes through a cooling tunnel. depositing at higher moisture content (lower vis-
The solidified candy mass is then cut into the cosity) than the finished good. Molding starch is
desired shapes for further processing. Rapid also inexpensive, easy to work with and shapes
cooling can be achieved with the slab and cut can be quickly changed simply by replacing the
method, but only a limited number of shapes can press boards. However, dust can be a problem in
be formed. manufacturing plants with starch depositing, and
Chocolate-coated pectin jellies may be formed powder explosions are a continual concern.
and cooled by slabbing onto a cooling conveyor. Starch molding has traditionally been used for
Once the pectin has set, a series of knives and forming gummy and jelly candies, although it is
spacers cut the jelly into the desired shape and also used for forming a variety of other candies,
size and separate them for subsequent enrobing including marshmallows, caramels and creams
in chocolate. (see Chapter 9).
Careful conditioning of the starch is necessary
12.3.1.2.2  Molding for high efficiency operation. The starch must be
One of the best methods to make candies with at the proper temperature and moisture to hold
detailed shapes and patterns is by depositing the the shape of the depression and be free from any
liquid candy mass into specially shaped molds. contaminants or residual candies from previous
Molds can be made of plastic or polymeric mate- batches. Table 12.7 provides typical target values
rials, but quite often molds are made from dried for starch moisture content and temperature for
starch powder (usually corn starch) shaped into each hydrocolloid. Gelatin gummy candies typi-
the desired form. Once the candy has been cooled cally need lower temperature and water contents
and dried (for starch depositing) to solidify, it is to prevent formation of a skin on the outside of
removed from the mold and finished prior to the candy.
packaging. Most gummy and jelly type candies The general process of starch molding involves
can be made by molding, although the rapid set- first filling a starch tray or board with conditioned
ting of high methoxyl pectin after acid addition starch and smoothing it off to make a flat, level
makes it difficult to deposit these types of candies surface. An impression is pressed into the starch
in traditional depositing equipment. with a form, or press board that has the desired
340 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Table 12.7  Molding starch guidelines stacking section. At one end of the starch mogul,
Product Moisture (%) Temperature (°C) loaded candy trays from the curing room are
Agar 6–8 35–46 input either manually or by automatic tray
(95–115 °F) unloading onto the mogul conveyor. In the
Gelatin 6–7.5 26.7–35 starch buck, the trays are overturned to unload
(80–95 °F) the contents on a screen to separate candy pieces
Pectin 6–8 35–46.1 from molding starch. The candy pieces are
(95–115 °F) removed from the screen and sent for further
Starch 6–9 35–46.1 processing. The molding starch is sent to a drier
(95–115 °F) to remove the moisture gained from the previ-
ous batch of candy and the dried starch recycled
back into the mogul. Back in the mogul, the
starch trays are righted, filled and leveled.
Depressions are made in the dried starch by
pressing the forms onto the tray as the trays con-
tinue moving through the mogul. The next step
is depositing of the candy syrup into each of the
depressions as the tray moves by on the con-
veyor. Often, the depositing nozzles move for-
ward with the tray to ensure complete filling of
each depression. At the end of each deposit
Figure 12.3  Depositing of jelly candy mass into a starch stroke, the piston sucks back any residual candy
mold (Courtesy of Fast Track Engineering PTY, Ltd.) syrup to prevent tailing. Careful synchroniza-
tion of the depositors and starch trays is critical
to proper filling. When operating at capacity,
candy shapes in multiple units. Hot cooked syrup modern large (jumbo) starch moguls can pro-
containing the hydrocolloid is deposited into the cess up to 35 starch boards (119 cm by 40.6 cm)
depression (Figure 12.3) and allowed to cool and per minute producing nearly 900 kg (>2,000 lb)
dry from several hours to 1 day plus. The fluid of candy per hour. Once filled with candy syrup,
candy deposited into the starch typically has the starch trays are removed from the mogul,
higher water content than desired in the final placed on racks and wheeled into the curing
product in order to ensure sufficiently low viscos- rooms for solidification. Figure 12.5 shows a
ity so that the candy completely fills the mold, starch tray of filled gummy candies, ready for
filling all the small points that give the desired the next step in the operation.
detail. Once the candy piece has solidified (usu-
ally in a curing room) and is at the proper texture, 12.3.1.2.2.2  Starchless Molding
the starch tray is overturned and the candy pieces Although starch makes an excellent molding
separated from the starch on a screen. The candy material that is inexpensive and reusable, the var-
pieces are cleaned of any remaining starch (e.g., ious problems of working with starch (time
using an air jet) and are ready for further process- required for curing, dust problems, potential for
ing or finishing. powder explosions, etc.) have led to starchless
The starch mogul is a continuous machine molding operations. In starchless molding, the
for performing each of the steps in the starch hot candy syrup is deposited into a plastic or
molding process, as shown schematically in polymeric material with the desired shape, often
Figure 12.4. It consists of several distinct zones: with a small hole in the base to facilitate product
the tray feeding section, the starch buck (which removal. Since no drying takes place in a poly-
empties incoming trays and prints new trays meric mold, the water content of the deposited
ready for depositing), the depositor, and the tray candy must be that of the end product.
 12.3 Processing

Figure 12.4  Schematic of a starch mogul operation (Courtesy of Fast Track Engineering PTY, Ltd.)
341
342 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Table 12.8  Curing room guidelines

Temperature (°C) Cycle time (h)
Agar 32–43 8–24
(90–110 °F)
Flour-based candy 40–50 12–24
(104–122 °F)
Gelatin 24–35 8–24
(75–95 °F)
Pectin 49–65.5 8–24
(120–150 °F)
Starch 49–65.5 8–72
(120–150 °F)

makes it a prime candidate for starchless mold-

ing, particularly if metal molds are used to
enhance heat transfer rates. Cold-set starches
may also be molded in this way.

12.3.1.3 Curing (or Stoving)

The curing, or stoving, room is an important step
in the gummy and jelly manufacturing process.
Here is where the excess moisture in the candy is
removed so the candy dries out as it cools and
solidifies. Conditions in the curing room are
important to proper solidification. With the excep-
tion of flour-based candies, relative humidity
should be kept below about 50% in order to pro-
mote drying. Also, low humidity helps prevent the
candy surface from getting sticky and the starch
Figure 12.5 Starch tray filled with gummy candies
(Courtesy of Fast Track Engineering PTY, Ltd.)
from picking up water (which will later have to be
removed by drying). For licorice, relative humid-
ity between 50% and 60% is generally used to
The candy in the polymeric mold is cooled to prevent case hardening caused by lower RH.
allow solidification of the gummy or jelly candy. Appropriate curing room temperatures
To remove the solidified candy, the mold is over- depend on the candy type (Table 12.8). For
turned and the candy released from the mold by gummy candies, temperatures must remain
either tapping the mold from above, using a below the melting point of gelatin (between 30
deformation roller to push the candies out, or and 35 °C; 86 and 96 °F). Higher temperatures
applying a jet of air through the hole at the base are used for starch and pectin jellies to promote
of the mold. A release oil is typically needed to more rapid drying. Air flow must be sufficient to
ensure proper release of the candy from the mold. provide good heat and mass transfer to each of
The solidified candy falls onto a conveyor (also the trays. Often, a figure of 14.2 m3/s (30,000
properly coated with release agent) and is then cubic feet per min) of air flow is recommended,
ready for finishing. but this can vary depending on room size and
Due to the long setting times for most starches configuration. To ensure uniform drying of all
and gelatin, starchless molding is not often used trays, air flow must be carefully regulated so that
for gelatin gummy and starch jelly candies. the air flows across each tray uniformly. Dead
However, the rapid setting of pectin-based candy spots, where air is not moving, can lead to
12.3 Processing 343

e­xcessively long curing times and inconsistent where they are tumbled with the crystalline sugar.
texture for candies in that area. The sugar grains adhere to the wet surface, which
Curing rooms may be loaded and unloaded when dried leaves a uniform coating of sanding
either manually or automatically. Large-scale sugar on the surface of the candy. A second expo-
automated systems often utilize computer control sure to steam may be applied to smooth the sur-
to track pallet movement from the starch mogul face and enhance the finish. A final drying step is
to the curing rooms and back again. These auto- needed prior to packaging to prevent sticking and
mated systems give highly consistent product as microbial concerns. Often, the candy pieces are
the candy moves through the curing rooms, but allowed to sit overnight to ensure complete mois-
they are expensive and require more space than ture equilibration prior to packaging.
manual systems.
Because curing takes from 10 to 48 h 12.3.1.4.2  Oiling and Polishing
(Table  12.8), the curing room is often a bottle- Most gummy, licorice and some jelly candies are
neck in gummy and jelly manufacturing pro- coated with a layer of wax to provide a shiny
cesses. That is, the speed of the cooking and appearance and to prevent pieces from sticking in
depositing steps is much greater than that of the the package. For example, gummy bears are typi-
curing process; therefore, it is curing that gener- cally coated with a thin layer of wax dissolved in
ally limits throughput. The greatest throughput oil to provide a shiny appearance. Fractionated
can be attained through proper choice of candy fats, oils or waxes are applied to the surface of the
formulation to minimize curing times and by candy as they tumble in a pan. Fats and oils used
maintaining the best curing room conditions. include mineral oil and fractionated coconut oil,
among others. Beeswax and carnauba wax are
12.3.1.4 Finishing commonly used waxes. Once the oiling layer has
Once the gummy and jelly candies have solidi- solidified, the candies are ready for packaging.
fied, they must be finished in some way prior to
packaging. If the candies have been deposited in 12.3.1.4.3  Panning
starch, the first step in finishing is to clean the Many jelly candies are finished by putting a soft
candy of any residual surface starch powder. sugar shell around the piece in a process called
After shaking out the starch trays, where the can- panning. Jelly beans and fruit sours are common
dies get caught on the separating screen and soft-panned jelly pieces. Application of a soft
starch passes through, the candies are sent for panned sugar shell is described in Chapter 13.
further processing.
Typical finishing operations include oiling, 12.3.1.4.4  Chocolate Enrobing
sanding, panning and enrobing in chocolate. Enrobing jelly candies with chocolate is not com-
Prior to packaging, the candy pieces need to be mon, with the exception of pectin jellies.
equilibrated to packing room humidity to prevent Typically, the enrobing process (see Section
moisture changes during distribution. Improper 15.6.2) is used to coat the candy piece in choco-
moisture equilibration can lead to products stick- late. Prior to enrobing, however, the surface
ing together. needs to be completely dried to allow adhesion of
the chocolate layer to the pectin jelly. Surface
12.3.1.4.1  Sanding heating techniques, such as infrared radiation, are
Many starch, pectin and agar jelly candies are sometimes used to dry the surface without heat-
covered in coarse-grained, crystalline sanding ing the entire piece. Once the surface has been
sugar. These large sugar grains provide a stark prepared for coating, the jelly centers traveling
textural contrast with the soft jelly center. The on a conveyor pass first through a bottoming sta-
jelly candies are exposed to culinary steam to tion, where a chocolate coating is left on the bot-
minimally wet the surface. The wetted candies tom of the piece, before passing through a curtain
immediately enter a rotating sanding sugar drum of liquid tempered, chocolate for a complete
344 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

coating. The enrobed candy piece passes through A slightly modified version of the traditional
a cooling tunnel to solidify the chocolate suffi- process eliminates the drying stage by cooking
ciently for packaging. the batch directly to the desired water content of
13–15%. This candy mass is then extruded hot
(no less than 70 °C; 158 °F) to form the desired
12.3.2 Licorice shapes. If temperature is lower than this, it could
be too hard to extrude. A filter prior to the
There are several different approaches to cooking extruder die helps to remove any flour lumps.
licorice (Clark 1996; Cottam 2013; Veeramuthu The product exiting the extruder die is collected
2017). The traditional batch method of cooking is onto continuous cooling conveyors. After cool-
still used in many facilities, although continuous ing, the product is then packaged. Elimination of
cooking methods are also common. The entire pro- the drying step greatly reduces the time needed
cess can now be accomplished in cooking extrud- for production; however, careful control of con-
ers that mix ingredients, cook to the desired texture, ditions is required to ensure the proper amount of
and then form the candy, all in one process. starch gelatinization is attained.
The traditional licorice process is a batch Continuous methods of licorice production are
method, where ingredients are added to a pres- also available. In one version, a pre-mix (18–24%
sure vessel and cooked. Sweeteners and other moisture) is fed into a scraped surface heat
ingredients are added to the kettle with initial sol- exchanger (SSHE), where cook temperatures are
ids of about 60%, brought to a boil and cooked about 121–127 °C (250–260 °F). The higher tem-
until the mass develops a “dull, mashed potato peratures (than achievable in an atmospheric ket-
appearance” (Clark 1996). Some suggest that the tle) cause the desired level of starch gelatinization.
flour should be added after the other ingredients Since the SSHE is under pressure, water remains
are brought to a boil. Acids and flavors are added liquid while within the system. Upon exiting the
after cooking to prevent negative changes due to system to atmospheric pressure, some moisture
sucrose inversion or flavor loss, respectively. flashes off, dropping the water content by 2–5%.
Conditions (temperature, sugar content, water The candy mass exiting the SSHE feeds an
content, pressure, agitation, etc.) must be con- extruder (100–136 °C; 212–248 °F), which forces
trolled to attain the desired state of starch gelati- the mass through a die into the final shapes. After
nization in the candy mass. Here, complete collection onto conveyors, the product is then
gelatinization of the starch is not desired. Cooking cooled and ready for packaging. Production rates
may take several hours to attain the desired state, of 860–1,000 kg (1,900 to 2,200 lbs) can be pro-
with solids content of about 70–74%. The candy duced in 2.5–3.5 h. However, hot production
mass is then cooled to allow formation of the gel leaves a dull surface to the licorice. Gloss can be
network (starch and protein). To form the lico- regained by passing the paste through a dilute
rice, the candy mass is forced under pressure alcohol-based shellac solution. Evaporation of the
through a die plate with holes that give the desired alcohol post-dip provides cooling.
shape of candy. The candy mass exiting the die of Alternatively, a twin screw cooking extruder
the extruder may be cut at the die plate into small, (operating at higher pressures and temperatures
bite-sized pieces or collected in ropes on a con- than the forming extruder used in the batch pro-
veyor and cut after cooling. Various shapes can cess described earlier) can be used to complete
be formed by choice of die, from solid ropes, to the entire process. A pre-mixed mass is fed into
hollow tubes to star-shaped patterns. Candy is the extruder where cooking (and gelatinization)
typically collected on trays for subsequent dry- occurs in the first section, followed by mixing,
ing. Water content is reduced to from 18% to cooling and then forming by pumping the warm
20% in a dryer set at 40–50 °C (104–122 °F) and mass through the die.
relative humidity of 50–60%. The dried product Prior to packaging, licorice is often treated to
then goes on to packaging. provide a unique surface appearance. If needed,
12.4  Product Characteristics 345

the surface can be given a glossy appearance in a g­lucose syrup ratio, glucose syrup type, etc.)
dip operation (as noted above). Some licorice affects various attributes (texture, appearance,
may be oiled while other products are sugar and/ etc.) of these candies. Table 12.1 compares vari-
or acid coated. ous attributes of the different hydrocolloids used
Sugar (or cream) pastes can be co-extruded in gummy and jelly candies.
with the licorice in a variety of shapes (sandwich, There are many ways to study and character-
filled tubes, etc.). Cream pastes are highly crys- ize properties of these candies. Probably the sim-
talline candies with moisture content of 4–6%. plest method of gaining information about texture
They typically contain sucrose, glucose syrup, is to press a probe (either flat or needle-shaped)
invert sugar, a small amount of fat, and gelatin to into the gel and measure the force required to
provide flexibility to the paste, along with colors push the probe in a corresponding distance.
and flavors. Multiple extruders making either Force-deformation curves provide unique infor-
licorice paste or cream paste(s) feed a complex mation about gel characteristics, as seen in
die that co-extrudes the various shapes to create Figure  12.6. These curves show differences in
licorice allsorts. texture of starch, gelatin and pectin gels. The
gelatin curve shows a gel that responds with
increasing force as deformation is increased, rep-
12.4 Product Characteristics resentative of an elastic gel. Pectin, on the other
hand has a shorter and tender texture, with a frac-
Gummy, jelly and licorice candies owe their firm ture point evident at intermediate compressions.
texture primarily to the nature of the hydrocolloid The starch gel, with a more chewy texture, exhib-
used and the water content. Gummy and jelly its a flat force-deformation profile. Once a limit-
candies are essentially concentrated sugar syrup, ing compression has been attained, no further
with water content that varies from 10% to 20%, increase in response force is observed.
held in place by the network of the hydrocolloid The choice of analysis probe determines the
gel. Lower water content leads to firmer candy. characteristics of the gel being studied. A flat
Hydrocolloid content may be as low as 1–2% for probe, as shown in the previous paragraph, typi-
pectin or agar, or as high as 50% for gum arabic. cally indicates characteristics of tenderness. A
The nature of both the hydrocolloid (type and needle probe penetrating a candy gel typically
concentration) and sugar syrup (sucrose to correlates best with chewiness. Stickiness can be

Figure 12.6 Typical
force-deformation
curves for different
gummy and jelly candies
346 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

obtained by measuring the force required to pull finer details of the gel structure, electron micros-
the probe away from the candy piece. copy, either scanning or transmission, is neces-
Alternatively, full texture profile analysis (TPA) sary. More recently, atomic force microscopy has
can be conducted on the gelled candy by first been used to probe the molecular characteristics
compressing the sample to 75% of its initial of candy gels.
height, releasing the compression while measur- Other methods to characterize the microstruc-
ing adhesion forces and finally, compressing a tural attributes of candy gels include differential
second time to determine the amount of recovery scanning calorimetry (measures phase transi-
of the gel. Depending on the shape of the force-­ tions) and x-ray analysis (determines
deformation curve, parameters such as hardness, crystallinity).
fracturability, adhesiveness, and springiness can
be determined. More fundamental mechanical 12.4.1.1 Starch Jellies
properties, storage (elastic, solid-like) and loss Starch granules heated in the presence of suffi-
(viscous, fluid-like) moduli, can be determined cient water go through several stages that lead
for confectionery gels by using small angle oscil- eventually to formation of a gel structure. Starch
latory rheometers. However, small-angle oscilla- granules contain two types of starch molecules,
tory measurements do not deform the gel as done amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a straight-­
in the mouth during consumption, the correlation chain polymer of glucose sub-units whereas
between storage and loss moduli and sensory amylopectin contains branched chains of glucose
attributes of a candy gel is generally not very molecules. Both are arranged in a specific pattern
high. Thus, large-scale deformation studies typi- within the starch granule, with amylose in amor-
cally give better correlations with sensory mea- phous form and amylopectin contributing to
surements of physical properties. micro-crystalline regions. See Section 5.1 for
more details on starch chemistry.
When heated, starch granules undergo several
12.4.1 Microstructure transitions depending on the type of starch, water
content, temperature, and sweetener composition
Each hydrocolloid forms a gel with unique (Ratnayake and Jackson 2007). Although the
physico-chemical attributes and it is these attri- exact steps in gelatinization are still a matter for
butes that lead to the differences in eating charac- debate and further scientific inquiry, the general
teristics of the finished candy. The following steps are well recognized. First, there is a melting
section provides a brief introduction to the chem- transition, where the micro-crystalline regions
istry of gelation for the three main hydrocolloids (primarily amylopectin) lose their crystalline
used in confections. See Chapter 5 for more structure. When starch granules are heated in the
details on the chemistry of hydrocolloids used in presence of sufficient water, they can also lose
confections. their identity in a process called pasting
To investigate microstructural aspects of con- (Figure  12.7). In the early stages of heating,
fection gels, various microscopy measurements water begins to penetrate into the starch granule,
can be used (Groves 2003). Light microscopy can causing the granule to swell as it hydrates. This
be used to investigate the larger structures (about swelling causes a significant increase in viscosity
2–3  μm and above). The resolution of light of a starch slurry. Further heating causes amylose
microscopy can be enhanced when the samples molecules to leach out of the granule, leaving a
are stained with dyes that improve contrast with ghost granule containing primarily amylopectin.
specific components (e.g., proteins). The use of There is a reduction in viscosity of the slurry at
confocal scanning laser microscopy allows pen- this point due to the extraction of starch mole-
etration of the surface to give a three-dimensional cules into the aqueous phase. Further heating
view of the structure, although resolution is still causes complete pasting of the granule as the
within the range of optical microscopy. To see amylopectin molecules then become part of the
12.4  Product Characteristics 347

Figure 12.7  Starch gelatinization in jelly candy. (a) Intact starch granules; (b) Swollen granules; (c) Pasted granules;
(d) commercial candy (Courtesy of M. Schwenk)

aqueous solution phase. In the presence of shear- content. The presence of sugars during cooking
ing, this process is enhanced and with sufficient of starch jelly slurries has several effects. First,
levels of shearing (as in certain extruder opera- the increased boiling point elevation of the sug-
tions or steam injection cookers), starch mole- ars means higher cook temperatures can be
cules can be broken down, or dextrinized, into reached (than in their absence), which leads to
polymers of smaller molecular weight. faster pasting at elevated temperatures. More
Upon cooling, the individual starch molecules significantly perhaps, though, is the effect of
form a gel network that gives solid-like character- sugars on starch gelatinization itself. Generally,
istics to starch jelly candies. In jelly candies, only sugars provide somewhat of a protective effect
fragments of the initial starch granules remain, on starch granules, increasing the temperatures
whereas in flour-based candies (licorice), the necessary for pasting of the starch granule. The
number of intact starch granules remaining after temperature at onset of gelatinization of starch in
cooking provides part of the unique texture of pure water is about 65–70 °C (149–158 °F), but
these candies. In both cases, it is the amylose mol- that t­emperature increases to about 108 °C
ecules that have leached out of the granules that (226 °F) in a 50% sugar solution and 128 °C
interact together to form a gel. A higher amount (262 °F) in an 80% sugar solution (Knoch 1976).
of amylose present in the initial starch granules For this reason, there may still be some partially-
leads to a firmer gel. The nature of these interac- intact starch granules present in some types of
tions among amylose molecules, amylopectin starch jelly candies. In principle, this stabilizing
molecules and any remaining starch fragments effect of sugar on starch granules is related to the
gives a gel with an opaque appearance. Light does ability of sugar molecules to plasticize the starch
not pass through a starch gel structure. granule (Perry and Donald 2002). Water is an
The gel characteristics are dependent on such excellent plasticizing agent for starch, and s­ ugars
parameters as amlyose to amylopectin ratio, have decreasing plasticizing ability with increas-
sweetener concentration and types, and water ing molecular weight. Thus, the ­temperatures
348 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

required for gelatinization of starch increase for pumping and depositing. Thin-boiling starch
with increasing sugar concentration and increas- also has greater clarity and gel strength than
ing molecular weight of added sugars. Other untreated starch.
theories abound to explain the effects of sugars Many confectionery formulations use a com-
on starch gelatinization (Sopade et al. 2004), bination of starches to take advantage of the ben-
including a reduction of available water for efits of each. For example, a mixture of
hydrating the starch granules, an increase in vis- thin-boiling (65–75%) and high-amylose (25–
cosity of the solution accompanied by a decrease 35%) starch is often used in jelly candies to pro-
in rates of diffusion, and specific sugar-starch vide reduced viscosity at depositing temperatures
interactions. (thin-boiling) yet give rapid setting rates (high
Amylose content is one of the most important amylose) to minimize curing time. Other “quick
attributes of the starch granule that impacts starch setting starches” are available that can be used in
jelly properties, as seen in Table 12.9. Amylose is place of high amylose starch.
a critical component to forming a gel network Once the initial gel structure has been set dur-
because of its linear regions. Starch granules with ing candy manufacture, changes in texture over
only amylopectin do not form a gel upon cooling time can occur due to rearrangements of starch
and the gel network strength, or firmness of the molecules. The starch gel is a metastable state
starch jelly candy, depends directly on the amy- that rearranges over time to reduce internal
lose content. The greater the amylose content, the energy. In particular, amylose molecules rear-
firmer the gel and faster setting rate, for all other range into a tighter, more crystalline structure in
conditions being equal. However, high amylose a process often called retrogradation.
starch requires high pressure cooking because of Retrogradation leads to firmer gels. Fortunately,
the tightly packed nature of the amylose mole- sugar is a good inhibitor of retrogradation, so
cules within the granule. Atmospheric cooking changes over shelf life of starch-based jellies due
conditions do not attain sufficiently high temper- to retrogradation are not common.
atures to cause high-amylose starch granules to Recent advances in starch modification tech-
swell and paste. nology now allow production of jelly candies
Numerous chemical and/or physical modifi- without the need for heating. These starches have
cations of starch can be performed to enhance its been instantized in the granule through the use of
utility in various applications. In confections, the high temperature and pressure in an alcohol/
main modification to starch is an acid (or water reactor. Addition of cold water causes
enzyme) hydrolysis that breaks down the starch swelling and thickening of these starches into a
molecules to smaller molecular weight (but not gel structure with textures dependent on extent of
as small as maltodextrins). Because of the modification. Besides the type of starch modifi-
smaller molecular size, so called “thin-boiling cation, parameters such as type of sweeteners,
starch” has reduced viscosity and higher fluidity water content and mixing temperature also influ-
at cooking temperatures, making it easier to fill ence the final state of the confections made with
complex mold shapes and reducing energy costs instant starch technology.

Table 12.9  Functionality of native and high-amylose starches

High
Waxy corn Tapioca Potato Dent corn Wheat amylose High amylose
Amylose content (%) 0 17 20 27 27 55 70
Gel characteristics Non-­gelling Soft gel Salve Firm gel Soft gel Firm gel Very firm gel
consistency
Setting time Does not gel Average Average Average Average Rapid Very rapid
Clarity Clear Clear Clear Slightly Slightly Cloudy Cloudy
opaque opaque
12.4  Product Characteristics 349

12.4.1.2 Gelatin Gummies (to follow triple helix formation), and atomic
Gelatin is a protein hydrolyzed from collagen, force microscopy. It is generally accepted that
the proteinacious material found in connecting gelatin molecules go through a three-step process
tissues of animals. Due to its unique molecular during gelation (GMIA 2012). The first step
characteristics, gelatin forms a gel with desirable involves monomer aggregation, where individual
characteristics in gummy candies. Gelatin chem- gelatin molecules associate at specific sites on
istry is described in detail in Chapter 5. the protein molecule through various intermo-
Gelatin forms a thermoreversible gel, one that lecular forces, including hydrogen bonding. The
freely goes back and forth between a solution second step involves the transition from the coil
(sol) and a gel when temperature goes above or conformation in solution to a single-helix struc-
below the melting point. Above the melting tem- ture in the regions of intermolecular cross-­
perature, the gelatin molecules are completely in linking. The final step is a transition from single
solution (a sol), being completely hydrated as to triple-helix interactions as the gelatin mole-
individual molecules (in a coil conformation). cules attempt to transform back to the original
When temperature is reduced below the melting state found in collagen, which leads to a strength-
temperature, gelation occurs as the individual ening of the gel network. The time scale of these
gelatin molecules cross-link, through a combina- steps is such that the initial gelation process
tion of hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interac- occurs relatively quickly, over a period of min-
tions and hydrophobic interactions, to form a utes to hours (depending on conditions), while
network. The nature of the gelatin gel depends on the final transition to the triple helix form may
numerous factors, including other components take weeks to be completely at equilibrium.
that may be present (sugars, etc.) and processing The nature of the gelatin network determines
factors (cooling rate, etc.). When temperature is the physical attributes of the gummy candy. In
increased again above the melting point, the gela- general, gelatin forms a translucent gel with elas-
tin molecules once again become completely tic properties dependent on the nature of the gela-
hydrated in the aqueous solution. tin cross-linking. The number density and size of
The melting point of gelatin in a gummy the triple helix junction zones determines elastic
candy depends on the type of gelatin used (pri- properties, with more and larger zones leading to
marily bloom strength) and the sugar content of greater elasticity of the gel. Both processing con-
the candy formulation. Melting point of gelatin ditions and formulation of the candy affect the
varies from about 31 °C (88 °F) for 250 bloom textural properties of the gelatin gummy candy
gelatin to 28 °C (82 °F) for 100 bloom gelatin (as through an influence on the rate of network
measured for a 10% gelatin solution). The pres- formation and the subsequent strength of the
­
ence of sugars raises the melting temperature molecular network. From a processing stand-
slightly, with sucrose having slightly greater point, thermal history and cooling rate can sig-
effect than glucose at equivalent molar addition nificantly affect gummy candy properties.
levels. One of the most important steps in producing
Below the melting point, the sol-gel transition gummy candies is hydration of the gelatin. To
involves individual gelatin molecules forming a ensure proper manufacturing, powdered gelatin
network structure as temperature is reduced. The must be completely hydrated prior to addition to
individual gelatin molecules interact at junction the candy batch. Typically, powdered gelatin is
zones to form a network within which is found mixed in excess water (nominal 1:2 ratio) for
the aqueous sugar solution of the gummy candy. 0.5–2 h, depending on the gelatin particle size, to
Although the specific mechanisms of the sol-gel ensure complete hydration. Hot water, 80–90 °C
transition, or formation of the junction zones, are (176–194 °F), with vigorous mixing is used to
still a topic of current research, the general steps hydrate fine gelatin powder, whereas cold water
are fairly well understood based on studies done (room temperature) may be used for coarser gela-
with rheology, light scattering, optical rotation tin powders. Depending on the cooking process,
350 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

the hydrated gelatin may be added either before Table 12.10  Relative concentrations of gelatin of differ-
ent inherent bloom strength to give a gel with identical
or after the cook. If added prior to cooking the
bloom strength
sugar syrup to the desired water content, the gela-
Blooma 100 150 200 250 300
tin is prone to degradation, depending on the time
100 1 0.80 0.68 0.58 0.51
and temperature profile during cooking.
150 1.25 1 0.85 0.73 0.64
Furthermore, compositional factors also sig-
200 1.47 1.17 1 0.87 0.76
nificantly impact the properties of gummy can-
250 1.69 1.33 1.16 1 0.88
dies. In particular, the type of gelatin used and its
300 1.90 1.45 1.32 1.13 1
concentration significantly affect textural proper- a
Replace gelatin in first column with equivalent concen-
ties of gummy candies. Typically, lower bloom
trations of gelatin; for example, replace 150 bloom gelatin
gelatin (150) is used at higher concentrations to with 1.25 times as much 100 bloom gelatin to produce a
produce candies that are softer, chewier and more gel with the same strength
elastic. Lower concentrations of higher bloom
(250) gelatin, in comparison, give gummy can- Since the sol-gel transition of gelatin involves
dies that are more tender and short, but firmer in a change in hydration state of the protein mole-
texture. cules (Miyawaki et al. 2003), any additive that
Bloom strength of gelatin relates to the hard- affects water activity (or water “potential”) can
ness of a gelatin gel under standardized condi- influence gelation. Thus, sugars have a signifi-
tions. It is the weight required to push a 13 mm cant impact on gelatin gelation due to their effect
diameter probe to a depth of 4 mm in an aged on water activity in solution, especially at the
(16 h at 10 °C) gel with 6.67% (w/w) gelatin. high levels of use found in gummy candies. In
Higher bloom strength means that the gelatin general, the reduction of water activity with addi-
molecules form a firmer gel. Due to the nature of tion of sugars serves to help stabilize the gel
molecular cross-linking, gelatin gives a firm gel state. The result is higher melting temperature
with a high Young’s modulus (initial force versus and heat of melting. Sugars also help to stabilize
deformation, or stress versus strain), which cor- gelatin during heating, mitigating the effects of
relates with bloom strength. Bloom strength is a temperature on degradation during cooking.
function of the molecular make-up of the gelatin The type of glucose syrup used in gummy
molecules, including average molecular weight candy formulation also impacts textural proper-
and amino acid composition. A gelatin of one ties of the finished piece, in part by influencing
bloom strength may be replaced with another the setting characteristics of gelatin but also
gelatin of different bloom strength to give the through its inherent properties. Use of a higher
same gel firmness by changing gelatin concentra- DE glucose syrup (62 DE) leads to candy that is
tion. Conversion charts are available for replac- more tender and less chewy, but increases tacki-
ing one gelatin with another (Table 12.10). This ness (stickiness) of the product.
is sometimes useful in commercial product In proteins, pH plays a significant role in
development. For example, gelatin of 150 bloom determining the charge distribution around the
strength can be replaced with 1.25 times as much amino acids that make up gelatin. The isoelectric
100 bloom strength gelatin to give a gel with the point, defined as the pH where there is no net
same firmness. Although these conversion tables charge on the protein molecule (positive and neg-
are useful for matching bloom strength, other ative charges balance out), of gelatin depends on
textural properties may be different. For exam- the extraction method used to process the initial
ple, the texture of a gummy candy made with 250 starting material, collagen (see Section 5.3). Acid
bloom gelatin is much shorter (breaks more eas- processing gives type A gelatin (typically por-
ily) than that of an equivalent candy made with cine) with an isoelectric point, pI, between 6.3
150 bloom gelatin to the same gel strength and 9.5, whereas alkali processing gives type B
(according to the equivalents shown in gelatin (usually bovine) with a pI between 4.5
Table 12.10). and 5.2. Finally, water content has a significant
12.4  Product Characteristics 351

effect on hardness of gummy candies (see the carboxyl groups become deionized, reduc-
Chapter 3 for a general discussion about water in ing charge repulsion between the pectin mole-
confection). Not surprisingly, as water content cules and leading to aggregation via a
decreases (cook temperature increases), gummy combination of hydrogen bonding at the acid or
candies become harder and firmer, with a more hydroxyl groups on adjacent chains and hydro-
elastic, chewy characteristic. They also become phobic interactions between methyl ester
less tacky at lower water content. groups. These associations may be considered
junction zones, where pectin molecules are
12.4.1.3 Pectin Jellies cross-linked, with the remaining part of the mol-
Pectin, the methylated ester of polygalacturonic ecules still in solution. The pKa value of 65%
acid, is extracted from citrus peels and apple DM (degree of methyl esterification) pectin is
pomace. It is essentially a linear polysaccharide about 3.55; however, gelation may occur at
of D-galacturonic acid, although both molecular slightly higher pH, particularly for higher DM
weight (from 50,000 to 150,000 Daltons) and pectin. In general, a pH of 3.5 or lower is con-
molecular composition (substitution of other sug- sidered necessary for gelation of HM pectins
ars like rhamnose in the polymer chain, degree of used in confectionery applications. However,
methyl esterification of the carboxyl group, pH alone is not sufficient for gelation of HM
degree of amidation, etc.) significantly impact pectin; total solids content, usually in the form
gelation properties. Of specific interest in confec- of dissolved sugars, must be greater than 55%
tions is high methoxyl (HM) pectin, where more (but not greater than 85%) in order for gelation
than 50% of the free acid groups of galacturonic to occur. Sugar molecules compete for water,
acid esterified with methyl groups (typical range reducing the hydration of pectin molecules and
is 60–75% esterification). Low methoxyl (LM) making them more prone to gelation. The com-
pectins have less than 50% esterification (typical bination of low pH to reduce ionization and high
range is 20–40%), and which may also have dif- sugar content to control hydration is necessary
ferent degrees of amidation, and see only limited for gelation of HM pectin.
use in confectionery applications (particularly LM pectin sets via a very different mecha-
where low pH is problematic or a slower set time nism than HM pectin, requiring the presence of
is required). See Chapter 5 for more detailed a divalent cation for gel formation. In this case,
description of pectin chemistry. the divalent cation, usually Ca++ or Mg++, cre-
Pectins are highly soluble in water although ates a junction zone between carboxyl groups
hydrating a pectin powder requires careful atten- on adjacent (parallel) pectin molecules in what
tion. To ensure rapid hydration of pectin, the is often referred to as an “egg box” association
powder is generally diluted with sugar crystals at based on the presence of the cation between
a ratio of 1:5 or higher, which keep the pectin four galacturonic acid moieties (two per adja-
particles from aggregating as they initially swell cent pectin molecule). Electrostatic bonds (free
up on moisture uptake. Alternatively, pectin can electron sharing) between oxygen atoms on the
be hydrated with a high-shear mixing device to galacturonic acid moieties are responsible for
prevent particle aggregation. the association among pectin molecules and gel
The mechanism of gel formation depends on behavior. Soluble solids content and pH have
the type of pectin, with HM pectin being gelled by little if any effect on gelation in LM pectin.
reduction of pH (addition of acid) and LM pectin However, degree of amidation has a significant
being gelled by addition of calcium ions. Due to effect on gelling ability, with higher degree of
the speed of gelation, particularly with acid-set amidation pectin requiring less calcium addition
pectins, it is often relatively tricky to work with for gelation.
HM pectin in confectionery applications. The nature of the gel depends on the type of
HM pectin forms a gel in concentrated sugar pectin used. All pectin types make an exceed-
solutions upon acid addition. As pH is reduced, ingly clear gel, with excellent clarity; however,
352 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

the physical characteristics of the gel vary by 12.4.1.4 F  lour in Licorice and Licorice
pectin type. HM pectin creates a soft, tender gel Type Confections
that is much shorter (easily broken) than other Flour, particularly wheat flour, is the most critical
hydrocolloids (except agar, see Table 12.1). LM ingredient in licorice and similar products, mak-
pectin with high degree of amidation also forms a ing up between 25% and 40% of the composi-
firm gel (a cut surface holds its edge) when pH is tion. Flour contains about 70% starch with a
below 3.5, but has more rubbery texture than HM significant amount of protein (gluten), about
pectin. LM pectin with low degree of amidation 15%, along with water (11–12%) and minerals.
does not form a firm gel, giving more of a Although amylose to amylopectin ratios in starch
preserve-­like consistency that does not hold a cut can vary widely, wheat flour typically contains
surface. about one quarter amylose and three quarters
Pectin is characterized by its gel strength, amylopectin, both of which impact gelatinization
which is usually standardized to 150 USA-­ during processing and final product texture.
SAG. The method for standardizing pectin gel Probably the most critical aspect of making
strength is based on the amount of “sag” experi- licorice is controlling starch gelatinization. The
enced by a gel under standardized conditions. A characteristics of licorice under different condi-
pectin gel (1 part pectin and 150 parts sucrose) is tions of starch gelatinization have been described
made in a cup of specific dimensions under con- by Knoch (1976). For licorice, a small amount of
trolled conditions (65% soluble solids, pH of swollen starch granules is desired for a smooth,
2.2–2.4). The gel is allowed to set for a day at firm and chewy texture with a nice shiny appear-
25 °C before being upturned onto a measuring ance. If starch granules are not sufficiently gelati-
glass and put into a unit (the ridgelimeter) that nized, meaning that numerous starch granules
measures height. The extent of sag of the pectin may be swollen but remain essentially intact, the
jelly is measured after 2 min. To give 150 SAG resulting licorice product is firm and dry, with a
grade pectin, the gel should have fallen in height spongy, bread-like consistency. If starch granules
by 23.5% (height after 2 min 23.5% less than ini- are over-gelatinized, meaning that all granules
tial height). Pectin is standardized by adding are completely fractured, the resulting licorice
sucrose to give consistent results. product is limp and elastic, with a tight, chewy
Numerous factors affect both setting ability consistency. Since free starch molecules do not
of pectin and the nature of the jelly candy. For hold water as effectively as swollen but intact
HM pectin, the speed of gelation increases starch granules, licorice that is over-gelatinized
with the degree of methyl esterification. When has a shiny appearance and is likely to be sticky,
DM is greater than about 70%, HM pectin sets whereas under-gelatinized licorice has a dull
very quickly, within a minute or two, making it appearance but can hold higher water content
somewhat difficult to work with in confection- without becoming sticky. Although the gluten in
ery plants but allowing quick release after it the flour can also impact texture, the key to con-
has been molded. When DM is between 62% trolling the physical attributes of licorice is pri-
and 68%, HM pectin is considered to be “slow- marily related to governing the extent of starch
setting”; however, even this grade sets up gelatinization.
within 3–5 min. To slow setting times of pectin Numerous factors affect the extent of starch
gels upon acid addition, buffer salts may be gelatinization in licorice products and thereby,
used to moderate acidity. Typically, sodium or influence characteristics of the finished candy
potassium citrate are added as buffering agents (Knoch 1976; Jackson 1986). These include:
to slow down gelling rate, although they can
also impact textural properties. For example, 1. The amount and nature of the flour used. The
potassium citrate leads to a more elastic but amount of flour in a formulation significantly
less firm gel. affects properties, with higher levels of flour
12.4  Product Characteristics 353

giving a firmer texture. The type of starch 4. Processing equipment choice and manufac-
(amylose and amylopectin content/ratio) and turing conditions. Process conditions, such as
gluten content of the flour used in licorice pressure, temperature, shear rate, cooking
candy affect extent of gelatinization and time, etc., have significant impact on starch
thereby influence texture. The composition of gelatinization and licorice candy characteris-
the flour can also vary due to the variety of the tics. Over the years, traditional cooking meth-
wheat used and processing variables that will ods, which take several days to complete a
affect the starch/protein ratio. Flour may be batch of licorice-type candy, have been
modified by addition of starch (native or mod- replaced by continuous cooking methods for
ified) to effect textural changes. As noted pre- high-throughput, economic and convenient
viously, the amylose to amylopectin ratio can processing.
significantly impact the nature of a cross-­
linked gel following starch gelatinization. Licorice manufacturers can manipulate any or all
Higher amylose content gives a stronger gel of these parameters to control the textural proper-
structure, although amylose levels that are too ties of their licorice product.
high may significantly retard gelatinization. To achieve the desired final moisture content
Gluten also influences starch gelatinization. It of about 15% in licorice and fruit-twist products
is thought that gluten interacts (or complexes) yet still have sufficient water during cooking to
at the surface of the starch granule to interfere obtain the desired extent of starch gelatinization,
with the hydration and/or amylose leaching cooking conditions must be carefully controlled.
out of the granule during swelling, thereby As noted in Section 14.4.2.1, sugar raises the
inhibiting gelatinization. Higher temperatures temperature necessary for starch gelatinization
are needed for gelatinization in the presence by depleting the water molecules available for
of gluten. hydration of the starch granule. Sugar content
2. Water content during cooking and final water also affects the boiling point temperature (see
content. Starch requires sufficient moisture to Section 2.7), making the interplay between the
gelatinize; if it is cooked in the presence of too starch gelatinization and boiling point elevation
little water the starch does not gelatinize and curves a critical control element for licorice-type
will give a firm and dry texture, whereas candies.
excess water over gelatinizes the starch and Figure 12.8 compares the approximate starch
yields a soft chewy consistency. As with all gelatinization and boiling point elevation curves
confections, final water content also impacts for atmospheric cooking of licorice candy (Knoch
candy characteristics (appearance, hardness, 1976). Due to the variable influences of sugar
firmness, chewiness, etc.), although this can phase composition (average molecular weight)
typically be controlled independently of the and starch type, these curves can only be taken as
cooking process. guidelines. Despite this limitation, Figure 12.8
3 . Sugar type and content. The availability of can be used to understand starch gelatinization
water for hydration and gelatinization of during open batch cooking of licorice formula-
starch during cooking is influenced by the tions. The dashed line in Figure 12.8 represents
nature of the sugar syrup. Water hydration of the onset temperature for starch gelatinization in
sugar molecules reduces the water molecules a licorice formulation of corresponding concen-
available for starch gelatinization, causing an tration (total concentration includes sugars and
increase in gelatinization temperature as sugar protein). As the sugar content increases (and
content increases. The molecular weight dis- water content decreases), the temperature needed
tribution of the sugar phase impacts both for onset of starch gelatinization increases.
water availability (water activity) and boiling Another way to interpret this curve is that tem-
point temperature (see Chapter 3). peratures lower than the dashed line for a given
354 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Figure 12.8  Approximate temperatures for starch gelati- concentration (sugars and proteins). Solid line represents
nization and boiling point elevation of licorice. Dashed approximate boiling point elevation curve for licorice for-
line represents approximate temperature necessary for mulation (Adapted from Knoch 1976)
starch gelatinization in licorice formulation of certain

sugar concentration in licorice do not cause gela- ers or twin screw extruders), which increase the
tinization, whereas temperatures above the dotted boiling point temperatures at all sugar concentra-
line lead to starch gelatinization. However, atmo- tions (see Section 2.7) and enhance gelatiniza-
spheric cooking of the sugar/flour mixture for tion. By increasing boiling temperatures (shifting
licorice follows a boiling point elevation curve, the solid line in Figure 12.8 to higher tempera-
as shown approximately by the solid line in tures), gelatinization can occur throughout the
Figure  12.8. Thus, if a licorice formulation is cooking process. For this reason, continuous lic-
cooked in an open vessel at atmospheric pres- orice processing operations tend to slightly over-­
sure, gelatinization ceases once the boiling tem- gelatinize the starch, leading to a more rubbery
perature crosses the gelatinization temperature licorice texture. In fact, the difference in texture
line. At this point, the concentrated sugars protect between open-kettle cooked or continuous
the starch from undergoing further gelatinization. cooked licorice is quite significant, with tradi-
The result is a product with insufficient gelatini- tional licorice having a significantly shorter tex-
zation– the licorice is firm but with a bread-like ture than continuously processed licorice (Clark
consistency. According to the conditions shown 1996).
in Figure 12.8, the point where gelatinization
stops occurs at a temperature of about 107– 12.4.1.5 Mixed Hydrocolloids
108 °C (224–226 °F). In Table 12.1, the physical attributes of candies
In traditional batch licorice cooking processes, made with different hydrocolloids were summa-
the candy maker would sometimes hold back a rized. However, a wide range of products are
portion of the liquid sugars until the later stages available on the market that employ mixtures of
of cooking. The proper degree of gelatinization different stabilizers to give confections with tex-
would be accomplished during cooking of the tures intermediate to the separate stabilizers. The
dilute sugar solution, after which the rest of the science behind hydrocolloid mixing behavior is
sugar would be added to the batch to cook off complex and the ability to predict the textural
water. Further starch gelatinization was prevented properties of a mixture is still quite limited
due to the higher concentration of sugars. despite application of synthetic polymer blending
Continuous processing units use high pressure laws to mixed confectionery gels (Habeych et al.
cooking systems (scraped surface heat exchang- 2009; BeMiller 2011).
12.4  Product Characteristics 355

In general, mixtures of two hydrocolloids give effects based on mixing hydrocolloids, where the
a product with a texture somewhere between the protein can significantly influence texture, sen-
two individual molecules, although this is not sory and shelf life. For example, Siegwein et al.
always the case. For example, addition of about (2011) added soy protein isolate to starch gummy
0.5% HM pectin to gelatin gives a shorter and candies and found that textural properties (hard-
firmer texture than gelatin alone. Addition of less ness, gumminess, cohesiveness) were signifi-
than 0.3% HM pectin to gelatin also increases the cantly influenced by the addition of the protein.
melting point of gelatin. Also, starch added to Changes over storage were also different based
pectin gives a gel that is less sticky than pectin on the addition of protein, with the protein
alone, whereas pectin added to a starch gel short- enhanced confection firming much more dramat-
ens the texture. When gelatin is added to modi- ically than the control.
fied starch, the resulting candy has a chewier Although mixtures of stabilizers can poten-
texture than the starch jelly itself. The combina- tially provide uniquely textured candies, the sci-
tions of two or more hydrocolloids to produce ence that underlies the phase behavior of mixed
new and unique textures are almost endless. hydrocolloids must be better understood to truly
The behavior of two hydrocolloids mixed in take advantage of the wide range of new confec-
an aqueous sugar solution can be extremely com- tionery products that become available. In par-
plex, depending on both how (or if) the two dif- ticular, the stability of these mixtures to phase
ferent molecules interact and how the system is separation during storage must be better under-
processed (cooling rates, shear, etc.). These inter- stood to produce high quality confections with
actions determine whether a single mixed phase maximal shelf life.
is formed or whether multiple distinct phases
form, which, of course, determines the physical
attributes (appearance, rheological properties, 12.4.2 Flavor Release
etc.) of the mixture. Further, most hydrocolloid
mixtures are inherently unstable, with each of the The ability of flavor molecules to release into the
individual hydrocolloids preferring to separate mouth during consumption is dependent on
from the mixture into its own phase (de Mars and numerous complex processes and interactions,
Ziegler 2001). This phase separation, or de-­ both thermodynamic and kinetic in nature. Flavor
mixing of a hydrocolloid gel, may occur over molecules, which vary in hydrophilicity, partition
time, leading to the end of shelf life due to according to thermodynamic laws between the
changes in appearance, texture, moisture separa- three phase system in the mouth, namely the
tion, and flavor release. Phase separation over candy matrix, saliva and air, during consumption.
time, a thermodynamically driven process, may The rate at which partitioning occurs depends on
be due to differences in hydrophobicity between the principles of mass transport during
hydrocolloids, dissimilarity in shape or structure, ­consumption. The textural properties of the gel
and the rigidity (or flexibility) of branched chain system play an important role in determining
structures. mass transport properties whereas the interac-
The combination of hydrocolloids may affect tions between hydrocolloid matrix and the flavor
the setting or gelation properties over and above molecule determine the partition behavior
the effects on texture. Process conditions may (Boland et al. 2004).
need to be modified to ensure adequate time for As noted in Table 12.1, different hydrocol-
gelation to occur. For example, it is widely known loids exhibit both different textural attributes as
that hydrocolloids significantly affect the pasting well as flavor release. Pectin, with a short and
and gelatinization of starch (BeMiller 2011), tender bite, is seen to exhibit the most rapid flavor
potentially causing issues with processing. release whereas gelatin, with a firm, elastic tex-
Recent attempts to fortify gummy and jelly ture, exhibits the slowest flavor release. The mod-
candies with proteins have met with similar erate chewiness of the starch gel gives flavor
356 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

release intermediate to that of pectin and gelatin the hydrocolloid (e.g., retrogradation) and
gels. Not surprisingly, the easier the gel structure changes to colors and flavors.
breaks apart in the mouth, the faster the flavor Due to the relatively high moisture content (up
release. This behavior arises from the effects of to 20%), water activity (see Section 3.4) of most
mass transport on flavor perception, where trans- gummy and jelly candies is relatively high. Water
port of the flavor from gel to saliva and air is activity values in the range of 0.5–0.75 are com-
enhanced by the ease of exposing the gel interior mon (see Table 3.1). Since average relative
to the mouth. humidity is often less than the equilibrium rela-
Beyond textural effects, though, each hydro- tive humidity of these candies, the most common
colloid interacts in a unique way with the fla- problem during storage is moisture loss. Drying
vor molecules in the gummy or jelly candy. out of hydrocolloid-based candies leads to
Boland et al. (2004), for example, found that in increased hardness, eventually reaching the point
general, starch gels preferentially retained where the consumer no longer finds the texture
hydrophilic flavor compounds whereas pectin acceptable. In extreme cases, for example when
gels preferentially retained hydrophobic flavor an open bag of licorice/fruit twists is left out in a
compounds (relative to partitioning of flavors dry environment (winter in northern climates or
to air). This was related to the formation of the desert areas), the candy can become so brittle
gel structure itself, with hydrophobic compo- within a few weeks that it shatters when struck
nents of pectin being responsible for capturing against a hard object. In this case, the decrease in
the hydrophobic flavor molecules. No evidence water content causes the glass transition tempera-
for preferential flavor binding to gelatin was ture of the candy matrix to approach room tem-
found. perature, resulting in a hard, brittle texture.
Saliva also plays an important role in distin- Sanding and oiling can impede moisture loss
guishing flavor release, in part by enhancing but their effects are small when the candy is
mass transport from gel to the mouth. However, exposed to extreme conditions. Addition of a
saliva also contains compounds (mucin and small amount of humectant (glycerol, sorbitol,
α-amylase) that influence flavor release. Mucin, etc.) can help maintain plasticity during storage.
for example, can bind with hydrophobic compo- In fact, sugar-free candies tend to have longer
nents, thereby decreasing their rate of release into shelf life because of the humectant nature of the
oral cavity. In confections, the sugars also com- ingredients. Packaging materials with a good
pete for these mucin binding sites and can influ- moisture barrier that is properly sealed can reduce
ence flavor release. In starch jelly candies, the moisture loss and extend shelf life. In most cases,
α-amylase in the mouth causes degradation of the however, once the package has been opened and
starch almost immediately, which can help with the candy is then exposed to external conditions,
flavor release. hardening occurs rapidly. Very few gummy and
jelly candies are double-wrapped to protect
uneaten candies from losing moisture once the
12.4.3 Shelf Life overwrap package has been opened. The use of
resealable packages can also potentially extend
The shelf life of hydrocolloid-based candies shelf life, but the costs of such packaging are sel-
(gummies, jellies, licorice and fruit twists, etc.) is dom economically viable.
primarily related to moisture migration causing Gummies, jellies and licorices, with their higher
the candy to either get too hard (moisture loss) or moisture content, should be stored with a relative
become sticky (moisture uptake). Both finishing humidity (RH) of 55–65%. This will reduce the
method (oiling, sanding, etc.) and choice of pack- tendency for drying to occur. When storage tem-
aging materials affect shelf life through an effect peratures are reduced from the standard 20 °C
on moisture migration. Other potential changes (68 °F), shelf life is increased. A general rule is that
that can occur during storage include changes to every 10 °C (18 °F) will double shelf life.
12.5 Troubleshooting 357

In addition to moisture loss, volatile flavors addition step to ensure that pH is lowered ade-
can diffuse out of the candy into the surrounding quately to allow the pectin to gel. Alternatively,
air. For this reason, packaging material should the pectin candy mass may pre-gel in the deposi-
have a good oxygen barrier and be sealed prop- tor, leading to a weak, incoherent candy. Gummy
erly to maintain flavor levels. Exposure to light candies that do not set may be due to excessive
with clear packaging may affect sensitive colors degradation of the gelatin molecule, preventing it
and flavors that will lead to unacceptable appear- from forming a strong network. Excessive acid
ance and/or flavors. Storage conditions that have addition or holding an acidified sugar syrup con-
off-odors and inconsistent temperatures can also taining gelatin for too long at elevated tempera-
affect finished product shelf life. tures may also lead to degradation and weak
texture. For starch jellies, use of improper starch
to match the cooking conditions (high amylose
12.5 Troubleshooting starch in open kettle cooking) or providing insuf-
ficient water for starch gelatinization will also
A wide range of potential problems can arise lead to soft or even runny candies.
with gummy and jelly candies, due either to for- Gummy and jelly candies have the potential to
mulation issues, processing problems or storage grain over time, particularly at the surface of the
conditions. candy. Usually, graining is related to improper
sucrose to glucose syrup ratio and/or improper
viscosity. As discussed in Section 2.10, graining
12.5.1 Gummies and Jellies occurs if supersaturation is sufficiently high and
kinetic constraints are insufficient to prevent
Gummies and jellies come in a wide range of tex- crystal formation. Not surprisingly, the key to
tures, from soft and easy to bite to hard and tough preventing graining is to reduce the sucrose con-
to chew. Primarily, hardness of this type of candy tent and increase the concentration of other sug-
is related to the nature of the hydrocolloid and the ars that act as doctoring agents such as glucose or
water content. Typically, higher hydrocolloid invert sugar. Graining can also appear if all
content and lower water content lead to firmer sucrose crystals were never initially dissolved
candies. If the candy is too soft, water content during the cooking process or processing abuse
could be too high, hydrocolloid concentration too (such as improper pumping or scraping) will
low, or the hydrocolloid selection was incorrect cause crystal formation.
(e.g., bloom strength too low for gelatin). Factors Gelatin gummies that deform and lose their
that could lead to water content being too high shape is most likely due to the thermo-­reversibility
include cook temperature, sweetener mixture of the gelatin gel. If temperature is too high, for
(including potential sucrose inversion), and hold- example, during holding prior to oiling, the gela-
ing for too short a time in drying starch. If texture tin gel will melt, turning the candy into a fluid
is too tough, water content may be too low or the mass that quickly flows and loses its shape.
hydrocolloid concentration is too high. Often, Holding temperatures of gelatin gummies must
hardening of gummies and jellies over time is be well below the melting point of gelatin to pre-
due to moisture loss through the packaging. Also, vent deformation. Usually, temperatures less than
the Maillard reaction between gelatin and sugars about 30 °C (86 °F) provide safe storage of
can occur slowly over time, also leading to hard- gummy candies. Gelatin-based candies should
ening of gummy candies. not be shipped during warm seasons without
If for some reason, the candy does not set or is cooling to prevent melting. The candy will re-­
too weak, there are a number of potential causes, solidify again when cooled, but will not longer
besides reduced water content, depending on the have the original shape.
type of candy. In HM pectin jellies, lack of set- Gummy and jelly candies can sometimes be
ting may be due to improper pH. Check the acid sticky and/or sweat. This defect may be due to
358 12  Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

excess reducing sugar or inversion of the sucrose, factory, (3) sugar content was too low at the start
although formulation with high DE glucose syrup of cooking, and (4) water content was too high in
may also cause sticky candies as the low molecu- the slurry. Each of these factors could cause
lar weight sugars are hygroscopic and easily pick excessive pasting of the starch, not leaving
up moisture from the environment. Improper pH enough intact starch granules. On the other side,
or holding the sugar syrup at high temperatures if the candy is too short or soft, it is most likely
for long times also can lead to excessive inver- due to starch that has been under-gelatinized.
sion. Use of natural fruit juices or pulps with This may occur because (1) the slurry was under-
variable pH may also lead to problems with cooked, (2) there was insufficient water in the
moisture pick up. Syneresis, exudation of mois- slurry, or (3) sugar content was too high at the
ture to the surface from within the gel, may occur start of cooking.
if the gel is weak, broken or damaged in any way. Candy that is too hard or too soft may be due
Improper or insufficient gelation can lead to syn- to improper final water content. Low water con-
eresis. In mixed gel systems, phase separation tent, as might happen if the candy is allowed to
can occur between the two hydrocolloids, which dry too much in stoving or is left open to dry air,
can cause release of the syrup phase to the causes a substantial increase in hardness.
surface. Alternatively, high water content may cause the
Typically, microbial growth is not an issue in candy to be too soft, but also might lead to poten-
gummy or jelly candies because of the reduced tial mold problems if water activity is too high.
water activity. If sweating at the surface or sig- Water activity should never be higher than 0.65–
nificant moisture uptake occurs, however, mold 0.68 unless a yeast and mold inhibitor is added to
growth at the surface may occur. the formulation. Candy that is sticky may also be
With proteins as gelling agents, foaming and related to high water content, but this also may be
air entrainment can cause problems in appear- due to excessive levels of low molecular weight
ance of gummy candies. When proteins are added sugars (invert sugar) or the lack of fat and/or
to the batch after cooking the sugar syrup, care emulsifier.
must be taken to prevent air incorporation. Even
excessive mixing when minor ingredients are
added can lead to foam formation in gelatin 12.5.3 Problems with the Starch
candy syrups. A de-aeration step, often accom- Mogul
plished by pulling a vacuum on the syrup, may be
necessary to ensure that no air is entrained in the Certain types of problems with gummy and jelly
candy mass. candies may be due to improper starch mogul
operations. These problems generally relate to
the characteristics of the starch used in the mogul.
12.5.2 Flour-Based Candy (Licorice If the candy shape does not come out as desired,
and Fruit Twists) it is possible that the starch boards are not print-
ing properly so the depression does not take on
The primary problems with licorice and fruit the desired shape. From the starch side, this can
twist candies relate to undesired textures of the happen if the starch is too hot/cold/wet/dry. Even
finished candy, which ultimately are due either to high relative humidity in the depositing room can
the extent of starch gelatinization, improper final cause sufficient moisture uptake from the air to
water content or too high a concentration of small the starch that a good impression cannot be made.
molecular weight sugars. If the candy is tough, Improper shapes can also be caused by a dirty
with a chewy elastic texture, it is likely that the mold board, where the actual shape is not being
starch has been over-gelatinized. This may occur impressed into the starch.
for a number of reasons, including (1) the slurry A white starchy crust or blemish on the sur-
was overcooked, (2) the flour used was not satis- face of the candy piece indicates that the molding
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